Chapter 3 THE ENVIRONMENT
Some thoughts on layout
The environment you are trying to create is
a woven tapestry with its individual identity
The Environment and the many factors intermingling to create
a unique, sustainable, living piece of work.
Some factors are external influences, such as
the weather, the influence of the moon and
the planets, regulations as laid out by the law
makers, and previous inputs into the farm.
Other factors that enable your farm to be
unique, and may take some time to achieve,
are planting of trees, diverse species in your
pasture, crops, and a farm that enables ease of
operation and minimum stress for the animals
and the people who work there. This in turn,
will create a diverse, balanced environment
with bees, birds, healthy animals and happy
humans. All materials on farm should be used
and minimum external inputs should be the
organic farmer’s goal. The final piece on the
tapestry shows neighbours chatting and being
helpful to one another simply because they all
understand and respect one another’s prefer-
ence of farming methods.
108
To create the right environment on your farm you need
to spend some time thinking about layout. Setting up
an organic farm is no different to a conventional farm
for most operations on the farm, as most activities are
similar. Further considerations would be:
• A large enough quarantine paddock, handy for transfer of
animals for milking
• An area set up for stirring, mixing and loading up for
applying liquid fertiliser, biodynamic preparations, and
effluent (sometimes called the farm kitchen)
• A system for putting effluent on the land
• Good wide races to reduce lameness and ease cow flow
• Paddocks, races, yards and dairies that minimise handling
and encourage natural herd behaviour
• Retiring marginal lands and planting pocket forests on it
• Establish shade where the animals loaf, or stand in the
heat
• Buffering natural waterways and wetlands
• Ensuring animals have access to good clean water.
There are many organisations and government bodies coming
out with rules and regulations. They are different for each area.
Whether you are organic or not, it is important to keep informed
of these, and any changes that occur. The trick is to be ahead of
the game by keeping yourself informed, and working positively
and proactively on your farm.
Moon and planets
The moon and the planets have a big influence on the earth and
touch all living beings (e.g. the tide going in and out, more rain
near the new moon, days when the air feels damp despite full
sun, vice versa). Planets move across and are present in our sky
on a regular basis. They affect nature and influence our plants.
The moon has the biggest influence, however. It is a fascinating
topic and can become a lifelong passion when you start
observing and finding patterns and effects.
Calendars: Sources of information
Fortunately, there are several calendars available:
Biodynamic Farming and Planting Calendar.
Based on modern research, it is printed annually for May–May,
and is a very informative calendar. There are instructions and
guidelines included. Available from NZ Biodynamic Farming
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Organic Pastoral RESOURCE GUIDE
and Gardening Assn (NZ), P O Box 39 045, Wellington Mail
Centre. www.biodynamics.org.nz
The Maori Planting and Fishing Calendar
Easy 2 See Calendars
Climate and weather
Climate refers to the long–term average of rainfall,
temperature, sunshine hours, wind and so on that we
experience over time. Climate can refer to monthly,
seasonal or annual averages. For longer–term record
keeping the World Meteorological Organisation use a
standard 30–year climate period, which New Zealand
conforms to. Weather is what we experience on a
day–to–day basis, or even within a day – we’ve all heard
the expression ‘four seasons in one day’. The weather in
New Zealand can be unpredictable, but its effects can be
managed to some degree within the farm environment.
There are pros and cons for the organic farmer in dealing with
the vagaries of climate. On the positive side, with increased soil
organic matter, and increased plant and animal diversity, the
organic farm develops a greater ability to buffer against climatic
extremes over time. Through increased diversification coupled
with good management and planning, including applying the
age–old wisdom of using times of abundance to set store for
times of shortage, the organic farm has the potential to be
developed as a very resilient farming system. However, on the
negative side the organic farmer has fewer options for dealing
with shortages than the conventional farmer, who is able to
change grazing patterns, bring in feed or graze animals off the
farm, or use strategic applications of fertilisers for short–term
shortages.
Climate change
One thing that farmers are increasingly aware of is global
warming or climate change, partly through the media but also
through on–farm observation and record keeping. Our climate
can change naturally over timescales ranging from decades to
millennia. However, we’re interested here in climate change
resulting from human activities (burning of fossil fuels and so
on) over the last 100 years or so and continuing through the
21st century.
We know that:
• Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane and
nitrous oxide have increased in the earth’s atmosphere and
are continuing to increase due to human activities.
• Global temperatures have risen (up to 0.7°C in New
Zealand over the last 100 years) and are continuing to rise.
110
• The rate of change expected over the next 100 years is
unprecedented due to the build–up of greenhouse gases.
There is often confusion between climate change and climate
variability. Climate variability can refer to the weather patterns
and events that we experience. There are also fluctuations such
as El Ni˜no and La Ni˜na events and a 20–30 year cycle called
the Interdecadal Pacific Oscillation, which leads to patterns of
higher or lower rainfall in New Zealand.
How is this global issue of relevance to practical organic
farmers, and farmers in general?
It is important in two main ways:
1) Methane emissions from livestock from around
the world are making a major contribution to global
greenhouse gases, leading to climate change. Farmers
in New Zealand are being asked to take some respon-
sibility for methane emissions from their livestock. The
Global Livestock Group (www.theglg.com ) say that proven
reductions can be obtained through natural genetic
improvements and improved nutrition. This is where
organic farming could play a role, particularly through
improved feed quality which many experienced organic
farmers achieve. Stocking rates are also generally lower
on organic farms, which would lead to lower total emis-
sions from the farm.
2) Observed changes are already happening,
which may be a result of a warming climate, such as
the increased prevalence of the tropical webworm in
Northland. Issues like biosecurity, availability of water,
and the need for on–farm biodiversity are going to be
increasingly prevalent. This points to an increasing need
for sustainable and resilient farming systems, and organic
farmers are at the forefront in developing farms and
farming systems for the future.
Sources of information
Climate data
The National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Science (NIWA
Ltd) manage a national database of climate data. Data are
available at nominal cost.
For more information visit www.niwa.co.nz/services/clidb/ or
email climate–enquiries@niwa.co.nz .
Climate summaries
NIWA also produce Climate Update, which is a monthly
summary of New Zealand’s climate, including soil moisture
and river flows. You can access free electronic copies of this at
www.niwa.co.nz , look under Media & Publications.
Weather forecasts
Weather forecasting in New Zealand is now centred in
Chapter 3 THE ENVIRONMENT
Wellington and is strongly reliant on satellite and computer • Regional authorities monitor effluent disposal more so
technology. The forecasts provided on the evening news or than the dairy companies, although there is a cross–over
in the daily paper are sufficient for most farmers. However, in terms of effluent management, particularly around the
as the observant farmer knows, the weather can often be dairy surrounds.
predicted through accumulated experience and wisdom and
• Fonterra has developed an Environmental and Animal
keen observation. Welfare policy statement.
• Each regional authority may have slightly different inter-
pretations on permitted activities and consented activities
Government and dairy (one size does not fit all), so please check with your own
regional council.
regulations • Some regional councils allow organic farms to be classed
as ‘commercially sensitive areas’ and are registered with
them as such. They also allow ‘spray free’ signs to be put up
These are increasing as we become more regulated. Be on road frontages. There are simple procedures you must
aware of your obligations under law. Keep up to date go through to achieve that.
with them.
• Farm Dairy Code of Practice 3rd Edition by NZ Dairy Board
Some important regulatory authorities are 1998. ISBN 0–9–908946–00–7. Contact your milk Co–op
• MAF/NZFSA: Hygiene, animal health and welfare, disease, for this.
registration of food processing plants, collection of • The Animal Welfare Regulations can be found on the
seaweed, national minimum standards for organic produc- website: www.maf.govt.nz/biosecurity/animal–welfare
tion
• The Agricultural Compounds and Veterinary Medicines
• Dairy Companies: (the largest being Fonterra but there is a
Act, administered by the Food Safety NZ Authority.
number of other small ones) Milk standards, effluent, dairy
www.nzfsa.govt.nz/acvm/legislation/acvm–act/index/htm
regulations, Clean Streams Accord
• A summary of organic certification regulations can be
• Regional Council: Noxious weeds, drains, pollution, erosion, found in Appendix 4.
spray drift, effluent disposal etc.
• Local Council: Roadside maintenance, rubbish, conserva-
tion
Pasture
• Accident Compensation Corporation: Accidents, injury,
lepto, disease
• The Health and Safety Act: Stress in the workplace, illness,
milk contaminants
• Organic certifying
agencies.
Food Safety Authority:
•
Setting rules for food
production and export of
organic produce.
Some
information:
• Cooling water standards:
MAF D104 paper
• Milking Animal Health
Standard: MAF D105
paper
• Farm Dairy Water standard:
MAF 106 paper
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Organic Pastoral RESOURCE GUIDE
What is pasture? Pasture is the collective term we use
to mean the grass–based plant communities, which
grow in the soil matrix. When we refer to pasture we
are not only talking about the aerial parts of the grass-
land plant species which we see above ground, but also
their extensive roots networks and associations in the
soil, the whole thing is ‘the pasture system’ and the soil,
plant and animal life within it are inextricably linked.
Another term that we tend to use in pastoral farming is
the ‘sward’, and this is when we are generally referring
just to the stem, leaves and flowering parts above the
ground. In organic farming we are aiming to enhance
the whole pasture system.
In many countries of the world pasture was a relatively rare type
of plant community prior to the development of pastoral agri-
culture, because most of the land was cloaked in forests. At that
time grasslands were restricted to areas where trees couldn’t
grow for some reason, either because it was too dry, cold, wet
or windy, or a combination of these climatic features, and/or the
soil was not sufficiently developed to allow trees to grow. In
New Zealand this includes our native tussock grasslands, which
have become an essential element of our pastoral farming in the
South Island. The majority of New Zealand farmers, however,
are dealing with situations where the forest cover has been
artificially removed and we are using our domesticated grazing
animals to maintain these enlarged ‘clearings’ by applying
constant grazing pressure. Many farmers still find themselves
in a constant battle with manuka and gorse, heralding the
return of the forest, if the grazing pressure is too light or the
land is left ungrazed for any length of time, providing there is
still a local seed source. Good organic management, which is
consistent with a farm forestry approach, is about achieving
the right balance between trees and pasture on the farm.
Increasing numbers of farmers are now seeing the value of
retiring marginal land to trees (natives or exotic timber species)
and paying increased attention to improved management of the
pasture system on their good land.
It is the consideration of how to enable our grasslands to work
best for us that we will be dealing with in this chapter, under our
recurring theme of balance. Thus we shall be examining what
constitutes a natural, balanced grassland which enables our
grazing animals to thrive; how to manage our grazing regime
to keep the livestock and grassland in balance; as well as, how
to manage our views on what we have traditionally regarded as
pastoral weed species and turn them to our advantage.
Pasture species
• A mixture of species in pasture is important for grazing
animals to access a wide range of minerals, vitamins and
other nutrients.
• Make it a priority to add extra species to your pastures,
as these changes will quickly start affecting your animal’s
112
health in a positive way. Try over– sowing some chicory and
plantain when conditions would suit seed establishment
• Use a mixture of predominant pasture and deep rooting
plants. Certain weeds could be beneficial – check before
eliminating
• No genetically modified or treated seed is permitted to be
sown
• Older varieties can be a better choice than newer hybrids.
• Quarantine paddocks need deep rooting and specific
herbal plants added to pasture mix, enabling stock to
recover from illness.
Within any naturally occurring grassland system there is
normally a high diversity of plant species where there are
grazing animals. This is because their grazing pressure prevents
the domination of the sward by the larger, faster growing or
more woody/fibrous species. That is, it prevents the natural
succession of the community back towards forest, as we have
already observed previously. This is to the advantage of the
grazing animals since it provides them with a more varied
diet.
Organic pastoral farmers seek to mimic the balance and
diversity of natural grassland systems. This is achieved through
an emphasis on providing pasture that is a mixture of many
different species of grasses, legumes and other herbs. This is
often referred to as a herbal ley, but strictly speaking it may not
be a ley as it is often likely to be permanent pasture whereas the
term ley is normally used to refer to a temporary pasture which
gets ploughed up and reseeded. Interestingly, the dictionary
definition for the term pasture is ‘herbage’, indicating that it
has always contained herbs, until very recently.
So what then is a herb?
A herb is a flowering plant that has a stem comprised of soft,
non–woody tissue which dies down and grows again each year
from the ground. This, as we have seen, enables it to withstand
grazing and distinguishes it from trees and shrubs which
grow continually from their stem tips each year, getting taller
and taller. Herbs may be annual (grow from seed each year),
biannual (take two years to grow and seed), or perennial (grow
again each year from the same rootstock), and these character-
istics often affect their persistence or otherwise in the sward.
Clovers and the other leguminous pasture species with which
we are familiar are also herbs, but we tend to separate them
out into a category of their own since they are nitrogen–fixing
herbs and so are add fertility to our soils. They do this by virtue
of a nitrogen–fixing bacteria, called Rhizobium which they host
in special nodules on their roots. Up to 70 to 90% of all the
nitrogen required by the pasture can be taken directly from the
air by this plant/bacterial association. Much of this, plus other
nutrients, is returned to the soil under grazing systems in the
dung and urine of the grazing animals. This is indeed why the
grass/clover ley was always the fertility–building phase in the
classical organic rotation between arable crops and pastoral
farming, the deeper rooting pastoral herbs also enabling
mobilisation of other minerals from deeper layers in the soil.
Many so–called weeds are also herbs and provide benefits
to the whole farm system (see Weeds and Their Management
section).
Even if you are still only deciding whether to convert to organic
farming or not, there is certainly a lot to be gained from incor-
porating additional plant (herb/weed) species into your pasture
renovation programme. Not all of the species listed below will
establish on your farm. You will have to do a bit of experi-
mentation to determine which ones work best in your area or
consult with an agronomist who is familiar with these plant
species in your area. Here are some things to consider:
• Some of the species will not establish in very fertile soil and
some actually require low fertility soil.
• Grazing pressure will also determine if these species persist
in your pasture.
• Sourcing seed may be a problem if you want to obtain the
seed before it is chemically treated.
o Get in early when the seed crop is being harvested.
o Work in with other organic farmers for bulk orders to
appease the seed merchants and save costs.
o You must ensure that the seed is not GM or GE (geneti-
cally modified or genetically engineered) and is not treated
seed (hasn’t been coated with fungicide or insecticide
etc.)
o New varieties are being added to the list of pasture
species that can be grown on a farm. Many of these newer
varieties will have been grown and selected under conven-
tional farming systems, so do not be surprised if the seed
grows or behaves differently, or is not up to expectation
under an organic system. You will have to do your own
experimentation on your own farm. There are some seed
companies now in the UK that are growing seed varieties
especially for organic farms, some of which is even organi-
cally grown, but this is not yet available in New Zealand.
Demand and pressure from organic pastoral farmers here
would persuade our own seed companies to follow suit.
What plant species
should I consider?
Let’s consider the predominant pasture species: first the grasses,
then the clovers and other legumes, and then the additional
herb species.
Grasses
Brome (Bromus species)
Brome grasses are perennial species, which have excellent
winter growth in fertile, free draining soil, but do not tolerate
poorly drained soils. There are several cultivars available,
Chapter 3 THE ENVIRONMENT
which tolerate different conditions from rotational grazing to
set–stocking. They provide good feed quality without the risks
of endophyte.
• Matua (Erect Brome, Bromus willdenowii) grows actively in
winter and has two peaks of production, one late summer
and early autumn and the other in late winter and early
spring, so this plant can fill deficits when the rye and clover
are producing very little. It is the only certified cultivar
available.
• Matua is highly palatable – even the seed heads
(no topping required!).
• There are some disadvantages. If this plant is grazed hard in
summer it will die out.
Matua is also very low in magnesium and iodine so if clover
•
is not a high proportion of the sward then stock grazing can
suffer infertility and grass tetany (staggers). Lucerne does
not combine with Matua as Matua is too competitive. This
grass is troubled by the Hessian fly which can be found in
the areas north of Taupo.
When to sow? Early autumn. Sowing mixtures should be
simple – short-term ryegrass cultivars can be included plus
white and red clover, but not lucerne.
Sowing rate: 30kg/ha through a drill or 40kg/ha when
broadcast. The seed can be de–awned which will make it go
through the drill better.
Depth: no more than 2 cm deep.
Management: grazing should only be for 1–3 days with a
period of 4 to 6 weeks between grazing.
Cocksfoot (Dactylis glomerata)
This is a summer active perennial with a deep root system.
