How Science Works Summary Notes

Science involves learning about the world around us. It includes: 1. 2. Doing Experiments. Experiments are a way of solving problems. Knowledge.

Measurements. In science a measurement includes: A number Units (e.g. metres, litres or grams). Sometimes a prefix is added to a unit to make it smaller or large. For example, metres can become millimetres, centimetres or kilometres. To take measurements we normally need to read scales.

Often measurements are averaged. To work out an average (also called the mean) 1. 2. add together all the measurements and divide by the number of measurements.

Example: the time taken for a group of students to run a short obstacle course was 3 min, 6 min, 120 s, 4 min, 5 min and 7 min. What was the average time taken? Answer: To calculate the average all measurements need to have the same units. So convert 120 sec to 2 min. Then the average = (3 + 6 + 2 + 4 + 5 + 7) / 6 = 27/6 = 4.5 min.

Tables and Graphs Data recorded from the investigation can be represented in two main ways, tables and graphs. Tables A table is used to display data in an ordered and easy to read format. Tables may contain raw or summary data. The data in the table are then often used to draw a graph. Tables of collected data should follow the following conventions: Tables should be drawn with a ruler. The independent variable is recorded in the left-hand column. The control group should appear above or to the left of the experimental group(s). Each column should have a heading followed by the units in brackets eg. length of femur (mm). The units do not appear in the body of the table. The table should have a title that includes a number and the variables involved. CRD 2013

A typical Science table would be in the format below:

IV (units) Trial 1

DV (units) Trial 2 Trial 3

Average DV (units)

Graphs A graph is simply a representation of the relationship between at least two or more sets of data. Graphs are easy marks if you keep the following rules in mind. General graphing rules: Graphs should be drawn in pencil. Graphs must be ruled. Graphs must contain a brief, self-explanatory title (ie. the graph should make sense standing alone). Axes should be labelled. The labels should be followed by the units, in brackets. The independent variable should be plotted on the x-axis (horizontal) and the dependent variable should be plotted on the y-axis (vertical). Time is on the x-axis. Points on the graph should be plotted accurately. The scale on the axis should be even. However, if there is a large gap between zero and the first data point, the axis may be broken. If more than one data set is plotted a key should be included. In a line graph different colours or styles of line should be used (eg. ______ and ). In a column graph the columns can be filled with a different pattern.

The title should include both the independent and the dependent variables.

Types of graphs The first decision that needs to be made when drawing a graph, is what type of graph to draw. The type of graph depends on the type of data. Relationship between data type and type of graph Type of Data One variable non-numerical (ie. words not numbers). Independent data grouped into intervals Both variables are numbers Type of Graph Column graph Histogram Line graph

Note: A column graph has a space between columns (and between the axis and first column) a histogram does not have a space between columns.

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Line of Best Fit When drawing a line graph, the points should be visible and a line of best fit drawn. The line of best fit is drawn so that the points are evenly distributed on either side of the line. The line should not extend beyond the data points and any anomalies should be ignored when drawing the line of best fit. The line of best fit can be a straight line or a curve.

Variables A variable is anything that can change in the course of an experiment. There are three different types of variables that you need to know and be able to identify. The independent variable: this is the variable that you change. The dependent variable: this is the variable that you measure. It depends on the independent variable. The controlled variables: these are the variables that you need to keep the same. So if we were testing, if exercise increases your heart rate, then the variables would be: Independent variable: exercise Dependent: heart rate Controlled: fitness of participants, age of participants, gender, day, weather, general health.

Hypotheses A hypothesis is a statement that relates the independent and dependent variables and can be tested. Note: It must be a statement (ie. not a question) It must contain both the dependent and independent variables. It is testable. It never contains the words I think.

The hypothesis (plural hypotheses) may be proven wrong. When this happens we do not re-write the hypothesis. The hypothesis stays as it was and we simply write what we found in the conclusion. Medical scientists use what they call the null hypothesis stating that whatever they are testing has no effect. If you state that the independent variable makes a difference, rather than just say the dependent variable changes you should state how. So returning to our experiment looking at exercise and heart rate, our hypothesis could be: Exercise increases heart rate.

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Inferences and Observations An observation is anything that can be detected with your five senses. Observations include measurements. If observations are taken carefully, then they are true.

An inference is a possible explanation for your observation. An inference may be wrong, as there may be a different explanation that we havent thought of. For one observation there is normally more than one possible inference.

Scientific Method Galileo developed a method to solve scientific problems. This system is called the scientific method. Though, sometimes written slightly differently, this method is used throughout science, to perform scientific investigations. The steps in the scientific method are outlined below.

The steps of the Scientific Method are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Define the problem Determine the variables Make an hypothesis Design the experiment (see below) Perform the experiment Analyse the data Conclusions The Report What next?

In an experiment only one variable can be changed at a time. All other variables should be kept constant.

An experiment must contain at least two groups: a control group and one or more experimental groups.

The control group is the comparison group. It is the same in every way except the independent variable.

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Fair and Reliable When planning an experiment, it is important to ensure that it is fair and reliable. To make it fair all control variables must be controlled. To make it more reliable either: Increase the sample size Do more repeats

The closer the repeat values are the more reliable the data.

The lab Report Scientists must publish their work for a number of reasons. One reason is if someone makes a scientific discovery, say they discover the cure for cancer, but dont publish their findings or tell anyone, how will the doctors who treat cancer patients in another city going to know? What good is a scientific discovery that no-one knows about?

Lab reports are a particular type of scientific writing and generally have the following parts: Title Introduction (not always) Aim Hypothesis Equipment Method Results Discussion Conclusion References (if any)

Below are just a few notes on some of these sections. Title should be a clear, concise description of the investigation. Introduction provides background information to the investigation including previous research. Aim What the experiment plans to achieve. Often starts with the words to determine, to investigate or to explore. Hypothesis A statement relating your independent and dependent variables and can be tested. CRD 2013

Equipment A list of all that you need to perform the experiment, including the amount you need and the size of the equipment where appropriate (eg. 250 mL beaker rather than just beaker). Method When you write about what you DID in the experiment. (should be written in the past tense). This should be sufficiently detailed that someone else can follow your method and repeat your experiment exactly. This should show how variables are controlled. Results Analysis Should include graphs and calculations. Evaluation When you write about both the experiment and the data collected. When you write about the method and say if they worked or not. You do NOT express opinions e.g. the practical was good/ I enjoyed it. Did the method work, yes or no? You suggest improvements to the method and talk whether it was a fair (so did you control all of the necessary variables) and reliable or not. Discuss trends found in the data and possible inferences to explain them. Then you may suggest extensions to the practical to find out other things or test your inferences. Conclusion When you write about what your results show. You should say how the independent variable affects the dependent variable (IF it does) and mention both the independent and dependent variables by name. The conclusion should describe patterns using the words: increase, decrease and constant.

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