GLOSSARY

ASSESSMENT: the process of documenting, usually in measurable terms, knowledge, skills, attitudes, and beliefs. Assessment can focus on the individual learner, the learning community (class, workshop, or other organized group of learners), the institution, or the educational system as a whole. AUDIOLINGUAL APPROACH: An approach to second or foreign language teaching that is based on the behaviorist theory of learning and on structural linguistics, especially the contrastive analysis hypothesis. This instructional approach emphasizes the formation of habits through the repetition, practice, and memorization of sentence patterns in isolation from each other and from contexts of meaningful use. BEHAVIOURISM: A psychological theory that all learning, whether verbal or non verbal, takes place through the establishment of habits. According to this view, when learners imitate and repeat the language they hear in their surrounding environment and are positively reinforced for doing so, habit formation (or learning) occurs. BILINGUALISM: The ability to use more than one language. The word itself does not specify the degree of proficiency in either language. BRAINSTORMING: a group or individual creativity techni!ue by which efforts are made to find a conclusion for a specific problem by gathering a list of ideas spontaneously contributed by its member(s). The term was popularized by Alex "aickney #sborn in the $%&' book (Applied )magination*. #sborn claimed that brainstorming was more effective than individuals working alone in generating ideas, although more recent research has !uestioned this conclusion. Today, the term is used as a catch all for all group ideation sessions. COMPUTER-ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING (CALL): The search for and study of applications of the computer in language teaching and learning. +A,, embraces a wide range of )nformation and communications technology applications and approaches to teaching and learning foreign languages, from the -traditionaldrill and practice programs that characterized +A,, in the $%./s and $%0/s to more recent manifestations of +A,,, e.g. as used in a virtual learning environment and 1eb based distance learning. CHILD - DIRECTED SPEECH: The language that caretakers address to children. )n some cases, this language is simpler than that which is addressed to adults. )n some cultures, it is also slower, higher pitched, more repetitive, and includes a large number of !uestions.

COGNITIVIST: A research approach that emphasizes how the human mind receives, processes, stores, and retrieves information in learning and retrieving information. The focus is on internal learning mechanisms that are believed to be used for learning in general, not 2ust language learning alone . COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE: The ability to use language in a variety of settings, taking into account relationships between speakers and differences in situations. The term has sometimes been interpreted as the ability to convey messages in spite of a lack of grammatical accuracy. COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING (CLT): +,T is based on the premise that successful language learning involves not only a knowledge of the structures and forms of a language, but also the functions and purposes that a language serves in different communicative settings. This approach to teaching emphasizes the communication of meaning in interaction rather than the practice and manipulation of grammatical forms in isolation. COMPETENCE: ,inguist 3oam +homsky used this term to refer to knowledge of language. This is contrasted with performance, which is the way a person actually uses language whether for speaking, listening, reading, or writing. 4ecause we cannot observe competence directly, we have to infer its nature from performance. COMPREHENSIBLE INPUT: A term introduced by 5tephen 6rashen to refer to language that a learner can understand. )t may be comprehensible in part because of gestures, situations, or prior information. CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS HYPOTHESIS (CAH): The expectation that learners will have less difficulty ac!uiring target language patterns that are similar to those of the first language than those that are different. CRITICAL PERIOD HYPOTHESIS (CPH): The proposal that there is a limited period during which language ac!uisition can occur. The strong version of the +78 is that there are biological mechanisms specifically designed for language ac!uisition and that these cease to be available at or even before puberty. Thus an older learner has to use general learning mechanisms that are not designed for and thus not as effective for language ac!uisition. The weak version (sometimes called the 9sensitive period hypothesis9) is that, even though the same learning mechanisms are involved, second language learning will be more difficult for older learners. DIRECT METHOD: #ne of the teaching methods which receives its name from the fact that meaning is to be conveyed directly in the target language through the use of demonstration and visual aids, with no recourse to the students9 native language. EMPATHY: The process of 9putting yourself in someone else9s shoes9, of reaching beyond the self to understand what another person is feeling. )t is probably the ma2or factor in the harmonious coexistence of individuals in society. :mpathy is not synonymous with sympathy. :mpathy implies more possibility of detachment; sympathy connotes an agreement or harmony between individuals.

ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE (ESL)< is the use or study of :nglish by speakers with different native languages. )t is also known as :nglish for speakers of other languages (:5#,), :nglish as an additional language (:A,), and :nglish as a foreign language (:",). ENGLISH for SPECIFIC PURPOSES (ESP): The term -specific- in :57 refers to the specific purpose for learning :nglish. 5tudents approach the study of :nglish through a field that is already known and relevant to them. This means that they are able to use what they learn in the :57 classroom right away in their work and studies. The :57 approach enhances the relevance of what the students are learning and enables them to use the :nglish they know to learn even more :nglish, since their interest in their field will motivate them to interact with speakers and texts. The most important difference lies in the learners and their purposes for learning :nglish. :57 students are usually adults who already have some ac!uaintance with :nglish and are learning the language in order to communicate a set of professional skills and to perform particular 2ob related functions. An :57 program is therefore built on an assessment of purposes and needs and the functions for which :nglish is re!uired. FEEDBACK: "eedback is information a student receives after they have completed a piece of work and can be provided in a range of formats. The piece of work (assignment) can take a wide variety of forms, for example a lab or field report, presentation for a debate, essay etc. "eedback is an essential part of effective learning. )t helps students understand the sub2ect being studied and gives them clear guidance on how to improve their learning. FILL-IN-THE-BLANKS: 5tudents are given a series of sentences with words missing. They fill in the blanks with new vocabulary items or with items of a particular grammar type, such as prepositions or verbs with different senses. FIRST LANGUAGE (MOTHER TONGUE, NATIVE LANGUAGE): The language first learned. =any children learn more than one language from birth and may be said to have more than one 9first9 language. FOREIGNER TALK: The modified or simplified language that some native speakers address to second language learners. A special category of foreigner talk is teacher talk. FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING: This refers to the learning of a language, usually in a classroom setting, in a context where the target language is not widely used in the community (for example, learning "rench in +hina). This is sometimes contrasted with 9second language learning9, where the language being learned is used in the community (for example, learning )talian in "lorence).

GRAMMAR TRANSLATION: An approach to second language teaching characterized by the explicit teaching of grammar rules and the use of translation exercises. INNATISM: A theory that human beings are born with mental structures that are designed specifically for the ac!uisition of language. INPUT: The language that the learner is exposed to (either written or spoken) in the environment. INTERACTIONIST HYPOTHESIS: The hypothesis that language ac!uisition is based both on learners9 innate abilities and on opportunities to engage in conversations, often those in which other speakers modify their speech and their interaction patterns to match the learners9 communication re!uirements. The innate abilities are not seen as being specific to language or language ac!uisition. INTERLOCUTOR: A participant in a conversation. LANGUAGE ACQUISITION: This term is most often used interchangeably with language learning. 8owever, for some researchers, most notably 5tephen 6rashen, ac!uisition is contrasted with learning. According to 6rashen, ac!uisition represents 9unconscious9 learning, which takes place when attention is focused on meaning rather than language form. LANGUAGE ACQUISITION DEVICE (LAD): The innate knowledge, according to +homsky, is embodied in a 9little black box9 of sorts, a language ac!uisition device. )t is the set of language learning tools provided at birth. LANGUAGE LEARNING: )n this book, this term is a general one, referring simply to an individual9s developing knowledge of the target language. )n 5tephen 6rashen9s terms, however, 9learning9 is contrasted with 9ac!uisition9, and is described as a 9conscious9 process that occurs when the learner*s ob2ective is to learn about the language itself, rather than to understand messages conveyed through the language. MODIFIED INPUT: Adapted speech that adults use to address children and native speakers use to address language learners so that they will be able to understand. :xamples of modified input include shorter, simpler sentences, and basic vocabulary. NATIVE SPEAKER: A person who has learned a language from an early age and who has full mastery of that language. 3ative speakers may differ in terms of vocabulary and stylistic aspects of language use, but they tend to agree on the basic grammar of the language. The notion 9native speaker9 must always be understood within a specific geographic region or socioeconomic group because there is wide variation among 9native speakers9 of most languages. ORACY: )s used to describe a person9s ability to efficiently communicate with others via the spoken word as well as to fully understand oral communication.