It grows well in poor fertility soils where it is dry. Generally
slow to establish and has a lower digestibility than most other
grasses. Cocksfoot has limited winter growth but is very useful
as a component of permanent pasture in summer dry areas
for its persistence and drought tolerance. Historically a very
important element in the famous ‘Clifton Park’ humus–building
and drought–resistant mixture for organic farms.
Seeding rates should be kept low as cocksfoot can dominate
a pasture, reducing clover levels and digestibility. The strain
Wana tends to grow in clumps. Kara, Ella Tekapo are other
strains that tend not to do this.
Cocksfoot needs to be kept well–grazed so that it stays short
and leafy to maintain feed value and prevent clump develop-
ment.
Sowing rate: 1–3kg/ha.
Ryegrass (Lolium species)
Ryegrasses, especially the modern highly–bred cultivars,
have become the grasses of choice for the modern pastoral
farmer because they respond so readily to the application of
artificial nitrogenous fertiliser. However, this response may be
largely in bulk of fibrous and watery material rather than in
quality nutritional material. In organic regimes, where there
is an emphasis on organic, low–nitrogen fertilisers and the
use of clover as the nitrogen source, ryegrasses may not be
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Organic Pastoral RESOURCE GUIDE
so appropriate, and should certainly not be the only pastoral
species used.
Ryegrasses are especially suited for medium soil–types and
good fertility, other grass species like Fescues, Bromes, and
Timothy are more suited to extremes of soil type like free–
draining or water–logged soils, and low–fertility. The older
naturally occurring species like perennial ryegrass (Lolium
perenne) may be more suitable for organic farms than the
newly developed modern hybrids.
Endophytes (in ryegrasses)
Ryegrass endophyte is a fungus called Neotyphodium lolii found
only in perennial, long rotation and some hybrid ryegrasses. The
endophyte dies out in seed stored for longer than 15 months.
There are three types of endophyte that affect ryegrasses.
Each produces a different phytotoxin. You can now purchase
ryegrasses infected with the right type of endophyte to provide
itself with protection from insect attack but avoiding the knock–
on grass staggers and super–heat effects in dairy cattle.
There has been a huge advance by researchers, which is of
benefit to all warm area farmers. Previously the only endo-
phyte available in ryegrasses was the wild type endophyte.
Unfortunately as well as the peramine and ergovaline which
give resistance to Argentine Stem weevil and Black beetle
respectively, this endophyte also produces Lolitrem B which can
cause ryegrass staggers. Endophyte research has led to new
or ‘novel’ endophytes becoming available which have lower
levels of toxins affecting animals (that is no/very low ryegrass
staggers). These are AR1 and NEA2.
The AR1 endophyte produces peramine so gives resistance to
Australian Stem weevil but can be susceptible to Black beetle.
The NEA2 endophyte produces peramine and ergovaline so
gives resistance to ASW and Black beetle. Ergovaline is the
toxin, which can cause heat stress in very warm weather.
Hybrid ryegrasses
Hybrid ryegrasses are bred from annual or short rotation
ryegrasses with perennial ryegrasses and are in between in
terms of growth and persistence. Some are closer in type to
annuals (Italian type hybrids) and include the cultivars Maverick
Gold, Geyser, Manawa, and Galaxy (a tetraploid). Some are
closer in type to perennials (perennial–type hybrids or long
rotation ryegrasses) and include Greenstone and Horizon (both
tetraploids) and Marsden, Supreme and Impact.
Some cultivars contain the endophyte which gives resistance to
ASW but causes ryegrass staggers and some do not.
‘Greenstone’
This hybrid rye is extremely palatable and is hybrid. It is an
upright erect plant, which encourages a high legume content
and makes an ideal companion in a pasture mix with a more
densely tillered ryegrass plant. This plant will persist only
under rotational grazing. Endosafe Grasslands Greenstone has
114
endophyte which produces peramine for Argentine stem weevil
resistance but low levels of lolitrem B which means it has less
risk of ryegrass staggers. The Endofree version has none of
the endophyte and therefore no resistance to Argentine Stem
Weevil and none of the toxins, which cause ryegrass staggers
or heat stress and is suited for cool, summer wet areas where
Argentine Stem Weevil is not a problem.
This plant gives excellent winter and spring growth. Better
suited to the South Island.
Do not plant together with fescue.
Sowing rate: As a pure sward 28kg/ha. As a mixed sward
14kg/ha.
Tetraploid ryegrasses
These have 4 sets of chromosomes per cell (instead of 2 sets as
in diploids). They are very palatable and are often less persis-
tent. Endophyte has now been bred into some of them, which
gives better persistence than when tetraploids were first tried
in NZ. Tetraploids are sown at 30 to 40 % higher sowing rates
as they have larger seeds.
There are now perennial tetraploid ryegrasses such as Quartet
and Nevis, and long rotation tetraploids such as Banquet,
Horizon, Greenstone and Sterling, as well as short rotation or
annual tetraploids such as Feast II, Andy, and Archie.
Perennial ryegrasses
These include mainly diploids but also the 2 tetraploids
mentioned above. The diploids are generally more persistent
than the tetraploids but are less palatable. However they
usually grow more DM and this can be of very good quality,
especially if a later flowering type which is easier to manage
such as Aries, and Tolosa.
Tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea)
In the North Island there is a swing away from ryegrass to
fescue type pasture. These new variety fescue type pastures
do have significant health benefits for stock as spore counts
(for facial eczema) tends to be significantly lower and there is
no ryegrass staggers on this type of pasture.
Clover tends to establish reasonably well with Fescue if grazing
controls the growth of this plant. There are quite a number of
fescue varieties and each has its own benefits so you will have
to research which type is best for your area. Palatability can
certainly be an issue if you let the sward go rank.
This grass grows fast so you will have to have a quicker grazing
round when using this plant. Heat stress was also a feature
of the old type Fescue strains and now there are strains with no
endotoxin (which caused heat stress in cows especially in the
north of the North Island). Fescue plants are deeper rooting
compared to ryegrass with good drought tolerance but in the
cold of winter, growth rates for fescue are very low. Also very
useful in waterlogged and saline soil conditions where again
ryegrass does poorly.
Tall fescue is slow to establish so it cannot be sown with
ryegrass. There are so many benefits to be had by including
a fescue plant in some of your paddocks as the predominant
grass with clovers and herbs added for conventional and
organic farmer alike.
Variety options: Roa and Au Triumph are the older types, which
have now been superseded by Vulcan, Torpedo, Quantum,
Advance and Dovey. Dovey originally came from French
plant material bred in the UK. Reports from trials show that
this fescue is fastest establishing, with a high yield, excellent
rust resistance and for those summer dry areas there is good
summer growth and good palatability.
When to sow? Fescue must be sown when the soil is warm
– above 12 degrees.
You will have to order the seed early as this one gets treated
with fungicide and insecticide as it is slow to establish.
Sowing rate: Bare seed 25–30kg/ha plus clovers (coated seed
20–25kg/ha plus clovers).
Timothy (Pleum pretense)
This plant is better suited to summer wet areas and particularly
heavy soils. It also needs cooler temperatures to persist; which
is a great shame for the Northern areas. It is usually a minor
component in a seed mix. This plant has a higher feed value
than compared to ryegrass. Slow to establish and performs
better under low grazing pressure. Poor during winter and
spring growth but peaks in summer.
Kahu is a high forage quality grass especially on moist sites.
Sowing rate: 1–2kg/ha. The seed is very tiny.
This grass is being promoted in a mixture with meadow fescue
(Festuca pratensis) and clovers as a non–ryegrass ley more
suited to cold, wet soils. These two grasses are considered to
be the most palatable of the permanent grasses, preferred by
stock over ryegrass, and when in a mix with clover highly nutri-
tious and digestible. Unlike ryegrass they persist in this type of
heavy, clay soils.
Yorkshire fog (Holcus lanatus)
Prefers low fertility acidic soils. This is a perennial grass that
can handle very wet soil. Yorkshire fog is an alternative grass
species to plant for areas where perennial ryegrass production
is poor and is often planted with Lotus.
Massey basyn is a standard cultivar – Melita is a newer
cultivar.
Sowing rate: 5–8kg/ha. Sow seed at 5–10mm deep in a
good seedbed.
Grazing: must be well grazed in mid–spring otherwise it will
become less palatable in late spring and summer.
Has been shown to have important vermifuge properties in
mixtures with chicory and other herbs, especially for newly
weaned lambs.
Chapter 3 THE ENVIRONMENT
Clovers and other legumes
Red clover (Trifolium pretense)
These plants like the warmer temperatures and of course can
fix nitrogen, which is so important for organic pasture–based
systems. Red clover is a tap root perennial legume and is
drought tolerant. Red clover performs best under low stocking
rates if grazed, but is of particular use in silage production due
to its high yields, with crude protein analysis around 20%.
Red clover is a short lived, high feed value plant. It has good
summer growth but little winter growth.
It would also pay to consider growing red clover strains that
have low phyto–oestrogen levels. Sheep are especially prone
to oestrogenic effects of clovers (low fertility, prolapsed anus
etc.). If you are having problems with oestrogen then consider
G27 red clover marketed by Agricom which is a re–selec-
tion of Pawera, has a good yield and persistence and a low
formononetin (phyto–oestrogen) level. This plant is a smaller
plant than Pawera, with smaller leaves, shorter stem and a
prostrate growth form. Colenso has improved cool season
production and has greater tolerance to grazing and contains
low–medium phyto–oestrogens.
Sowing rate: 2–3kg/ha (coated seed rates are 1–2kg/ha
higher). Depth 5–10mm.
White clover (Trifolium repens)
This plant is the mainstay of organic pastoral systems and
must be present in your pasture as it is the most important
nitrogen fixing plant, making a substantial contribution to the
growth of companion grasses. Unlike red clover it is creeping
and prostrate in growth habit, and it is also tolerant of and
persists under a wide range of management systems and soil
and climatic conditions. It is highly resistant to heavy grazing
pressure, making it suitable for sheep as well as cattle grazing,
and is highly drought resistant with a high feed value. The aim
is for a sward of between 30–50% legume content in spring/
early summer and possibly autumn with an interval of about
35 days between defoliation (grazing) to allow adequate time
for nitrogen fixation. Dry matter yields can be in the region of
10–13t/ha in such a high clover sward, thus without the appli-
cation of any additional nitrogen these clover/grass systems can
achieve the same production more cheaply than conventional
chemical systems.
It is slower to grow in spring than ryegrass and is susceptible
to shading so spring management should be geared to keeping
pastures short and leafy to maintain good clover content and
to capitalise on the good growth in summer.
There are many varieties available. Pitau is a variety that
adapted to a wide range of environments and was first released
in 1975. This clover has a creeping prostrate habit with a
network of spreading stolons. However, newer strains have
improved characteristics like greater stolon density, a variation in
leaf size – like large, medium and small – some have resistance
to clover diseases like nematode and rot. Smaller leaf clovers
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like Tahora and Prop are best suited to sheep farms. Large leaf
clover like Aran and Kopu and medium large leaf clover like
Sustain, Challenge and Pitau suit dairy farm grazing.
A mix of Aran and Sustain is an idea for then you have the
benefit of persistence and disease resistance and also high
winter yields and improved tolerance to intense grazing.
Sowing rate: 2kg/ha Aran and 2kg/ha Sustain
Sow shallow at 5–10mm sowing depth.
Common birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus)
Birdsfoot trefoil is a non–bloating perennial legume similar to
lucerne in its fertility requirements, but it thrives on dry–land
soils too acidic for lucerne. This plant is an erect–growing,
tap–rooted plant so can offer good yields of high quality forage
during spring, summer and autumn in dry regions.
This plant contains condensed tannins, which prevent bloat in
ruminants and also protect forage proteins from degradation to
ammonia gas in the rumen so there is better amino acid diges-
tion and greater growth rates for ruminants.
Photosensitisation (eczema) has been reported on odd occai-
sions in animals grazing Lotus corniculatus.
This plant is very acceptable to all livestock types and deer
especially so. It also makes excellent quality hay.
Trefoil is more resistant to pests and diseases compared to
lucerne in dry areas.
There are some disadvantages with birdsfoot trefoil. It is slow
to establish. This plant is not compatible with the common
pasture species so ideally it should be sown alone and in a
way so that weeds do not compete as this plant is not aggres-
sive and does not spread vegetatively or readily re–seed itself.
Trefoil can be planted with lucerne where there is paddock
fertility variability. Another option is to plant it with brome
grasses but these are not really an option in the upper North
Island. Birdsfoot trefoil must not be over grazed. It is sown
with fescue in South America, and this could be worth a try
especially up North.
When making hay from this plant care needs to be exercised to
prevent the loss of dry leaves.
Grasslands Goldie is the local cultivar bred in New Zealand.
When to sow? Best sown in spring as this plant is winter
dormant but will establish from early autumn plantings if a
good cover grows before winter onset.
Sowing rate: 5–10kg/ha and the seed must be inoculated with
a specific Rhizobium strain for effective nitrogen fixation (which
is not present in most NZ soils).
Depth: drill at 2cm depth in a well prepared bed and when the
soil temperature is above 12 degrees Celsius.
Management: Avoid grazing below 8cm. Should be rotation-
ally grazed.
116
Greater birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus uliginosus/pedunculatus)
A more luxuriant and larger cousin of the species above which
thrives on moist soils.
Cultivar Maku contains condensed tannins making it non–
bloating and giving protein protection in the rumen of stock.
Maku can grow on lower levels of phosphate than white clover,
however it still responds to fertiliser.
Sunrise is another cultivar similar to Maku but tolerates grazing
pressure though has better autumn growth and poorer summer
growth.
Sowing rate: 1–2kg/ha.
Sow in early autumn. Seed must be inoculated with the
recommended strain of rhizobia. Can sow Maku and Sunrise
together. Drill or over–sow
Lucerne (Medicago sativa)
This plant requires high fertility soil with a high calcium base
saturation percentage – a minimum of 68%. It does not fare
well under the dairy grazing rotational system but can still be
planted along tree lanes or in the quarantine paddock or can be
planted as a crop, and is often grown for silage or hay. This is a
legume so can fix nitrogen and can have a high protein
content (18–22%), which makes a good plant to
balance maize feeding (which is low in protein),
but only if there is enough calcium present in the
soil. This plant has a deep tap root so makes
the plant drought tolerant.
It is recommended that lucerne is not grazed
if reasonable persistence is wanted. Best
production occurs when it is harvested by
machine for silage. Five to six harvests are
expected over the growing season with dry
matter yields of about 14t/ha if plenty of
potassium and phosphorus are available and
pH over 6.0. If grazing lucerne, allow 6 weeks
between grazings.
Growing lucerne successfully as a crop
depends upon a rapidly growing, dense stand.
Best production results in the North Island
appear to be highest when lucerne is planted
immediately after a crop rather than pasture.
Lucerne is susceptible to a wide variety of diseases and pests
especially when grown in poor soil conditions, but there are
many lucerne varieties with varying disease and pest resistance.
Consult with an agronomist who is familiar with the disease
and pest problems in your area so that you can select a variety
best suited to your area if you are considering growing a pure
crop.
An observation from a Marlborough farmer:
We find in our very dry summers, chicory and clovers
will shrivel away to nothing but lucerne will get its
chance in a pasture mix. We use lucerne (Wairua
lucerne) in all our pasture mixes and still have it
persisting in ten year old mixes. This is probably
because it gets a chance when everything else gives
up in the extreme summers. We believe this legume
is very underrated for our drought prone area. Watch
boron levels in lucerne.
When to sow? Lucerne can be sown in either autumn or spring:
in the warmer areas of NZ autumn establishment is preferred
and in the cooler areas, spring establishment is best.
Depth: No deeper than 25mm in sandy soils, and clay and ash
no deeper than 12mm.
Sowing rate: 15kg/ha and the seed must be inoculated with
a Rhizobium.
Strawberry clover (Trifolium fragiferum)
Grasslands Onward (Agricom NZ) is a clover (legume), which
can suffer poor fertility, wet roots (waterlogged soils) and
even saline conditions. It can also handle hard grazing. This
plant has low phyto–oestrogen levels, a small leaf size, is a
tetraploid and can spread by stolons and by re–seeding. This
plant is ideal for areas where white clover does not thrive due
to waterlogged or saline soils, low phosphate or a soil with a
wide pH range.
Sowing rate: 3 kg/ha.
Subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneum)
This is an annual which creeps along the ground, so is low
growing. Grows well in areas of poor soil fertility. It is a
vigourous re–seeder and survives dry summers and must be
allowed to re–seed to persist. Will reseed in good autumn
rains.
Some of these clovers can cause oestrogenic effects in heifers
(udder development).
Sow shallow.
Sowing rate: 1.5 – 2kg/ha.
Sulla
This is a short-lived perennial legume that provides forage
for livestock and can be used for erosion control and soil
fertilisation. It is a Mediterranean plant. The foliage contains
condensed tannins, which increase the efficiency with which
the grazing animal uses the forage protein. These tannins
can make up 4 to 8% of the dry matter of the plant and also
enables stock to reduce the effects of intestinal parasites. Sulla
produces non–bloating forage. The highest nutritional value
peaks before flowering and is similar to lucerne and red clover
at this time.
It may grow to 1.5m tall, has a deep branched root system.
Doesn’t grow well on sands and needs reasonably fertile a
soil like lucerne does. Will not tolerate temperatures below 4
degrees Celsius. Needs rainfall of 500 to 2000mm per year.
Sulla can be grown alone as hay, silage or forage crop; or it can
be sown with tall–growing grasses like Phalaris or prairie grass
Chapter 3 THE ENVIRONMENT
as a permanent pasture.
Sulla is a useful plant for stabilising soil on slips, gully banks
and roadsides. The large root system is left in the soil when the
plant dies and a thick mat of herbage on top of the soil provides
ideal conditions for the next generation of seeds to establish
and the nitrogen content left behind the Sulla plant grows the
next set of germinating seeds.
The stems of Sulla are totally unpalatable to stock and so
management for quality forage, silage or hay means that
yields are lower than if left to grow tall before harvesting.
Crops should be harvested before growth turns reproductive
(stemmy).
When to sow? Autumn or spring.
Sowing rate: for seed in the hull 10–20kg/ha; de–hulled seed
should be sown at 5–10kg/ha. These rates should be increased
if the seed is broadcast. Sulla will not grow unless the seed is
inoculated with a special Rhizobium strain.
Grazing management. This plant is best not grazed lower than
15cm from the ground otherwise re–growth will be reduced
and the plants may die. Grazing by cattle should be very light
to prevent excessive damage to the plant crowns.
Herbs
Chicory (Cichorium intybus)
This is a broad leafed, tap–rooted drought tolerant herb and the
most common herb recommended for organic and conventional
systems alike. This plant has a high nutritive value (high
metabolisable energy), highly digestible,
is high in minerals such as calcium,
sulphur, potassium, sodium, boron
and zinc, and gives high stock perfor-
mance and appears to be unpalatable
to rabbits and hares.
Chicory grows well in summer and on
dairy farms supplies a continuous summer
feed and due to the protein content will
maintain milk production and milk protein
content.
As a pure crop chicory can produce up to 18
tonnes of dry matter per hectare between early
spring and late autumn.
Puna and Chico are strains that have established quite well
in dairy pastures especially under organic and biodynamic
farming where herbicide spraying has ceased. Best suited
to free draining, highly fertile soils (not so good on clay soils
due to fungal diseases of the crown and tap–root). Chico
has been selected for improved winter activity and has upright
standing leaves.
Disadvantages. As chicory can grow rapidly stock can be
poisoned by nitrate/nitrite and there have been instances of
bloat. Milk taint is another potential problem and if grazing
pure crops then graze for only 2 hours after the morning milking
(only if the crop is safe from nitrate). Lambs are also prone to
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Organic Pastoral RESOURCE GUIDE
pulpy kidney.
Sowing rate As a minor species 0.5–2kg/ha in a grass/clover
mix in spring or if sown in autumn then use a 1–1.5kg/ha. Will
persist for 2 to 5 years.
For a chicory dominant pasture sow at 5–6kg/ha with a 4kg/ha
clover mix of a 50:50 mixture of large–leaved and medium
leaved white clover. Red clover could also be added at
4–5kg/ha or more for large–seeded tetraploid cultivars.
Ribwort plantain (Plantago lanceolata)
This is a deep rooted, drought tolerant, mineral rich plant suited
to rotational grazing, and an important element of organic
systems, believed to have vermifuge properties
and high nutritional value. There is rapid
establishment and good winter growth.
Strains available are Ceres Tonic and
Lancelot. Tonic is the preferred strain
for dairy pasture and Lancelot for
sheep pasture. Most herbicides
used on conventional farms
remove these plants and yet
they are so beneficial for stock.
They offer a wide range of minerals to
stock, notably iron, calcium, copper, zinc and
sodium. They are quite palatable for stock.
Sowing rate: 3–4kg/ha in a mixture with grasses,
legumes and other herbs.
Other plant species to consider
Reed grass (Phalaris arundinacea)
Commonly recommended as an autumn/winter growing species
it is dormant in summer but is drought tolerant. Depending
on the soil type it can spread though reseeding and rhizomes.
Check with your seed merchant re management of this species.
It can also be toxic, especially to sheep.
Pink Serradella
Grasslands Koha a deep rooted winter annual tolerant of acid
soils. A legume.
Yarrow (Achillea millefolium)
This perennial plant is rich in minerals and was
once sown as a pasture species because of its
ability to survive the summer dry and due to its
mineral content being higher than clover and
ryegrass. This plant does have a rhizome
system and if it dominates a pasture is difficult
to get rid of. Tolerates grazing.
Sheeps/salad burnett (Sanguisorba minor)
A fast establishing perennial for summer
feed. It withstands cold winters and
performs in dry, low fertility areas.
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Chapter 3 THE ENVIRONMENT
Seeds sourcing and Herbal ley mixtures
Website: http://www.specseed.co.nz
Taranaki Farmers, P O Box 544, New Plymouth
selection
Ph: 06 759 0971 Contributed by Beverley Trowbridge
(see Anderson, 2001, p 83) Email: newplymouth@taranakifarmers.co.nz
When planning pasture species mixtures it is useful to
As farmers’ change to biological farming it is possible consider what we are trying to achieve. On an organic
Wrightson Seeds Ltd.
that conventional seed sources may become a problem For a commercially available herbal ley mixture containing 17 farm we are trying to fairly closely mimic nature in
(apart from the fact that it is treated with chemicals). species of grasses, legumes and herbs suited to NZ providing a wide range of plant species for our live-
Farmers who have well balanced soils on biological conditions. stock to graze on, as there would be in a natural grassy
mineralisation programmes may find crop failures using P O Box 939, Christchurch. clearing. This is because we are aiming to provide our
the readily available hybrid seeds. Ph: 03 344 2843 stock with the whole range of minerals and other micro-
nutrients, as well as proteins, sugars and fibre, i.e. a
These hybrid seeds have been grown and performance selected Sources of herb seeds: complete healthy diet, from the plants that they graze,
on NPK soluble salt–type fertilisers. Ideally farmers would
Biodynamic Seed Bank without having to provide any supplementary feed. This
want to source seed that is open pollinated and from plants or Hohepa Homes, c/– Chris Hull, R D 2, Poraiti, Napier is the most cost–effective way to farm livestock, for milk
crops grown on similar biological fertilisation programmes to
production or live weight gains.
achieve maximum efficiency. Many farmers find that the older Herb Federation of New Zealand
varieties perform better in organic systems. Mrs Bunny Rathbone, 107 Glenelg St, Bradford, The goal is to be able to provide natural forage all the year
Dunedin. round, or for as much of the year as possible, to take into
(Have a seed bank for members – membership of a consideration climatic extremes and soil type. This will enable
local affiliated herb society accesses the seed bank.) optimal growth and production rates of our stock, without
Seed Sources Kings Herbs (NZ) Ltd.
causing stress or illness. You should strive to create a pasture
mix that will allow your stock to self–medicate. At the same
Agricom NZ Ltd, PO Box 539, Ashburton PO Box 283 Katikati 3063, Bay of Plenty time we want to build soil fertility.
Ph: 03 308 8772 Email: kings.seeds@xtra.co.nz
Here are some mixtures that could help you achieve your
Agriseeds Koanga Gardens goals:
2547 Old West Road, RD 1 Christchurch 8021 RD 2 Maungaturoto Northland
Freeph: 0800 352 6537 Phone: 09 431 2145 Fax: 09 431 2745
Email: mail@agriseeds.co.nz ; Website: www.koanga.org.nz
Website: www.agriseeds.co.nz In–conversion ley mixtures
Mt Tiger Gardens
Farmlands RD 1, Onerahi, Whangarei. The first consideration is to rebuild the humus in our soils
1010 Southampton St, Hastings Website: www.mounttiger.co.nz to supply carbon. The most important plant to get into your
Ph: 06 873 1090 Fax: 06 873 8190 pasture mix is white clover. This is the powerhouse plant for
Website: www.farmslands.co.nz Sources of additional information biologically–based pastures. Fortunately most conventionally
Crop and Food Research farmed pastures do have clover, often in conjunction with
Genetic Technologies Ltd. Private Bag 4704, Christchurch ryegrass, but usually not at a high enough density being
48 Entican Ave, Auckland 5 Ph: 03 325 6400 Fax: 03 325 2074
around 20% of the sward. To optimise productivity the white
Freeph: 0800 73 7333 Website: www.crop.cri.nz
clover content needs to be a minimum of 30% of the sward,
Mr J. McKenzie SFF Project aiming for up to 50%. Also you may like to consider using a mix
of different cultivars of clover, as different ones suit different
Belfield, R.D. Kurow Evaluating organic seed and organic seed production
soil conditions and types of grazing stock, also some are more
Phone: 03 436 0685 systems in NZ and informing growers of outcomes.
Contact person: persistent and disease resistant than others.
Pacific Seeds Colin Walker
The other important consideration is the main grass species
PO Box 8715 Homestead Gardens Trust, RD1,
Fax: 07 575 3056 that your sward is based upon. As discussed in the
Coromandel
individual plant section, ryegrasses have been bred
Email: sunlight@orcon.net.nz
Pioneer Seed, for use in modern, chemical farming systems and
P O Box 105 303, Auckland. they are designed to grow fast and aggressively and
Freeph: 0800 PIONEER Fax: 09 307 3300 therefore can shade out clover and limit its usefulness
in the pasture. There are several other types of grasses
Pyne Gould Guinness Ltd. like bromes, fescues, timothy and cocksfoot that are worth
P O Box 3100, Christchurch considering as the main grass species in your final mix, instead
Ph: 03 308 2181
of, or as well as, ryegrass.
Specialty Grains and Seeds If you have the luxury of being able to set aside some of your
11 Halkett Street, Riccarton, Christchurch pasture for a while to grow a fertility building ley which you
Freeph: 0800 727 8873 Freefax: 0800 365 6663 then plough in and re–seed with your final mix, it is well worth
Email: specseed@xtra.co.nz
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Organic Pastoral RESOURCE GUIDE
doing. In that case you might consider a mix like red and white
clovers with ryegrass. Another mix to consider if humus building
is your main issue would be red clover, perennial rye, cocksfoot
and chicory, as these are all deep–rooting species.
All–purpose herbal ley mix
If you are farming on land of good fertility which is not
drought–prone or seasonally waterlogged, then a good
general purpose herbal ley mix can be a mixture of perennial
ryegrass varieties suited to your soil type and situation, with a
range of white clover types plus other legumes like red clover
and greater birdsfoot trefoil, plantain (ribgrass) and perhaps
chicory, plus other grass species suited to the site like cocksfoot
on lighter land, or timothy on heavier land. This was the original
mixture called ‘Pochon’ developed by a Breton farmer (Andre
Pochon) for rotational grazing and forage production. It is espe-
cially suited for dairy farmers for use as high quality grazing or
silage production. It can be adapted for use on good quality
beef and sheep land by the use of some of the smaller–leaved
white clover types which are more persistent and tolerant of
closer grazing. Other herbs can be added to this basic mix but
they may not persist long in the vigourous sward. Persistent
perennial ‘weeds’ like dandelion and dock (sorrel) should not be
eliminated from these established swards as they are relished
by stock and contribute to stock health and nutrition – they are
herbs for free!
Drought–resistant, humus–
building ley mixture
Many farmers in New Zealand don’t have the luxury of farming
on such good soils, especially the sheep and beef farmers
amongst us, and we are often trying to do our best on more
marginal pastoral land. We need a mix of pasture species, which
can tolerate the very dry summer conditions and still provide
our stock with reasonable feed, as well as continue to build
up the humus in the soil so that it gradually becomes more
water retentive and fertility improves. The original ley mixture
designed to do this was developed over 100 years ago by
Robert Elliot, a Scot, and is known as the ‘Clifton Park’ mix,
after his estate. It has been used with great effect by organic
and conventional farmers alike ever since.
These leys are not based on ryegrasses but on a mix of other
grass species; cocksfoot, fescue and timothy in particular,
with white and red clovers and a mix of herbs including
plantain. Under dry conditions these pastures out–perform
ryegrass swards and produce high quality feed which can be
cut or grazed. Other grass species can be added to the mix
and Yorkshire fog is well worth considering, as well as other
legumes, which are tolerant of dry conditions like birdsfoot
trefoil.
120
Heavy land mixture
On cold, waterlogged, clay soils we need species which can
tolerate and thrive in these conditions and again ryegrasses do
not perform well here. Under these circumstances grasses like
fescues and timothy should be the grasses of choice as they
produce a highly palatable sward which is highly digestible
when grown in association with red and white clovers. Other
legumes and herbs tolerant of wet ground can also be added to
the mix. This sward should not be over–grazed, allowing plenty
of time for recovery between rotations, and it can be used for
good quality hay if cut before flowering.
Forage production
Many species of legumes and other herbs make excellent
forage, either in conjunction with grasses, or when grown alone
or in mixtures. Red clover is a particularly good choice for silage
production with high yields and feed quality, with up to 20%
crude protein, without the need for nitrogenous fertilisers. It is
highly palatable to stock and results in higher milk yields and
liveweight gains than ryegrass alone silage. When grown as a
forage crop it can be grown with Italian and hybrid ryegrasses,
providing them with all the nitrogen they need for maximum
production.
Vetches and other winter hardy legumes can also be used as
a companion crop in a mix with cereals like maize, sorghum or
oats to be cut for silage.
Other species to consider either alone or in mixtures include,
ribwort plantain, chicory, lucerne, sainfoin, phacelia and
comfrey.
Green manures
Green manuring is a technique which has gone out of vogue in
modern intensive farming, but is a technique for adding fertility
and drought resistance to the soil in between crops without the
need for fertilisers. It uses the dynamic interchange of nutrients
like nitrogen between the clover legumes and the grasses, the
‘fixers’ and the ‘lifters’, to increase and capture the nutrients,
which are then ploughed back into the soil for use by the next
crop, which may be a grass ley.
The advantage of green manure crops is that they maintain
soil cover during the winter or summer when the soil may be
prone to leaching or parching, and they build humus which is
often severely depleted after an arable crop has been grown.
Using this technique soil structure, fertility and water retention
are significantly improved after just two green manure crops
in your rotation. A variety of different pasture species can be
used depending on whether winter or summer sown, and your
soil type.
Other herbal plantings
These can be planted in areas where cows have selected access
to it. This enables the plant to continue to grow. If the animals
have free access to these herbs, they tend to graze it so much
that it refuses to grow.
A corner of your sacrifice paddock or in the hedgerows is a
good area to plant these. Put a fence between them and the
animal at a height that allows the animal to reach under and
nibble at it. Deep rooting plants are beneficial and will give the
plants all the nutrients needed to keep well.
The animals will eat them when they have a need, and they will
instinctively know this and what they need.
As well as these suggestions you can speed up the changes by
trying to oversow some species such as chicory and plantain
when conditions are good into existing pastures. Experiment to
see what suits your conditions and which doesn’t.
Some varieties are:
Chicory, red clover, plantain, yarrow, sheep’s burnet, trefoil,
fennel, timothy, borage, comfrey, cleavers, chickweed,
dock, shepherd’s purse, dandelion, chamomile, nastur-
tium, alfalfa, self–heal, melilot, sheep’s sorrel, sow thistle
(puha), and watercress.
There are lots more. Use a herb book to identify some you may
need to plant.
Techniques for sowing and
establishment of herbal leys
There are basically two techniques for establishing a herbal
ley, depending on what you want to achieve: either you have
to plough up and reseed your existing pasture, or you can
over–sow the seed mix into an already established pasture. If
there are essential elements of your existing pasture that you
want to keep and it is really only a matter of enhancing it by
adding species or boosting the clover content, then the latter is
the best option, but it needs careful management to get a good
result. It is best to use this technique on very open or damaged
pastures where there is plenty of space for new seedlings to
establish. It doesn’t work very well on dense swards unless the
sward is harrowed hard first, to expose the soil.