PERFORMANCE: The way we use language in listening, speaking, reading, writing. 7erformance is usually contrasted with competence, which is the knowledge that underlies our ability to use language. 7erformance is sub2ect to variations due to inattention or fatigue whereas competence, at least for the mature native speaker, is more stable. RAPPORT: A relationship between the teacher and the students. REALIA< )n education, realia are ob2ects from real life used in classroom instruction by educators to improve students9 understanding of other cultures and real life situations. A teacher of a foreign language often employs realia to strengthen students9 associations between words for everyday ob2ects and the ob2ects themselves. )n many cases, these ob2ects are part of an instructional kit which includes a manual and is thus considered as being part of a documentary whole by librarians. RECEPTIVE SKILLS: ,istening and >eading are known as the 9receptive skills9 whereby the reader or listener receives information. RELIABILITY: The consistency of a measure. )n educational testing, reliability refers to the confidence that the test score will be the same across repeated administrations of the test. There is a close relation between the construct of reliability and the construct of validity. =any sources discuss how a test can have reliability without validity and that a test cannot have validity without reliability. SCANNING: A techni!ue you often use when looking up a word in the telephone book or dictionary. ?ou search for key words or ideas. )n most cases, you know what you9re looking for, so you9re concentrating on finding a particular answer. 5canning involves moving your eyes !uickly down the page seeking specific words and phrases. 5canning is also used when you first find a resource to determine whether it will answer your !uestions. #nce you9ve scanned the document, you might go back and skim it. SECOND LANGUAGE: The term refers to any language other than the first language learned. Thus, it may actually refer to the third or fourth language. SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION (SLA): is the process by which people learn a second language. 5econd language ac!uisition also refers to the scientific discipline devoted to studying that process. 5econd language refers to any language learned in addition to a person9s first language; although the concept is named second language ac!uisition, it can also incorporate the learning of third, fourth, or subse!uent languages. 5econd language ac!uisition refers to what learners do; it does not refer to practices in language teaching. SKIMMING: A techni!ue used to !uickly identify the main ideas of a text. 5kimming is done at a speed three to four times faster than normal reading. 7eople often skim when they have lots of material to read in a limited amount of time.

SUGGESTOPEDIA: A form of educational dynamics based on the insights of suggestology. The process focuses on the whole person, and in so doing, it takes into account the conscious@ unconscious duality of the student. 1hile creating a state of psychological relaxation, it uses every possible suggestive interrelationship to overcome psychological resistance and to develop new mental behavior. TARGET LANGUAGE: The language being learned, whether it is the first language or a second (or third or fourth) language. TEACHER TALKING TIME (TTT): The time that teachers spend talking in class, rather than learners. )t can be compared with student talking time. #ne key element of many modern approaches is to reduce the amount of TTT as much as possible, to allow learners opportunities to speak, and learn from speaking . UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR (UG): )nnate linguistic knowledge which, it is hypothesized, consists of a set of principles common to all languages. This term is associated with +homsky9s theory of language ac!uisition. VALIDITY: refers to how well a test measures what it is purported to measure. ASHBACK or BACK ASH: Also known as measurement driven instruction, is a common term in applied linguistics referring to the influence of testing on teaching and learning, which is a prevailing phenomena in education. )t is a truism that -what is assessed becomes what is valued, which becomes what is taught.!ONE OF PRO"IMAL DEVELOPMENT (!PD): The metaphorical 9place9 in which a learner is capable of a higher level of performance because there is support from interaction with an interlocutor. )n Aygotskyt theory, learning takes place through and during interaction in the learner*s B7C.