The best time to do over-sowing is when the ground is warm
and moist to give maximum chance for germination and growth
for the seedlings to get away and compete successfully with the
existing sward. This is usually late spring, but also autumn may
be more favourable in the north. The existing sward must be
closely cut or heavily grazed immediately prior to sowing, and
the seed mixture broadcast and lightly harrowed into the soil,
followed by rolling.
The seed can be surface drilled but only just below the surface
as most of the seeds are very small and do not germinate if
Chapter 3 THE ENVIRONMENT
planted too deep. The pasture should then be lightly grazed
until the new seedlings germinate, but then the stock removed
and left ungrazed for 3–4 weeks to allow the seedlings to
develop good strong root systems. However, the grass shouldn’t
be allowed to overtop the new seedlings, if there is a risk of this
a high cut or quick mob grazing may be required. The sward
should only be lightly grazed and not conserved for forage in
its first year, to allow the new plants to establish and catch up
to the already established plants.
Preparing and planting into a seedbed by ploughing and cultiva-
tion is the most certain way to get a good result, but obviously
cannot be done in every circumstance. The seedbed needs to be
very firm, the age old test being that a bicycle should be able
to be ridden across it prior to sowing! Again, a shallow surface
sowing method is required for the small seed, especially the
clover, and care needs to be taken during establishment of the
sward for best results.
Grazing should not be started until there is sufficient root
establishment to prevent the plants being pulled out by grazing
stock; a ‘tug–test’ will determine this. After the first grazing the
sward should be topped to control weed species before they
have a chance to set seed. This may need to be done more
than once in the first year of establishment. Ideally, the new ley
should be grazed lightly in autumn and the following spring,
and then shut up for conserved forage, to help the plants get
fully established. It can be beneficial the allow the sward to
set seed in its first year to boost plant density if most of the
plants you want have established and it’s not too weedy. Heavy
grazing in the first autumn will delay spring growth, but this
could be beneficial if the grass is getting away better than the
clovers, as it will allow the clovers to catch up. If planting in the
spring then the sward can be grazed and conserved for forage
in its first year.
If under-sowing pasture species into companion plantings like
cereals it is often best to plant the under-storey plants like the
legumes first in the spring and allow them to establish before
planting in the main crop, especially if growing a winter cereal.
Then the fertility–building mixture can be cut or grazed just prior
to planting the main crop. The timing of companion plantings
is crucial to get a good result and can vary widely depending
upon season, care being needed so that the under-storey plants
don’t end up swamping the over-storey. However, it can be a
cost–effective way of getting the herbal ley sward established
and ready to be grazed once the crop is harvested.
In highly fertile pastures where it is difficult to get the herb
species to persist in the sward due to competition by vigourous
grasses, then it may be appropriate to plant shelter belts of
mixed herb species, where the stock only have limited access
and where competition from grasses is reduced. Examples of
potentially suitable locations would be alongside/underneath a
hedge line or tree–line, or on erosion spots in your paddocks,
or on steeper slopes, beside dams or water courses, or in your
quarantine paddock, or orchard.
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Availability of Seed
There are few seed merchants in New Zealand who specialise
in seed mixes designed specifically for organic pastoral
farmers. At present there is only one commercially available
source of herbal ley mix in New Zealand. It was developed
by AgResearch Grasslands division for New Zealand condi-
tions and is available through Wrightson’s Seeds (at a cost
of $18.90/kg and a sowing rate of 20–30kg per hectare),
although supplies are usually limited and it is best to order
well in advance. It contains a mix of 17 grass, legume and herb
species including cocksfoot, timothy, italian and hybrid ryegrass,
browntop, tall fescue, brome and phalaris grasses; white clover,
red clover, birdsfoot trefoil, lucerne, subterranean clover, sulla
and pink serradella; as well as chicory and salad burnett. It is
a very generic mixture, being designed mainly for a medium
fertility, dry site, to provide summer feed with some cooler
winter growth species too. However, not all of the species will
establish or perform on every site where it is sown as some will
be lost if the site is too fertile, some if the site is too dry etc. It
is a difficult mix to establish into an already established sward
and so ploughing and reseeding would be the best option. Not
all of the species will persist over time.
Apart from this commercially available herbal ley mix it is a
matter of buying up the individual plant seeds and making
your own mixtures, adjusting the sowing rates according to
the percentage of each you want in the final sward. Your seed
merchants will help you with this and those who stock some
of the varieties and species mentioned here are included in the
Sources section.
Another technique for establishing an herbal ley is to use hay
cut from an already established pasture, especially one from an
organic farm. The hay would obviously need to be cut after the
main sward species have flowered and set seed. The method
to use then is to scatter the hay across your paddock, thinly
enough to allow germination of the seed. This can be a very
successful and cost effective technique and often the only way
to get the species you want. It has the added advantage of
providing extra humus to the soil at the same time.
A much more time consuming and labour intensive technique
is to collect your own seed from field margins and waste places
around your farm and the local neighbourhood, especially road
verges. This is only really a viable option if you are sowing small
areas of your farm like shelter belts and quarantine paddocks,
as the quantity of seed you need is quite daunting! It does
have the benefit, however, of giving you locally adapted species
and varieties which you know will flourish on your farm, and
for nothing (well, in cash anyway). Perhaps one to get the kids
onto?
Another source of seed is from organically grown plants for use
in small areas like orchard or quarantine paddock herbal leys,
and there a few places specialising in this. Some also specialise
in Heritage Seeds, that is older varieties of seed which are
long–established in New Zealand and are therefore adapted to
122
our conditions over a long period of time and are possibly more
suited to organic/biological systems. There is also a seed saving
bank and network freely available in New Zealand to preserve
these seeds. Ask one of the people named in Seed Sourcing.
Management of the
herbal ley pasture
To get optimum results, the basic grass/clover sward of an
organic farm does need a rather different management
approach to that of the mainly grass–based swards of conven-
tional farms. Currently, farmers rely heavily on the performance
of clovers for soil fertility, and so our management needs to
keep them in mind, over and above our grasses. The techniques
that we use to manage them are exactly the same as for
conventional pastures, although the timings may vary and we
may need to be more in tune with what is happening.
Our main management tool is obviously our grazing livestock,
and these act as our mobile mowers and fertilisers. Judicious
management of our grazing density, duration and rotation,
can limit the need for any other pasture intervention, but of
course our grazing is always a delicate balancing act and life
is far from perfect, so there is always some tweaking required
on our part. Rotational grazing is by far the most successful
grazing technique on organic pastures as it allows the clovers
the essential time they need to recover after defoliation, as well
as which it allows time for intestinal parasite eggs dropped in
dung to hatch and be exposed to the elements and die before
re–infestation. The optimum time between grazing should be
around 5 weeks for each of these processes, although this will
vary depending on the growing season. Clovers can recover
very quickly in spring and rotations sped up to keep on top of
the growth. Set–stocking will tend to favour the grasses over
the clover so that over time the proportion of clover and hence
fertility of the sward will decline, also causing a worm problem
in your young stock, especially lambs.
A crucial aspect of grazing management is sward height.
Over–grazing should be avoided and stock moved on before
the sward gets below about 3–5cm, as below this there is little
leaf area available for photosynthesis and so pasture recovery
is significantly delayed. Equally swards should not be allowed to
get too tall and rank as this will inhibit the activity of the clovers
and reduce productivity. Optimum sward heights vary between
6cm for sheep up to about 10cm for dairy cattle, the aim
being to keep the grazing period as short as possible, moving
the stock on at the optimum stubble height for rapid sward
regrowth. If under-grazing or above average growth occurs
the sward can be topped, if conditions allow, maintaining the
optimum sward height. If the pasture becomes over-grazed, try
to give it a longer recovery time before the next grazing. Wait
until the favoured plants have recovered, or allow these plants
to reseed next year if it knocked too hard.
In biological systems spring growth may be delayed over that
achieved by using artificial nitrogenous fertilisers as the soil
needs to warm up sufficiently for biological activity to kick in.
This is not such an issue in the north but in the south after a
colder winter some allowance may need to be made for this in
terms of amounts of conserved forage or fodder crops put aside
for this time, and equally the same in the autumn. However,
the benefit of biological farming will become apparent during
the summer dry period when organic pastures will continue to
perform long after conventional pastures have slowed down
and dried up. This is due to clover being very active during the
summer when grasses are often setting seed and resting, as
well as the greater humus content of organic pastures giving
them higher water retentive ability. Under New Zealand’s
strongly bimodal seasonal pasture growth curve, this will make
a significant difference to overall productivity.
Additional management techniques to get the most from
your herbal ley pastures will be the usual chain harrowing,
in spring–time especially, to break up matted vegetation and
aerate the soil, and spread any dung pats lying around after the
winter. However, chain harrowing through the season is likely to
be needed much less than on conventional pasture as there is a
much quicker turnover and incorporation of dung back into the
soil, and likewise dead vegetation decays and disappears very
rapidly and does not tend to build up and cause problems like
facial eczema. A mid–season topping of the pasture can some-
times be beneficial, though especially if grass growth is getting
away and setting seed, or there are a lot of weeds which could
usefully be de–headed before seeding. This type of manage-
ment can be especially useful if there are perennial weed
problems like creeping thistle, as they cannot tolerate frequent
cutting. For weed control it is useful to rotate your pastures
between ones which are grazed only and ones which are cut
for winter forage. For pastures to be shut up for hay or silage an
early rolling is beneficial while the ground is still moist but not
wet, as this levels the soil surface after any winter pugging and
encourages tillering of the grasses for a thicker sward.
Biologically–managed pastures need plenty of aeration of the
soil to maximize biological activity and so occasional subsoil
conditioning like mole ploughing can significantly increase their
performance, especially if they have been heavily pugged or
damaged by heavy machinery. Some farmers swear by various
‘spiking’ techniques, like those used to condition lawns, sports
fields and golf courses. The best time for these treatments is
early in the season while the soil is still moist, but only once
it is dry enough not to cause further damage to the soil struc-
ture. Equally, it is important that activities like fertilising/slurry
spreading are only carried out when the ground is firm enough
not to be damaged by the machinery, and so storage arrange-
ments need to be adequate to tide over wet times. Pugging and
damage to the sward and soil structure also need to be taken
into account when considering strip grazing to ration forage or
ensure an even graze.
Best utilisation of the pasture can be achieved by adopting
leader–follower grazing patterns, where stock that require the
most nutrition are given access to the new–growth in advance
of other stock. For example, high yielding dairy cows might be
Chapter 3 THE ENVIRONMENT
grazed ahead of dairy heifers or beef followers, or weaned
lambs ahead of ewes. The sheep and beef organic system takes
advantage of this technique as part of pasture optimisation
and parasite control, allowing beef cattle onto the pastures
first to graze the longer sward, followed immediately by sheep
and then rested. In this system parasite control is achieved by
each mopping up of the worm eggs and larvae of the preceding
stock type, so cross–contamination does not occur. This can be
an important part of livestock health control for a successful
organic sheep operation, especially if there are not enough
paddocks where weaned lambs can be given ‘clean’ pasture,
that is pasture that has not been grazed by sheep for suffi-
cient duration for risk of contamination to be minimal (usually
considered to be about a year), or land that has been cut for hay
or forage, or land reseeded after a crop rotation.
By adopting a biological approach to the management of your
pastures, it won’t be long before you notice that those bare
patches between the plants, that are such a common feature
of conventionally managed pasture in New Zealand, start to
close up, and the sward becomes denser and thicker at the base
with increased biological activity in the soil. As well as being a
healthier and more productive and more nutritious pasture, this
closing of the soil canopy will protect that essential soil life as
well as holding more nutrients in the sward to prevent leaching
and loss to water courses or to the air. Also the soil will start
to grow in depth and its structure will improve. Thus, there are
positive feedback loops, which mean that the pastures become
even more productive, which is why after the first few years
of converting from conventional chemically farmed pasture,
organic farmers find that their pastures regain productivity.
Kikuyu information
Kikuyu pastures, which are such a feature of livestock farms in
the north, have particular management needs to enable them to
be used to best advantage, many of which differ from the general
pasture management described previously. Biological management
is in fact a much more suitable way to optimise the feed value of
this grass, since under chemical management it becomes long and
rank very quickly, shading out other desirable pasture species like
clover, and it also becomes particularly deficient in vital minerals,
causing problems like staggers in stock grazed on kikuyu dominant
pastures. Under a biological system kikuyu can be managed as a
balanced and beneficial constituent of your pasture, providing nutri-
tious grazing even during the driest summers when other pasture
species have shrivelled up.
Kikuyu is a subtropical grass, originating from South Africa. It was
introduced to New Zealand in the 1920s for erosion control. It is
still available for sale but is now quite expensive. It is dominant
in 40% of Northland farms, and has also spread down the coast
as far south as the Bay of Plenty and Taranaki. Due to our climate
changes it is creeping into other areas. It is considered by many to
be an undesirable pasture constituent due to its ability to thrive and
smother out other pasture species.
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Features:
• It has roots that spread from stolon growth, both over and
Kikuyu management Cropping Crops currently being grown
organically throughout NZ
The fertility and biological activity of the soil should be (This list is not complete and there is further information. We recommend
underground. It can send new roots down from the nodes on Because organic farmers cannot use chemical sprays to you contact your seed supplier or do some research.)
its overground stolons eliminate kikuyu, it is best to make the best of its usefulness maintained or increased where appropriate by cultivation
by managing it. of legumes and deep rooting plants and incorporation of Sorghum A native grass of the tropics, can be green fed
• Grows best when ground temperatures are above 15 degrees. soil organic material. (AgriQuality Organic Standard (2002) 4.2.1.) or made into silage. Plant when ground temperatures are 18
The warmer and more humid, the more prolific the growth. It This is done by:
• Crops are viable on organic farms degrees and rising. Seeds are imported and therefore coated
will also grow in lower temperatures • Keeping it in a growing and leafy state. This also increases and will need washing. Enquire about volumes needed for
its food value • Because organic farmers cannot spray out, the aim is to
• There is little or no growth in winter and spring. – you also need importing uncoated seed. Needs supplemental fertiliser (liquid
keep the soil structure as intact as possible while using
other grasses • Control through topping or mulching to get rid of the and solid) for best yields.
sustainable methods to work the soil.
• Frosts do not kill the roots of the plant but do put it into in a matted kikuyu. Usually this is done in autumn. This also
• Plan your strategy for cropping. Look at what you need,
Maize Silage You will need a certificate indicating GM
dormant mode. The green growth deteriorates in quality and allows the other grasses to come though for adequate feed and coating status. It is part of some organic farms, annual
why you are cropping, and the benefits as well as the
burns off. It then has very low feed value. It is important to have in winter and spring management plan. Needs nitrogen.
disadvantages
other grass species underneath the plant • Graze your non–productive older animals (dry cows) on Sunflower Provides energy and protein, tolerant to lower
• Research how you are going to prepare your land, what
• The army caterpillar prefers kikuyu and will eat it in autumn. it hard. You may need a lick as a mineral supplement. temperatures, can be greenfed, makes silage, can be grown and
crop you are going to use, how you are going to maintain
There is a toxin that can affect the kikuyu at the same time. Molasses sprayed on makes it more palatable and adds harvested with maize or sorghum. Use a corn planter or preci-
fertility for the crop and the paddock, and how you are
Web worm will also eat it energy through the molasses sion drill at ground temperatures of 10 degrees and rising.
going to return it back to pasture
• Shades out other species • Keep your stocking rates high and paddock sizes appro- • One example is to shallow cut no greater than 2cm to Millet Can be grown if ground temperatures are too low
priate to ensure the kikuyu is eaten out properly on each break up the top sward if it is too thick, then use disks, for maize or sorghum. Grows on less fertile soil. Can be green
• Forms a dry fibrous mat as it gets older
rotation power harrows, spring tine cultivators to work the soil fed or made into silage.
• Good fibre source but very low in energy and carbohydrates
when fibrous
• The maximum grazing rotation should be 4 weeks. During • Using the Biodynamic Farming and Gardening Calendar, Oats Good winter/spring feed. Can be greenfed or made
growth spurts of kikuyu it should be reduced to 2–3 weeks work the soil on fire/seed days during a descending phase into silage.
• Only needs a sprinkle of rain to grow and then topped to 2.5cm to allow regrowth over a period of time to reduce your weeds. Plant your seed Lucerne A three year crop. More sensitive to molybdenum
• Is very efficient at taking up nitrogen when in a growing state. • Old fibrous kikuyu can take 3 weeks to digest. For on the appropriate day (e.g. root crops on a root day, leaf deficiencies than clovers. See Pasture section.
maximum production, feed your springers young leafy on a water/leaf day)
• The plant is a natrophobe, which means it has low sodium Turnips Greenfeed crop. Needs good cobalt levels. Sensitive
levels. Sodium containing fertilisers will not increase the sodium kikuyu in the 3 weeks prior to calving • Ploughing, in the absence of spraying, is a good way to
to molybdenum deficiencies. Plan a crop rotation with turnips
content of natrophobic plants. • In summer/autumn be mindful of the risk of facial eczema remove cover and control weed numbers while the crop
and be very careful about adding molybdenum as an excess
by not allowing a litter mass to accumulate is establishing. The key is the depth of any ploughing or
can induce a copper deficiency. Also some RPRs have significant
Plant species according to their sodium content; working up of the soil
amounts of molybdenum – it always pays to check with the
• Ensure there is minimum mat left before any chance of
• Some farmers start cultivating 2 to 3 weeks earlier than fertiliser company, especially if you are in a marginal copper
frosts – you can be left with no grass
Sodium Accumulation in with using sprays, where possible, to allow grasses time area.
• Broadcast or over–sowing before mulching in Autumn is to die off and weeds a chance to germinate before getting
Leaf Stubble Others Brassicas, red clover, chicory
recommended to improve sward diversity disturbed again at planting time
Sodium rich plants – natrophiles
• Free–range pigs can help control kikuyu by rooting up and • Cultivating at night will result in less weeds germinating,
Ryegrass White clover Sub clover eating the juicy stolons, creating bare patches which allow because some seeds are germinated by the spark of light
Cocksfoot Chou moellier/Kale Barley
the germination and spread of the other pasture species. • A good density of crop will reduce your weeds Sources of information
There is a new organically certified weed killer available called • Use liquid fertilisers and effluent, at appropriate times, to
Lotus Yorkshire fog Oats
Interceptor, which is made from pine tree needles, that will Most seed firms have information on different crops or can
strengthen your plants and the soil
Phalaris knock back kikuyu, but permission must be sought for its use access the information needed. The following, among others,
• Biodynamic preparation 500 helps the soil and preparation. have specialists for crops and research data at their fingertips.
Sodium poor plants – natrophobes which must be around areas that cannot be grazed, depending
501 will strengthen the plants
on the certifying agency. Pacific Seeds, Fax: 07 575 3056
Browntop Alsike clover Kikuyu Lucerne • Choose crops that do well on low inputs rather than new Pioneer Seed, Ph: 07 839 6626
There has been recent research done on trial farms in cultivars that are dependent on high NPK and inputs Crop and Food Research, Private Bag 4704, Christchurch
Poa trivialis Millet Paspalum Maize Ph: 03 325 6400 Fax: 03 325 2074
Northland by the Kikuyu Action Group. • Plough or hoe in the stubble and remains of the crop for
Tall Fescue Rape Desmodium Sudax Website: www.crop.cri.nz
An article on kikuyu was written in Dexcel Link – Winter mulch
Timothy Soya bean Lupin There is much research and literature on organic cropping in
2002, pp 13. www.dexcel.co.nz • Watch your crop rotations. Plan what you are going to New Zealand, and trials are currently underway.
Red Clover grow in succession to avoid depletion of minerals and the
The group have gathered a lot of valuable information.
Contact:
health of the soil Websites:
Table sourced from ‘Fertiliser Recommendations for Pastures and Crops in NZ’ MAF 1982
Helen Moodie • Allow fallow periods when cropping an area intensively www.guidetoorganics.com This website is being developed by
NZ LANDCARE TRUST Crop and Food Research to provide information on pest, disease and weed
Waikaraka, R D 4, Whangarei
• Any crop can be grown, however they may need different management for ‘organic’ arable and vegetable crops in New Zealand.
Ph: 09 436 3170 • Email: helen@landcare.org.nz
management to conventional crops, with an emphasis on
www.crop.cri.nz Use the search engine at this site to find relevant
maintaining fertility. information on organic cropping

124 125
Organic Pastoral RESOURCE GUIDE
www.organicsnewzealand.org.nz This website contains a
free library and directory where you can access information on
organics
www.organicpathways.co.nz
www.soil–health.org.nz/organicnz/proceedings
www.ecan.govt.nz
www.organics.org.nz
www.biodynamic.org.nz there is a research report on
cropping with possible websites and papers.
www.landcareresearch.co.nz
www.ruralni.govt.uk/bussys/organic/organic_cropping
www.attra.ncat.org has a 75 page document on cropping.
www.bhu.co.nz a SFF project evaluating organic technolo-
gies and disseminating protocols to growers. Co–ordinator Tim
Jenkins.
Weeds and their
Management
Weeds! The word instantly conjures up an enemy to be
conquered.
Weeds, along with animal health issues, are the most
often given reason by farmers for why they believe they
can’t go organic. They believe they will be swamped by
the enemy.
But let’s consider for a second exactly what a weed is, as
the problem may be more in our heads than real.
A weed only exists in relation to human activities. It is our term
for a plant growing where we don’t want it, and where we
believe it is interfering with what we do want there. So the
whole perception we have is of lack of value to us.
In nature there is no such thing as a weed. All plants have a
function in the communities of which they are a part. Many of
the plants which we call weeds are nature’s colonisers. They are
adapted to taking advantage of bare ground and germinating,
getting established and setting seed quickly so that they are
ready with dispersed seed for the next
patch of bare ground to move into. So
they are highly mobile, but they do not
persist for long as they quickly make
conditions unsuitable for themselves
by providing ground cover where other
more persistent species like grasses
establish. This is the process of succes-
sion that we talked about earlier in the
introduction to this chapter. It is only if
we continue to provide suitable condi-
tions for them by pushing the succession
stage back to bare ground, that they can
persist.
126
The important point here is that we are the agents of change on
the farm, and it is our management practices which, to a great
extent, determine what conditions are available and suitable for
what plants. So–called weed species are often providing us with
an indicator of something that we are doing wrong, or could
do differently, to make conditions less suitable for the undesired
plants. Just blasting them with herbicides is not actually going
to solve the problem, and as we haven’t changed the conditions
they are still tipped in favour of the ‘weeds’. A good example
of this is a high incidence of dock around gateways and water
troughs, and other areas of high traffic. This is where the ground
is highly compacted and drainage impeded, and dock is one of
the few plants able to tolerate these conditions, and it does
so by means of a very deep and vigourous taproot, which
penetrates the soil increasing aeration and pulling up nutrients
from the subsoil. So the plant is actually working in your favour,
improving the soil. Large areas of dock infestation through your
paddocks are likely to be an indication of a wider compaction
problem and the solution may be to do some sub–soil aeration,
not shoot the messenger.
On the biological farm it pays to get to know and understand
your weeds, and to learn to live with them in an attitude of
mutual respect and tolerance. Many of them are our friends,
and the others can usually be managed at tolerable levels by
understanding the problem that they are indicating and dealing
with that. As we have already discussed above, many of them
like plantain, dandelion, chickweed, and a whole host of other
herbs are relished by the stock, and are important elements in
the pasture for providing the minerals they need for full health.
So it pays to think of them as natural substitutes for vet bills,
then their financial contribution is valued and they are not seen
as just taking up valuable space for other plants like grasses.
In our crops or on areas of bare ground weeds are acting as a
green manure, protecting the soil from erosion or leaching, and
contributing to soil fertility in areas where other plants cannot
grow. Weeds also act as refuges for beneficial predator species
of insects and other wildlife that keep a natural balance and
protect us against pests and diseases in our target crops and
pastures. So weeds do make a very important financial contribu-
tion to the successful functioning of our farms.
Many persistent plants which are taking up too much space and
adversely affecting our target crop or pasture can be managed
by topping at the appropriate time before they set seed. This
is particularly relevant in newly sown pasture leys or crops, or
for persistent pasture species like creeping thistle. Most cannot
tolerate cutting and will not persist, especially if cut more than
once. The other main method of control is rotations of crop and
pasture, and rotations between different crop types, so that
weed species do not get a hold and become dominant.
For pastures where mechanical cutting cultivation techniques
are not practicable, which would be the case for many sheep
and beef farmers in New Zealand, the presence of dominant
and persistent weeds may be telling us something important
about our grazing management which could be changed. Set
stocking for example often leads to widespread problems of
over–grazing, compaction and selective grazing, which favours
certain weed species. Changing to a rotational grazing system
and by rotational cross–grazing between different stocktypes
can significantly improve the quality and vigour of the pasture,
and get a more balanced sward, eventually eliminating some of
the weed species altogether.
There are many books, which look at weeds and their ecological
niches, which are well worth reading to get to know your allies
and enemies, and to help you develop more long–term, lateral
strategies in your farm management to make use of what they
are telling you. Below are just some examples.
Tips for dealing with weeds
Weed control can be the greatest stumbling block to
changing to organics.
An excellent document on a website is:
www.organicsnewzealand.org.nz – publications: Organic
Management of Weeds
• One option is to deal with any major weed problems you
may have before converting to organics.
• Another is to go for partial certification and continue to
deal with it
• Another is to look at the land use for that area and change
your farming practices on it (e.g. retire to trees, develop a
wetland).
Be observant:
Look at it and ask yourself questions:
• Where is the weed growing?
• What are the conditions? The soil condition?
• Why is it growing there?
• Is it a problem?
• What elements is that weed bringing to the soil? What
is its purpose?
Chapter 3 THE ENVIRONMENT
• How long will the seed stay viable in the soil? If so,
should the plants be destroyed at pre–flowering?
• What can I do about it?
Some plants and their properties and indications of
soil deficiencies:
Dock – trying to open up soil with deep tap root, poorly
drained soil, lime indicator.
Plantain, Hawke’s beard – phosphorous (plantain is now
regarded as a beneficial pasture plant)
Chamomile, willow weed, willow, speedwell, chamomile
– lime, calcium
Sorrel – calcium, phosphorous
Buttercup – cobalt, low pH, poor drainage
Nettle – iron and shallow pan (has 27 other minerals as
well)
All thistles – nitrogen, copper, silica
Ragwort – copper
Couch, dandelion – silica
Chickweed, cleaver, fumitory – copper, boron, zinc, phos-
phorous, iron
Bracken Fern and Inkweed – potassium
Blackberry – iron
Fennel – copper, potassium, sulphur
Gorse – nitrogen
Willow weed – poor drainage
There are many more.
The formation of and degree of colour the plants have can also
give you an indication of missing key elements. For example
plants lying flat instead of reaching indicates a lack of silica. This
is done through skilful observations. A good soil science book
would also give you information you need.
Ways of reducing/eliminating weeds
After assessing why the weed is growing there, choose the
appropriate way or ways of dealing with it. It may need a two
or three–pronged approach.
Keep a good thick sward of grass at all times to prevent weed
seeds from germinating
Through fertilisers
Through identifying your weeds and their indications, getting
a soil and herbage test done, you will know what element is
needed to be addressed. Address your fertiliser applications
appropriately. Also continue to apply your liquid fertilisers
regularly to encourage a balance in the soil. If it is an issue (e.g.
boron) talk with your certifying agency rather than do nothing
about it.
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Biological control
Specific weed problems Plants that can be grown in hedgerows/herbal leys and their properties
The list of available products is constantly growing. Contact
your local regional council.
Gorse Common name Botanical name Uses Mineral sources
NZ Landcare Trust has a range of free fact sheets on the As mentioned before, gorse will grow where fertility is low and
biological control of weeds such as alligator weed, broom, there is a shortage of nitrogen. It establishes well on disturbed Acmena Pigeon food
Californian thistle, gorse, hawkweeds, mist flower, nodding areas. It hinders stock grazing, competes with trees seedlings
thistle, old man’s beard, blackberry, scotch thistle and ragwort. Anise Digestion and colic Phosphorus
and is a fire hazard. It fixes nitrogen through rhizobium and is
For more information, contact info@landcare.org.nz a nurse species for regenerating native trees.
Asparagus Kidney, bladder problems Iodine, Iron, Phosphorous, Silicon
Cultivation The seed spreads up to 6 metres when it explodes from its pod
on a hot day and stays viable for over thirty years. Increases milk supply,
Opening up ground can help poorly drained, pugged soils.
Borage Borago officinalis good for respiratory Potassium
It can also eliminate bad weeds in a paddock that has been
Control methods system
cropped. You will need to cultivate more than once for this,
however. These types of areas will need nurturing and liming. • Control can be considered for eradication, temporary Caraway Carum carvi Increases milk supply
It will take time. Biodynamic methods and liquid fertilisers will suppression, or control on property boundaries. There
should also be a long term plan for management. Chickweed Stellaria medic Good for stomach Copper, Phosphorous
also help this.
• Prevention is best, ensuring a thick sward of grass to not Chicory Cichorium intybus Calcium, Copper, Iron
Slashing allow the seed to germinate.
Slashing and topping at the appropriate time can stop weeds Cleavers Galium aparine Rich in minerals Calcium, Copper, Iodine, Silicon, Sodium
• Digging out isolated plants will also help reduce the area
from germinating, usually pre flowering. Be aware that it can
affected. Clover Sodium
turn certain plants into perennial from annuals (e.g. ragwort).
Grubbing and pulling plants out is another alternative. • Many insects are controlling gorse biologically, and your
Plant Pest Officer at the regional council can help with Comfrey Symphytum officinale Fodder, good for bones Chlorine, Iron, Potassium, Sodium
Teas this.
Calcium, Copper, Iron, Magnesium, Silicon,
Because these plants are high in particular minerals that are • Rotary Slasher (with chains possibly), mulcher, bulldozer Dandelion Taraxacum officinale Especially for goats
Potassium
missing from the soil, it is prudent to return it to the land and blade or rake, or roller crusher are some mechanical
through spraying teas. ways to reduce the gorse. This needs to be followed with
Dill Increases milk Phosphorous, Sodium
Method: regrassing and fertilising.
Dock Rumex sp. Calcium, Magnesium
Gather the whole plant and put it in a drum. Top it up with Ragwort
water and allow it to steep. Biodynamic compost preparations Increases milk supply,
Ragwort is a problem for cattle, but can be managed with
(2 sets per 200 litres) added will be beneficial. Let the plants Fennel Foeniculum vulgare Good for worms, colic. Copper, Potassium, Sodium, Sulphur
sheep. It is toxic to cattle.
steep for at least six weeks. Spray on to the affected area. (don’t let cattle gorge)
Ragwort can be biennial or perennial. It produces plants from
Flax Phormium tenax Shelter, worms
Potentisation the roots, seeds and the crown. It can multiply rapidly. It grows
Potentisation is a process where a small piece of every stage to 60 cm in height and produces yellow clusters of flowers. Honeysuckle Goat tonic, wormer Potassium
of the plant growth is taken – root, new growth, old growth, One plant can produce up to 250,000 seeds that are easily
Increases milk supply,
flower, berry. It is then potentised (usually 6x) and sprayed on to transported by wind, water, vehicles and animals. A single root Lemon Balm Melissa officinalis
calming effect
the area once a month. It is said it stops any further spreading can also produce a new plant. Interference by humans through
of the weed and suppresses growth. cutting, digging and grazing seems to encourage it to grow Rich in nitrates and
from what roots are left in the ground. Lucerne
vitamins, cleanses kidneys
Peppering Marigold Tagetes sp. Good for the heart Phosphorus, sulphur
Control methods
This is used to eliminate the weed completely.
• Grazing to ensure a vigourous, dense pasture. Nasturtium Tropaeolum majus Worms
Collect ripe seed off your own property. Dry, then burn on as hot
a fire as possible – there is some debate as to whether to burn • Grazing 3 stock units of sheep per hectare can control Plantain Plantago sp. Calcium, potassium, sulphur
on the full moon or the new moon. This then becomes ash. This ragwort. Mob stock (stock pasture with a whole mob of
sheep) 4 times between spring and autumn for maximum Sorrel Rumex acetosella Calcium, phosphorus, copper
ash is then sprinkled over the weed infestation area.
control. Sow thistle Sonchus arvensis Calcium
It can be bulked out with lime or rock dust,or sand, and then
spread. • Grubbing. Best done at the full to late flowering stage. Be Wormwood Artemisia absinthum Worms Iron, potassium
aware root fragments left in the soil will regrow. Burn any
If there are insufficient seeds, they can be bulked out with roots Yarrow Achilea millefolium Copper
flower heads.
and whole plants.
• Mowing is not a good option – it produces multi-crowned Contributed by Ian Buckingham from various sources
The key, however is the seed or the ripe reproductive organ.
plants which are harder to get rid of.
The ash can also be potentised to 6c by a homoeopath.
• Biological control. There is the ragwort flea.

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Pest control
Pest control is a major problem in New Zealand – confirmed
by the attention placed on biosecurity by regional councils and
MAF. Pests are generally indicators of an imbalance in the
environment, and they are there to try and balance it up. The
difficulty in New Zealand is that many of our major pests were
introduced and do not have natural enemies to control them.
The challenge for the organic farmer is to seek as much balance
as possible in the farm environment, as well as using appro-
priate control measures. If you consider the possible effects of
climate change, covered briefly at the beginning of this chapter,
this challenge is likely to increase as time goes by.
Try:
• Observing and assessing the situation
• Introducing predators – contact an expert/your regional
council is a good start.
• Create a diverse environment to encourage the predators:
lots of bird life, beneficial plants and insects
• Potentise the problem and spray back (a homoeopathic
technique, ask others if you’re not sure about how to go
about this). This is a long term strategy, and you may not
see instant results
• Use natural insecticides
• Use animal hooves to crush ground born pests
• Peppering can also be used. This a method used in biody-
namics, but often only as a last resort. It is recommended
that you contact the Bio Dynamic Association if you are
interested to know more about this technique
A useful website for information on organic pest management
is www.organicsnewzealand.org.nz – look in their publications
directory for: Organic Pest and Disease Management
You will need to contact your regional council if you do not
want to be part of any poisoning programme, and they will tell
you what your obligations are.
Trees
Control methods for organic farmers are: Our forests also have role to play in building and conserving our
soils, in retaining minerals and other nutrients in the soil, as well
• Night shooting
as in storing them in their own tissues. Trees are major carbon
• Trapping
Before humans arrived on Aoteoroa most of the land stores, which is a vital function with current concern about
• Fumigation (check this with your certifying agency)
was cloaked in forest, although large areas in the dry global warming (see the earlier section on Climate Change).
• Repellents on trees
east were regularly burned by natural fire (Grant, 1996). In Another vital function of forests is to provide homes and food
• Egg based the south, the forests were mainly dominated by species
for a myriad of other forms of life, and thus they contribute
• Mutton fat and kerosene of southern beech (Nothofagus sp.) which are adapted significantly to biodiversity. Trees are structurally very diverse,
• Fish fertiliser to high rainfall and low temperature conditions. In the and so provide lots of nooks and crannies, and feeding opportu-
The recipes for these are available through your local regional north there was a predominance of podocarp (totara, nities for other creatures and plants to take advantage of. Thus
council or the Northland regional council brochure no 6 Animal
Pests. rimu, matai, miro, and kahikatea) and broadleaf species, we find that each individual tree in a forest tends to be a little
and further north, on the poorer soils of higher rainfall mini–ecosystem all of its own, rather like a high–rise building in
• Fencing
areas, the kauri was king. a city. Thus when trees are present we also tend to get beneficial
Should be 1m high and netting no more than 4–5cm mesh. insects and birds, which help maintain a balance by providing
Peg it or stretch it tightly to the ground. Do not allow gaps
at gateways.
• Electric fences 8–10 cm above the ground and 8–10 cm
apart.
• Protective devices around trees and seedlings.
• Long wet and green grass, will increase the mortality rate
of the rabbits.
Possums
Possums are a problem where there are trees. They feed at night
and sleep during the day. They find dark, dry, sheltered places
to sleep. They feed on new growth and can do a lot of damage.
Possums, being creatures of habit, follow the same path each
night. It can be seen as a narrow path.
Control methods
• Trapping using the Timms Trap, live trap
• Shooting
• Repellents (as for rabbits)
• Some sprays are available from Bettacrop/Earthwise Box
9128 Hamilton Web: home.xtra.co.nz/hosts/earthwise
Tel: (07) 824 4881

Specific pest problems

Two common animal pests in New Zealand are rabbits and
possum. Some brief information on these is given below. Of
course there are many pests throughout New Zealand. Your
regional council is a good source of information on those that
are most relevant to you.
Rabbits
Rabbits can eat a lot of the best grass available. They dig holes
which expose the soil and cause erosion. They also damage
your seedling trees and herbal leys. They live in colonies known
as warrens in areas where the countryside is open, and gener-
ally are more of a problem in areas with lighter soils and a
rainfall of 1000mm or less. They are nocturnal. Rabbits are
territorial. Their territories are defined by their faeces heaps and
scratching of the dirt.
Fallowing
Fallowing is a term used to describe the process of
leaving land untilled or unsowed after ploughing; usually
for a season, a year or more. A summer fallow was a
method used to destroy weeds.
It was not uncommon to leave one seventh of a farm in a fallow
state but is seldom done now.
Farmers of today are experimenting with leaving paddocks or
certain areas of the farm to self seed. (This may end up being
a method of attempting to keep a farm free of GM content
though will probably not be entirely successful). They are not
tilling the land, just leaving it ungrazed, letting it seed, letting
it lie down and then waiting for it to grow again. This is not
fallowing in the true definition but is a method that is being
trialled by organic farmers.
Our forests, like forests all over the world had, and still have,
vital ecosystem functions to perform. Two very important
functions of relevance to the farmer are the regulation of air
and water flows. When you walk into a forested environment
from exposed farmland one of the first things that you notice
is shelter from wind. An important influence of forests is the
moderation of wind speed within the forest canopy and on the
lee side of the forest. Forests also moderate the amount of
water reaching the ground from rain, dissipating its force, and
by water uptake hold much of it in their trunks, branches and
leaves as well as in the soil around their roots, which is why
water run–off from forests is far less than from land cleared
of trees. This water is released slowly, and the shade from the
branches keeps the air under the canopy cool, reducing evapo-
ration, and so more water is retained in the soil around trees
during dry periods.
the predators for potential pest species. On the negative side,
in New Zealand, trees also provide a home for major pests such
as possums, which have to be constantly managed.
Trees on farms
On the farm you’ll be looking at the multiple benefits that trees
provide as part of your whole farm environment picture. Here
are some things to consider when looking at planting trees
(use this as a starting point to make your own list of the pros
and cons of where you might want to plant trees and for what
purpose):
1. Look at your farm landscape to identify areas suitable for
trees:

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• Erosion prone areas
• Bush remnants
• Areas where scrub persists (e.g. gorse, manuka)
• Exposed sites where shelter and shade would be
beneficial
• Areas of low productivity
2. Think about what you can afford:
• How much land are you willing to convert to trees
(some NZ farm foresters have up to 20% of their
farms in trees with no loss in production and the
added benefit of potential income from harvestable
trees)
• Consider the costs involved, which include fencing
costs, cost of trees, the cost of your time to plant and
manage the trees
• What are the likely returns on your investment? To
identify the likely returns you need to consider the
tree species you intend planting and the benefits they
will provide. Note: Many of the benefits of trees may
not be immediately apparent. The best thing to do
is to spend some time talking with experienced farm
foresters, and visiting their farms.
Use the information from your checklist to make up a long–term
programme. Here are some things to think about in setting
your goals and developing a long–term programme:
• Maintaining your existing bush and planting trees
are important considerations when thinking about
sustainability and organics.
• Identify what you want to plant trees for (see
the checklist below) – keep in mind that trees
can support all parts of your farming system (e.g.
fodder, compost, firewood) they stop erosion
and pollution, provide shelter and shade, and
biodiversity
• Plan your tree cover for maximum animal and
human comfort.
• One of your considerations should be for
protection from spray drift if spray drift is a
problem.
• Protect your trees as they are growing. They are
expensive, and will become a valuable asset long–
term.
Keep things simple to start with so that you get a good
sense of what you can cope with. Begin planting and
persist with your goals. Once you starting seeing the
trees grow and the benefits they provide your enthu-
siasm is likely to grow. You will find that tree growers
learn along the way, and adopt and adapt to new
technology to their own advantage. It is probably a
good idea to join the local Farm Forestry Association
branch. There is a wealth of information amongst their
membership, which can help you greatly in avoiding the
mistakes of others.
132
Checklist to assist in identifying the trees that you want
on your farm
√ What do I want to plant trees for?
Shade – important with increased skin cancers on
farm animals
Agro–forestry or forestry
Tree cropping – orchard or nut trees
Fodder trees – for browsing by livestock or
pollarding during a drought
Firewood – coppicing
Aesthetics and well–being
Protection of waterways and riparian zones –
protection of water quality from excess sediment
and animal waste
Improving soil structure and fertility
Shelter to reducing wind velocity and therefore
heat and moisture loss
Erosion and run–off control
Providing a habitat for native birds and other pest
predators and food for birds, bees and other
pollinators
Provide corridors to encourage wildlife diversity
Protection from spray drift
How to plant?
When planting in a farm situation, techniques need to be rela-
tively simple and cost effective, but they do also need to be able
to withstand considerable rigours, (e.g. browsing). Envisage the
conditions in which they can thrive, and recreate those as best
you can. Trees need shelter, they generally need a reasonable
depth of soil, they need adequate water, and they need to be
protected from being eaten.
The other thing to bear in mind longer term is adequate space
for the roots to grow (the roots spread as far underground as
the canopy does above), and the height and width the branches
are going to spread to.
Warning when planting near power lines:
The Horticultural Regulations of 1986 are quite specific:
Trees should be planted far enough away from the lines
so the lines are outside the falling distance of the trees.
This includes a mature tree. Remember, trees do grow
and wind does blow!
Because of this, quick growing trees are not recom-
mended as they become brittle. Slower growing trees
such as natives are better.
Anyone needing to work within 4 metres of a power line
(trimmers, forestry workers etc) need a permit from the
local power line company.
Another future consideration will be anyone felling trees
near power lines will need a unit standard in Forestry
Advanced Felling Trees or the like.
If a tree or branch lands on the line, you are liable for
costs incurred.
Site preparation
If your site has impeded drainage or compaction problems and
machines can access the site, it pays to have it ripped first, then
plant at the intersection of the two cuts.
If planting into a grass sward this will need to be removed or
checked in some way, either over the entire site or around each
tree.
Around the tree will also need to be mulched or treated to
reduce competition from weed growth once planted.
Keep stock out. It is usually wise to fence before planting rather
than leaving it until afterwards and leaving the trees exposed
to possible attack.
Put up any wind–cloth or other shelter that you intend to use
for the site.
Planting tips
• Tree roots should never be permitted to dry out
• Plant at the appropriate time of the year when the ground
is moist. The ideal time to plant evergreens is in the autumn
and bare rooted deciduous trees should be planted in the
winter
• Frost tender trees need to be planted after the danger of
frost is over. They should be protected from frost for at least
the first two to three years
• Ensure they are protected against stock
• Remove the pasture
• Plant the tree carefully – can dip or spray the roots with the
Bach remedy called Rescue Remedy and/or seaweed
• Water/fertilise if necessary
• Put down open wads of newspaper for mulch/weed control
– four sections – overlapping slightly with the tree in the
centre where the corners of the four sections meet. Plain
uncoloured cardboard boxes may be opened out and used
as an alternative.
• Moisten the paper/cardboard – always use a wet mulch. Do
not use magazines (toxins)
Chapter 3 THE ENVIRONMENT
• Alternative is weed mat
• Put tyres down – one or two if there are problems with
rabbits and hares (will hold the paper down). This will
provide up to 6 months protection from pasture invasion.
• Apply rabbit deterrent paste (see later section)
• Put up tree guard – electric fence or posts and rails, or wire
frame, plastic shield etc.
• If you have Kikuyu, be sure to trim or, if you are allowed,
spray the grass on a regular basis until the tree is high
enough to outgrow the Kikuyu, even with newspapers and
tyres around the trees
• If necessary, protect it from the wind using wind breaks and
stakes
• If using stakes, attach them low so the stem can still flex,
otherwise there is a risk of atrophy of the stem, leading to
later problems
• The root to stem ratio of 1:2 is the ideal nursery presenta-
tion for high chances of survival and rapid establishment.
What are the choices?
The following information might help you in your
decisions as to what trees to plant, for what purpose
and where.
Protecting and enhancing existing bush
The first thing to consider is whether there are any areas of
native bush or manuka/kanuka scrub existing on the property,
in gullies, or on steep slopes, that could be retired without any
significant loss of grazing. Very often, the amount of grazing
achieved from these areas is negligible, especially if it is
compared to the overall and long–term economic benefits to
the health of the farm, as already described above.
A small reduction in stocking density may be required in the
short term, but it is likely to be more than compensated for
by the overall improvement in stock health and performance,
as well as a reduction in other costs on the farm. One of the
most significant losses when considering retiring land to forest
regeneration can be loss of sheltered winter holding areas,
especially on exposed beef and sheep farms. This can be taken
into consideration by retaining part of the bush area for this
use and retiring the rest, until such time as alternative shelter
can be provided.
Excluding stock from existing areas of bush or scrub is the
cheapest, easiest, and fastest way to re–establish and maintain
tree–cover. Although it may seem that the presence of the
stock isn’t affecting the existing tree–cover, what it is doing
is preventing any tree seedlings from getting established, so
that once those trees die, the forest dies. It also reduces the
forest biodiversity significantly by the action of grazing the
under-storey tree, shrub and herb species. In areas of teatree,
the manuka and kanuka have already done all the hard work
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for you of colonising the bare ground, and they are the natural Totara Cypress lusitanica/torulosa Trees for timber and erosion control • Plant trees and shrubs only between the bottom of the bank
precursor trees for our native bush. and the fence
Erislima littoralis Callistemon This is a vast topic. The aims generally are to retire areas with
To minimise the cost of fencing look for areas that can be cut poor grazing ability, e.g. steep slopes or unstable land. The • Do not plant species that like water and may invade the
Akeake Feijoa
actual pond (e.g. reeds, flaxes). These belong in wetland areas
off easily by just a short connecting fence: triangular shapes are Farm Forestry Association has a variety of skills and knowledge
Oleria Acacia instead
often the most cost–effective, cutting off corners of scrubby or in this area, as well as all the topics covered in the tree section.
Note: All confers can cause abortions. They have branches and keen members all over the country. • Leave access for future cleaning of ponds and dams
marginal land or existing bush. Just do a little bit each year.
Their details are: • If animals are going to graze the banks for grass control, make
Trees for shelter Trees for shade NZ Farm Forestry Association
sure there is a fence at the edge of the pond and before the
tree plantings
• Essential if paddocks are exposed • Many trees that grow high with a large canopy can be Box 1122, Wellington
planted individually for shade. Ph: 04 472 0432 Fax: 04 473 6904 • Choose plants for what you wish to achieve. Plants with berries
• Allow for wind velocity and lift. Email: nzff@clear.net.nz and flowers will attract the birds, shrubs and low bushes will
• Deciduous trees are ideal, as they give the shade when you also attract insects, birds and ducks. High trees will provide
• Aim to lift or reduce the wind rather than block it Website with details of branches: www.nzffa.org.nz
need it and allow the sun when it is needed in winter shade and shelter. Some could be fodder for the animals
Most regional councils in New Zealand have erosion control
• Look at your prevailing wind and layout of the land (hills, • They can be planted in the form of shelter belts or as indi- • Plant in clumps of either mixed species or group of similar
programmes and are a useful source of information and
valleys) and imagine being a bird gliding on the airwaves. vidual trees. species to create special environments
support. Many have schemes to help with the cost of estab-
Where would they take you?
• Check your sites out before planting, by standing in the lishing trees for erosion control and for protection of waterways • Plant the hardy, vigorous ones first and then the more delicate,
• If you planted a hedge at this spot, how would that affect area and seeing what direction your shadow leans, to work (see below). special ones when the former can provide protection
your wind patterns? Will it lift the wind straight up and out where they are best planted, so the animal gets the • Keep the area free of weeds and pests. Possums and rabbits
down or on a long curve? The preference is the latter shade at the right time of the day Trees for protection of waterways are territorial. A coloured trip wire 15cm above the ground and
15cm out from the fenceline on outriggers will deter them
• That will also give you ventilation to avoid fungus build • Planting deciduous trees on the western sides of races with Trees, along with shrubs, grasses and herbs, should be planted
spaces for the wind to get through, provides some comfort along waterways and the riparian strip, in conjunction with • Blackberry, gorse and ragwort will be a problem. Get on top
up
fencing off to keep stock and effluent and runoff out of water- of it before the problem becomes bigger. Keep the plantings
for the milker and cows on the way to the shed
• Look at the direction of the sun and don’t shade the races ways. Environment Waikato have excellent information packs as weed free, especially when they are trying to establish
or tracks during afternoon sun. They need to be dry • Putting trees next to a fence between paddocks enables
well as funding; currently up to 35% of cost of fencing plants, • Do not plant deciduous trees in a position where the leaves
shade in two paddocks. It also does not interfere with will fall into the pond, as this will pollute the water.
• Choose tree varieties that grow well in your area. Seed weed and pest control and advice available to farmers to assist
topping and cropping
from that area will be acclimatised to your area and have with their Clean Streams project. This is all part of farmers’
better survival • If near a fence use 2 waratahs to make a square out from responsibilities to protect and improve the environment and Effluent pond planting plan
the fence. Then attach wires so the animals can only lean provide access for maintenance. This section is on planting around effluent ponds. There are
• Plant with fast growing shelter, interplanting with slower under to graze the grass around the tree, but cannot reach some principles here that can also be applied to dams and
growing species Other regional councils will have similar schemes and help
the tree itself. This keeps the weeds down as well water ponds.
available.
• Consider planting in a T shape to allow shelter for 2 • Tree protectors are another option
paddocks and from different wind quarters. This way you We will discuss this topic more fully under the Wetlands The aims of the plantings
• Trees must be spaced far enough apart to give them to section.
do not have to plant a shelterbelt the whole length of the Wind
room to spread out their leaves, branches and roots
paddock For the aerobic pond: To keep the surface clean and for oxidisation.
• Clearing the trunk of branches allows shade to move in an Tree planting around ponds, dams, and effluent ponds
• Interplant with flax to give the animals a medicinal plant For the anaerobic pond: To protect it from strong winds.
arc during the day, away from the base. Trees and shrubs around ponds, dams, and effluent ponds
and reduce chill factors Sunlight
improve appearance, pond performance, reduce the smell for For the aerobic pond: To provide heat and promote oxygen–producing
• Consider an evergreen shelter running north to south and Protection from spray drift neighbours, reduce water pollution, and attract wildlife. algae.
deciduous shelter running east to west. • Contact your regional council for any suggestions. Ideally any pond not used for animals to drink directly from How is this achieved using trees and shrubs?
More information is available in Appendix 1 ‘Trees for Shelter Incorporate this into your initial plans for planting. should be fenced off and this will maintain clean water with • Provide wind protection for the anaerobic pond
and Profit’ by Alan Thatcher. • A thick canopy of trees will stop, or at least slow down, any minimum pollutants. Allowing animals to drink from dams is • Do not plant tall species on the northern side to assist
accidental spray drift often the only way to provide water for them. However, it can sunlight penetration
Some Species to Use:
• Plant trees around the perimeter of your boundary. Then create problems of its own with their dung in the water and • Do not plant deciduous trees where the leaves will fall
Natives Non–natives cross contamination of worms and other parasites. It is best to into the aerobic pond
look at planting so the wind continues to move upwards
have an alternative, if at all possible. • Plant trees and shrubs between the bank base and the
Cabbage tree Banksia integrofolia
• If spray drift is going to be a problem choose quick growing fence. Grass the banks
Flax Casuarina (warm climates) trees with thick foliage, growing successfully in your area By planting around these ponds it will enhance things greatly. Stabilise them with a vigorous sward of phlaris, rye,
There are some things to be aware of, however: timothy, and clover
Kanuka Leyland cypress • When necessary, keep them pruned/trimmed to be effec-
Sheep can be used to control this, but be sure to fence
Karaka Norfolk Island hibiscus tive • Do not plant tall species on the northern side to assist sunlight
the pond and the tree plantings off
penetration
Karamu (Coprosma) Norfolk Island pine • You may need to consider lower growing plants such as • Do not plant water tolerant plants, such as reeds,
• Allow spacing to enable some wind flow over the pond for flaxes, willows. They will spread to the dam and wreck
Koromiko (Hebe) Poplar flax etc. to keep it blocked
oxygenation the banks
Manuka Radiata pine • Be aware of power lines. Trees must be planted at least 6 • Leave room for maintenance, probably the north facing
• Avoid trees that have roots that grow sideways to reach for
metres away water (e.g. willow) side where there should be no tall plantings
Pittosporum sp Southern mahogany
• Regardless, always keep good communications with your • Other suggestions can be found in the previous list for
Pohutukawa Tagasaste • Grass the banks with grasses such as phalaris, rye, clover, ponds and dams
neighbours. timothy to hold the banks. • Duck weed could be introduced to take up excess N
Puka Cedrus deodara
and P.

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Suggested species:
These are only a suggestion. There will be many more.
Area A (on drawing)
Aim: Northern side, no plant higher than the tops of the banks; could provide
nectar and berries
Suggestions: Coastal flax (Phormium cookianum), Coprosma sp. – low shrubs up
to 2m, Crimson bottle brush (Caliesteon citrinus splendens var), Grey’s groundsel
(Senecio greyii), Hebes (Hebe sp), Native broom
Area B (on drawing)
Aim: Partial sunscreen up to 5m
Suggestions: Crab apple (Malus gorgeous), Chatham akeake (Oleria traversii),
Tagasate (Chamaecytisus palmerisis), Karamu (Coprosma robusta), Tupelo (Nyssa
sylvatica), Golden totara (Podocarpus tatara aureus)
Ground Cover suggestions: Toetoe and pampas grass (Cortaderia sp.) (Check
pampas is not a noxious weed in your area), NZ lowland flax (Phormium tenax)
Area C (on drawing)
Aim: Semi–permeable windscreen of narrow trees for the SW to slow the wind for
the aerobic pond.
Shelter suggestions: Cabbage Trees (Cordyline australis), Swamp sheoak (Casurina
glauca), Deodar cedar (Cedrus deodara)
Nectar suggestions: Kanuka (Leptospermum ericodes), Kowhai (Sophora tetraptera
& S.microphylla)
Area D (on drawing)
Aim: Taller species on the SE and SW area of the anaerobic pond. No planting
limitations, taller trees, dense lower area with shrubs, you can use your imagination
here.
Shade, Shelter and Nesting suggestions: Liquidambar, Miro (Podocarpus
ferrugineus), Lacebarks (Hoheria sp.), Norfolk Island honeysuckle (Banksia
Intergrofolia), Pin oak (Quercus palustris), Pohutukawa (Metrosideros excelsa),
Puriri (Vitex lucens), Karaka (Corynocarpus laevigatus).
136
There are many more plant options
and there are many organisations
that are willing to give you help
and advice on plantings, especially
if it is going to be of benefit to the
environment.
Some of these are:
• Your local regional council can help with all
plantings and the do’s and don’ts of effluent.
They are most helpful.
• NZ Landcare Trust www.landcare.org.nz
email info@landcare.org.nz
• The Ministry for the Environment recently
published ‘The Lake Manager’s Handbook.’
For a copy, e–mail MfE at publications@
mfe.govt.nz or PO Box 10362, Wellington,
New Zealand or 04 917 7400. Copies
can also be downloaded from the web at
www.mfe.govt.nz/publications/water
Other sources of information
for this article:
An old Ministry of Agriculture and
Fisheries Farm Production and Practice
Info Sheet called ‘Effluent Ponds
– Tree Surrounds – Benefits and
Establishment.’
Northland regional council, Whangarei
and Dargaville. Ph: 09 438 4639
Fodder trees
Fodder trees are defined as those that provide part of the tree,
which is palatable to stock – and this can be foliage, seed pods
or fruit.
Alders (Alnus):
A nitrogen fixer, has been used quite extensively for hedging
as it grows quickly. The roots are not invasive. The timber can
be useful but many trees show bad ‘fluting’. The Andian alder
is showing promise as a variety for timber and is also a quick
growing tree.
Ash (Fraxinus):
A deep rooting shade tree with palatable foliage.Great timber
– strong tree. Many different types, so choose carefully.
Black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia)
This tree fixes nitrogen and has a light canopy and so can have
quite a bit of grass under it!
Tough hard timber which is very durable. Excellent tree for
nectar and pollen for bees but flowers (white or pink) for only
a short period in early summer. Has two problems: thorns and
sometimes can sucker and make a nuisance of itself but stock
find these as palatable as clover. The young tree is susceptible
to hare and rabbit damage. Use rabbit repellent and/or rubber
tires placed one upon the other.
Sweet chestnut (Castanea sativa):
This is a wide spreading tree that is tough and takes the wind
well. The timber is ground durable but care is needed if used in
the furniture or building trades. The nuts are highly nutritious.
It is an excellent shade tree. This tree can be coppiced and be
used for poles and posts. Grows fast compared to oak. Very
susceptible to bark damage by animals.
Fruit trees – plum, pear and apple.
These are fruit trees rather than fodder but these trees can
still be used as shade trees and food for livestock. It is not
uncommon to see cattle under a pear tree laden with ripe
pears waiting for the next one to drop. It is best to get these
fruit trees grown on more vigorous root stock rather than the
traditional semi–dwarfing root stock. Timber from these trees
makes excellent firewood but has a traditional use for furniture
and ornamental objects.
Honey locust (Gleditsia tricanthos – American,
or Gleditsia japonia – Japanese):
Gives good shade. Fixes nitrogen. A smallish rounded tree
that is quite attractive.
Large pods are very nutritious to stock and keenly sought after
by them but there are reports (from Gisborne) that by the time
these fall on the ground they are not as digestible as stock
Chapter 3 THE ENVIRONMENT
prefer. These are available in autumn and winter. Can be slow
to establish and is not a great timber tree. It breaks in strong
winds. Get good healthy seedlings. Select species now don’t
have the needles! This tree grows well in some parts of the
North Island but it did not adapt to the climate further south.
Needs 700mm plus rainfall area and warmth.
Has potential as bee fodder (honey).
Paulownia (Paulownia):
Avoid planting in soils with a high water table. Likes free
draining soil. Deep rooting.
Extremely wind tender. Leaves palatable to sheep but cattle
seem indifferent to them.Leaves contain a lot of nitrogen so
will aid the soil if not eaten by livestock.These trees can grow
extremely fast – 5m in the first year. A good bee tree and the
white eye love the seed in winter.
Poplars (Populus)
A very common tree to plant – especially in the lower North
Island. These trees can be coppiced or pollarded (i.e. chopped
down to feed stock during droughts and they will grow again
from the stump). The foliage is very palatable for stock. Some
species of poplar are high in minerals such as zinc (e.g. Populus
yunnanensis) and so can be useful in the facial eczema period
in the North Island. One disadvantage of these trees is that
they tend to be shallow rooted so can rob the surrounding
pasture .
Plane (Platanus):
This is a well known and popular tree in New Zealand. It grows
quickly and with age develops into an imposing and impressive,
wide spreading tree. Its timber is heavy and solid but not used
as much as it should be as these trees are too attractive to cut
down. The leaves are large and are slow to break down. Do
not plant these trees close to houses with gutters and drains.
The bark in mature plane trees is not palatable to stock – even
goats. Horses are an exception. The leaves are high in zinc.
Tree lucerne or Tagasaste (Cytisus palmensis) – a nitrogen fixer.
This tree suits the drier east coast areas. Is suitable for dry
windy areas. Doesn’t like shade. It tolerates a wide pH range
in soil. It is not suitable for wet areas. It doesn’t like persistent
wet feet – better planted on ridges and faces. It doesn’t like
the freezer either – especially when young so don’t select frost
prone gullies. Mature trees are a little hardier when it comes
to frosts but the flowers will be frosted at –10 Celsius.
It is a good windbreak tree and has bee forage. It produces
white flowers over a long period with a peak in spring. This
tree supplies an invaluable source of nectar for apiaries in
winter and early spring when other sources are scarce. It also
produces abundant pollen for both honey and bumblebees
alike. As one of the few rural sources of winter nectar and
pollen, bee populations can be kept higher than normal through
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winter and spring with a supply of a natural food source instead
of a very poor (refined white sugar) substitute supplied by
bee–keepers, and could be of considerable benefit for boosting
cross–pollination of spring–flowering crops such as apples,
pears or blueberries.
Tagasaste leaves have a similar nutritive value to silage but
lower than of intensively managed pasture, and these leaves
are extremely palatable to cattle. It is excellent for providing
emergency feed supply for stock in periods of drought. The
native wood pigeon is attracted to this tree especially when
this tree is flowering, as are the bellbirds, tuis and silvereyes.
They also love the foliage all year round. This tree makes
good firewood although it is difficult to split or cut up. The
firewood burns with great intensity and leftover branches from
stock feeding make great kindling when dry too. However, it
its green growing state this tree is difficult to burn so should
be considered as a suitable tree for firebreaks or to be used as
inter–plantings amongst other more valuable timber trees.
Planting tagasaste amongst timber seedlings can mean
increased soil fertility (nitrogen effect), an alternative source of
firewood as it will grow faster than other trees, and can also
cause the timber trees to grow straight and tall. This tree is
also palatable to possums and hares, which may draw these
animals away from the more valuable timber crops. If you need
to protect these trees from rabbits and hares you can achieve
this by putting 2 old tyres, one on top of the other, around the
seedling.
This tree grows rapidly up to 2 metres per year, and yet it’s
maximum height is 4– 8 metres. Using this tree offers a quick
solution for stock shelter and shade. Tagasaste is high in dry
matter content and digestibility if you compare it to hay, willow
or poplar foliage. The protein content is comparable to grass.
Periodically ‘hedging’ rows of trees and cutting re–growth for
fodder can provide a planned forage supplement.
Tagasaste can outgrow or suppress gorse, broom and manuka.
It is an ideal tree for those drier, difficult to get to places, which
are not very fertile and is a real magnet for the native wood
pigeon. From the crops of these birds come other native seeds,
which get deposited in dung around the tree so that a seedling
nursery is established! An understorey of natives!
This tree is very sensitive to herbicides so spray drift from neigh-
bours may be an issue.
Tagasaste leaves are excellent in the dry or green form for birds
– hens, emus and ostrich.
Planting:
If sowing seed then get fresh seed and plant immediately in a
free-draining seed mix in a warm sunny location, but not too
hot initially. Do not over-water at any stage. Plant out in
autumn or winter.
Spacing:
Space at 2–metre intervals in small groups, as in most cases
the area to be planted is too big for the number of trees avail-
able. Clumps provide ample shade and shelter and suppress
light–demanding weeds.
138
Other trees for fodder
Elms (very palatable to stock), lime, hornbeam, liriodendron and
cherry are other options, but not a lot is known about these in
New Zealand.
The non-invasive willows are beneficial for their medicinal value
and browsing. This is due to the aspirin contained in the bark
and green leaves (relief from facial excema symptoms) and
feed value of green leaves when pollarded during dry periods
and drought for stock to browse. The matsudana willow is
excellent for shade, shelter and stock food. It is highly palatable
and produces large quantities of food. The pollarded trees also
rapidly regrow for the next harvest.
Stock, and Native Plants (that could be poisonous)
Some farmers may hesitate to plant natives in areas that stock
might access because they are unsure if any are poisonous to
stock – fortunately, very few New Zealand native species are. Of
the approximately 2,000 native plant species in New Zealand,
only around five could be considered dangerous to stock.
From Poisonous Native Plants may cause death. Prepared
by James Dommisse for the Landcare Trust (sourced from Connor,
1977).
Tutu (Coriaria species which include C. angustissma, C. arborea, C. kingiana, C.
plumosa, C. pteridoides, C.sarmentosa, C. pottsiana, C. lurida)
Poisonous to cattle sheep and a prominent killer in the early
days of settlement where some farmers reported losses of 25–
75%. Horses and pigs not affected. Modern estimate of cattle
losses to tutu in the South Island high country are 5–10%.
Ngaio (Myoporum laetum)
Small tree up to 10m found throughout New Zealand in coastal
and lowland forest. Ngaio deaths are most common in cattle
(in 1945, 73 cattle died on Banks Peninsula), though pig deaths
have also been reported, and on one occasion a horse was
thought to have been poisoned by this plant. Ngaio leaves
are the most poisonous part of this plant with livestock being
most at risk after storms when branches and leaves are blown
to the ground.
Bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum)
Poisoning of cattle is frequent in New Zealand and occasionally
sheep deaths have also been reported. However bracken must
be taken in large amounts over a few weeks to cause death.
Strathmore weed (Pimelea prostrata)
Found in grassland and shrubland throughout New Zealand.
In the past many horses have died from this plant, but today
poisoning of cattle is most common, and ten have reportedly
died from this plant (sheep are unaffected).
Tree nettle (Urtica ferox)
Can kill horses, dogs (and humans) that blunder into a patch.
May cause ill health, probably not death.
St John’s wort (Hypericum japonicum & H. gramineum)
These species have been suspected of causing photosensitivity
mainly to sheep on South Island High Country sheep farms,
and also to a small number of cattle and horses throughout the
country. Signs of the disease include mummification of the skin,
loss of wool down the midline of the pelt, with scabbing and
rawness from animals rubbing the affected areas.
Kowhai (Sophora species)
Possibly poisonous but not known for sure.
Rock Fern (Cheilanthus sieberi)
Coastal to montane fern found throughout New Zealand. Has
been reported to have caused livestock deaths in Australia;
however, no reports of this have been made in New Zealand.
Pigeonwood (Hedycarya arborea)
Abundant in bush and around bush edges from North Cape to
Banks Peninsula and to Milford Sound in the West. Though not
thought to be poisonous, loss in health of both sheep and cows
can result if large enough quantities are consumed.
Pukatea (Laurelia novae–zelandiae)
Tree up to 35m, abundant in swamp forest in the North Island
and found in localised patches in the South. Can be lethal to
frogs and rats but has never been reported to affect livestock.
Centella (Centella uniflora)
One report of killing a sheep but otherwise not known to be
a problem.
Karaka (Corynocarpus laevigatus)
Probably not poisonous, but may possibly affect livestock.
Poroporo (Solanum laciniatum & S. aviculare)
Probably not poisonous, at worst may make livestock unwell.
Trees and shrubs for honey
For those who want to encourage bees to your farm, or to
harvest honey from hives, then some consideration to the
quantities and quality of bee forage in relation to site condi-
tions is needed. Also, the time of the year the nectar is secreted
is important, as you will need to have major sources of nectar
available in sequence and you must avoid undue competition
with pollination of pasture, legumes and fruit trees as you will
still want these parts of your farm pollinated!
Fruit trees, vegetables and many useful plants rely on honey-
bees or bumblebees to pollinate flowers. Pasture, legumes and
weeds provide the bulk of nectar and pollen for bees from early
summer (November) to early autumn (March).
It is a sad fact that the widespread use of herbicides has
removed most of the herbs from dairy pastures and also a lot
Chapter 3 THE ENVIRONMENT
of the gorse and ragwort has diminished which used to nourish
the bees. A huge amount of bee fodder has been removed
nation–wide. Large scale planting of bee forage trees to
compensate for this loss of food did not occur during this
period of ‘weed’ removal so there is a huge amount of sugar
fed to bees to keep the hives alive over the period of nectar
shortfall. This substitute is a poor quality food (just a simple
sugar – not even raw sugar – it is usually a processed white
sugar) compared to that provided by nature and so the bees
are not getting the required minerals needed for their health
nor for their immune systems. It would appear now that bees
are very susceptible to infections, such as the newly arrived
Varroa mite.
It is a fact that bees will work in flowers whose nectar has a
Brix reading of 7 or higher (see section on Brix). If the reading
is below 7 the bee expends more energy than it can possibly
recover from the nectar. So it is so important to grow good
quality trees, legumes and pasture with flowers available for
bee fodder for most of the year so the best quality nectar is
available to keep the bees well fed.
What are the choices of trees for bees?
Evergreens
Kowhai (Sophora microphylla)
Moderately cold hardy, good spring bee forage, yellow flowers
are out for 3 weeks, is an ornamental. Bees have been reported
to get ‘drunk’ on kowhai nectar.
Tagasaste – Tree lucerne (Cytisus palmensis)
Firewood, bees, Kereru (wood pigeon) and other birds, nitrogen
fixation, fodder (see Animal Fodder section).
Tree medick (Medicago arboea)
Cold hardy, survives the dry, animal forage, bee forage, long
period of flowers.
Wattles
Ornamental, bee forage for spring.
Choices: Silver wattle (Acacia dealbata)
Green wattle (Acacia decurrens)
Australian blackwood (Acacia melanoxylon)
These are all bee forage plus windbreak trees with blackwood a
timber tree. They are not so good in cold dry areas.
Deciduous:
• Black locust (See above)
• Honey locust (See above)
• Siberian pea tree (Caragana arborescens)
Windbreak, high honey yields, yellow flowers mid spring.
Traditional non–legumes
Australian Honeysuckle (Banksia integrofolia)
Flowers out of season, likes hot dry climates, all are windbreaks,
used for soil conservation, are ornamentals.
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Gums (Eucalyptus spp)
650+ different species, for all types of sites. Flowering at all
times of the year.
Mexican hawthorn (Crataegus pubescens)
Needs deep, moist well–drained soils. Needs rainfall of at least
760mm. Needs cool winters – tree is frost hardy. Can fruit to
one quarter of a tonne per tree at 15 years of age. Fruit is rich
in vitamin A and C. Can grow to 12 metres. A potential source
of food for animals
Oaks (Quercus sp.)
No nectar for bees but a little honey dew. There are 450 species,
19 produce sweet acorns edible to man and animals. Beware,
acorns and in the spring, oak buds, can cause stock poisoning
(a tannic acid causes damage to kidneys). Prevent cattle gaining
access to spring buds – allow leaves to mature first. Too many
acorns can be toxic too.
Oak trees are a real asset, as they are beautiful and give
great shelter, but please put a decent fence around them to
prevent stock poisoning at certain times of the year. Acorns are
reported to be half the nutritive value of maize.
Poplars (Populus)
Willows (Salix)
Egyptian willow – S. medemei (good for bee pollen July and
August)
Native non–legumes for bees
Cabbage trees (Cordyline australis)
Flax (nectar – bellbirds/tuis, fodder)
Hebes (Hebe sp.)–butterflies
Lacebarks (Hoherea)
Manuka (Leptospermum ericoides)
Pohutukawa (Metrosideros excelsa)
Rata (Metrosideros robusta)
Rewarewa (Knightia excelsa)
Manuka (Leptospermum scoparium)
Non–traditional exotic trees for bees
Black tupelo (Nyssa sylvatica)
Limes (Tilia sp.): Honey producer
Northern catalpa (Catalpa speciosa): All are ornamental bee
forage, none of these will survive in dry areas
Ornamental maples: Spring source of nectar
Sugar maple: Timber and maple sugar
Sycamores (Acer pseudoplanatus): Spring source of nectar
All of the below are attractive to bees.
Apple blossum (Weigelia florida, Escallonia sp)
Bee bee trees (Evodia sp.)
Buddleias Himalayan (Duddleia salviifolia and B. colvelei), South
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Chapter 3 THE ENVIRONMENT
African (Abelia floribunda) some nitrogen–fixing species in the coppice mix, like Robinia Sycamore (Acer platanoides)
Flowering barberry (Berberis sp.) and Alder, so that fertility never needs to be added in this Wattles (Acacia sp.)
self–sustaining system. A few larger trees can also be grown in
Flowering currant (Ribes sanguineum) Willow (Salix sp.)
the mix for retention as timber species, and at certain stages in
Hawthorns (Craetagus sp.) Plane (Platinus)
the coppice cycle livestock like sheep or pigs can be allowed to
Heaths (Erica sp.) forage through, again adding fertility, so the system is incredibly Some species of Eucalypt will coppice, as will some conifers
Irish strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo) versatile and functional. in the right conditions, but these trees do not have fertility
enhancing leaf litter, rather they tend to deplete the soil, and so
Ornamental fuchsias (Fuchsia sp.) For those interested and who live near, there is a coppice
cannot be used in self–sustaining systems except in very small
woodland at Lincoln University which was planted in 1985
Ulmo and Tasmanian leatherwood (Eucryphia sp.)
by Bill Brandenburg in which he trialled various species for NZ numbers in a mix with the broad–leaved species given above.
Tulip tree (Liriodendron tulipifera) conditions. See his article ‘Brandenburg’s Concerto’ in Growing
Rosemary grevellia (Grevellia rosmarini–folia) Today September 1996 for a fuller account. Sources of trees:
Russian olive (Elaeagnus augustifolia) There are many throughout the country. Check your newspaper,
Trees to use for firewood coppice:– Growing Today, Regional Council, local Farm Forestry and Tree
Trees for firewood Natives: Crops Associations and ask who grows trees in your region.
Now that all the pine, gum and macrocarpa trees that were Lacebark (Hoheria populnea)
planted by the first settlers are starting to die and disappear
Red beech (Nothofagus fusca)
from the landscape, we need to be thinking about the next
generation of firewood trees. Also, we shouldn’t be continuing Non–Natives: Water
to raid our teatree scrub for firewood as these areas are the Alder species (Alnus sp.) • Good water is the key to happy, healthy, productive
nurseries for our native trees and forests of the future. Ash (Fraxinus excelsior) animals
On our farms, we need to start planting out special areas Red beech (Nothofagus fusca) • Access to clean, cool water is essential
for our firewood crops and these can be our hedgerows and
Beech (Fagus sylvatica) • Cows can drink up to 100 litres a day each
shelterbelts as well as larger woodlots. The shift in our thinking
here needs to be away from a one–off crop which is planted, Black locust (Robinia psuedo–acacia) • Water is necessary for body function, milk production and
matures, gets cut down and another one planted, like an Elm (Ulmus sp.) avoiding heat stress
arable crop, towards a more sustainable way of managing our Hornbeam (Carpinus betulus)
• If necessary, treat water to remove surplus elements
firewood trees by continual cropping, like our pastures. To do
Horse chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum) (e.g. iron)
this we need to adopt a technique that humans have been
using for millennia to sustainably crop trees without killing Oak (Quercus sp.) • Chlorinated water eliminates iodine from their bodies.
them, but which we have forgotten only in the last 50 years or Silver birch (Betula pendula) Water is often one of the least considered in relation to cow
so. It is a technique called coppicing.
What is coppicing?
Coppicing is the term for the rotationally felling of trees and
shrubs, allowing the root bole or stool to regrow from the base.
Depending on the tree species, rainfall, fertility of the site, and
what the cut wood is being used for, the tree can be recut on a
rotation of 1 to 20 years or more. Annual cutting is for species
like willow for basket making or poplar for fuel biomass;cutting
of species like hazel every 5 years or so produces pliable
branches for weaving into whicker fences; and cutting bigger
species like ash, oak and chestnut every 5–10 years produces
ideal sized round–wood for firewood. Not all species of tree
coppice. Most of our native trees don’t, but some of the
broad-leaved species do. The best coppicing species, and those
which yield the best dense wood for burning, are the northern
temperate deciduous species, which grow fast and well in most
situations in New Zealand, except for very exposed locations.
It is surprising how much firewood can be grown on a relatively
small area using this system, especially if shelterbelts are also
regularly regenerated by this method, prolonging their function
indefinitely. The leaf litter and brush from the felling continually
restores the fertility of the soil, and this can be aided by planting
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Wetlands and Waterways

requirements on a dairy farm. It is all too common on the in her quench for thirst. If trough size is small, water flow low, Water requirements for sheep, beef and replacements
traditional dairy farm to have an inadequate supply of this herd size large and a hot day you will have many thirsty stressed
Water requirements for beef, sheep and dairy replacements are
vital solution available to every cow every day. With the lack cows in the herd with the larger dominant cows controlling the
no different to those required for dairy cows. The ultimate is to
of shade on most dairy farms, the cow during a hot summer’s trough from as far as 30 metres away. Contributed by Beverley Trowbridge
provide good running water in troughs, and have it available at
day is a huge heat sink (especially more so when she is of black ‘The ideal for a dairy cattle using a circular trough is that each Wetlands tend to be very much the poor cousin in
all times. Sometimes, however, this is not possible. This may be
skin colouring). These cows have to rely on dissipating this heat animal has a minimum of 600mm space, and enough troughs terms of habitats and areas that we appreciate and
due to physical barriers or the costs involved providing a system
energy at night and if the night temperatures are high and/or to allow them to drink a minimum of three times daily for cherish. They are not imposing in stature like forests,
involving troughs. It still is important to have water available
there is high humidity then the cow is not able to return to her five minutes each time. Lactating cows should not have to nor constantly moving and changing like the sea; every-
at all times.
normal temperature of 38.5 degrees Celsius by morning. She walk more than 100 metres to a trough each time to drink’ thing is on a micro–scale, too small for the human eye.
will then start the next day at an elevated temperature and Several options of water sources are underground water, To us wetlands tend to look dull and lifeless, nothing
(Bentley, 2003). It is also important that there is no electric wires
ultimately suffers heat stress or hyperthermia. These cows are communal water schemes, town water supplies, natural springs, moving, nothing happening, all very uninteresting. And
anywhere near a trough. Heifers will be last in the pecking
extremely stressed, will mouth breathe, with tongue protruding. artesian bores, drains, and streams and rivers. so we have tended to use them over the ages as places
order. It is thought that half the herd should be able to drink
Cows have died of this. at any one time. All present their own individual advantages and challenges and to dump our rubbish, or infill, or drain to ‘improve’ the
Milking cows need free access to clean, cool water. It is a need to be dealt with appropriately. land, or plant up with trees to make them more visually
If there are problems with adequate water supply on your farm
requirement by law to provide stock with water and in the case Natural streams and rivers are abundant in New Zealand and attractive.
this must be corrected, as apart from being an animal welfare
of our bovine species she should never have a day (even when issue the lack of water will be costing you dearly in lost produc- can be a good source of water. It is best if these are fenced off It is only relatively recently that we have realised that we have
dried off) that she doesn’t have access to water. An indicator tion (milk volume less, higher somatic cells counts from stressed and water piped from them to troughs or been doing our wetlands a
of good water is when the cows drink heartily rather than sip cows, poor condition score). receptacles that animals can drink from. grave injustice, and begun
at the water. You need to check the flow in summer to appreciate them for what
Having access to a water trough near the milking parlour or From the Code of Recommendations and
In the ideal world this water should just be water. Not water to ensure there is a constant source of Minimum Standards: they do, and even to see their
even in the milking parlour is another option as is having a
plus a whole lot of mineral elements or salts added to it. A cow water for your stock. There are small, cheap subtle beauty. For wetlands are
trough halfway along the farm race if there is more than 1.5km For the Welfare of Sheep:
likes to quench a thirst with plain water – not to try and get water rams available for pumping if gravity the half–way house between
walk from the back of the farm. Take care to avoid crowding or 4.2 Water
the water from all the additives (salts, chlorine, fluoride, bloat feed is impractical. Quality needs also to dry land and our waterways.
congestion in raceways or yards where a steady flow of animals
products) that are commonly put in. To contaminate it with be checked, especially if there is activity ‘Sheep shall be given sufficient good quality They act as natural sponges
is important.
‘minerals’ makes no sense. Water is closely linked with all of upstream. water to maintain body weight within the and filters in the water cycle,
the body’s internal reactions. It is necessary for the solution of An extra note about heat stress: make sure cows have access normal physiological range for their type, cleaning our water of any
Dams and ponds can be made, using
all food materials and the waste products, plus their passage in to a salt block on the race or in the paddock. Do not put salt in age and sex.’ impurities and delivering it
natural water courses and catchments.
and out of the tissues of the body. Its physical properties make the drinking water. into the waterways as fresh
‘Studies at Massey Making them summer safe, when the ‘Sheep shall not be deprived of water for
it an important factor in the transfer of heat in the body and Keeping your troughs clean University confirm animals need the water most, has to be and clean for wildlife and
more than 48 hours, and in hot weather for
thus in the regulation of body temperature. is also important. This can overseas research factored in. These are a relatively cheap human consumption alike.
no more than 24 hours.’
showing an increase Wetlands soak up the surface
An indication of the importance of water in these functions is be done several ways. There option and once again, the ultimate is to ‘Water sources should be reliable and the
in milk volume up to water run–off from the land
the fact that the volume of water passing in and out of the body are covers available. You can half a litre per cow per fence these off and try to pipe the water water clean...’
pump them out regularly, from them by gravity feeding, or pumping and hold it in their highly
stream every minute is larger than the volume of water normally day, improved food For the Welfare of Cattle:
or you could put goldfish conversion efficiency of the water to troughs. absorbent peaty soils. Wetland
maintained in the fluid portion of the body. When water is
in them, but make sure you around 8 per cent, and 3.1 General Requirements plants are specially adapted
‘contaminated’ with additives, it loses much of its ability to up to 23 per cent extra Animals moving in and around, have the
don’t use a species that to be able to grow in these
perform these functions. potential to contaminate the water you are ‘At all times dairy cattle should receive food
weight gain on beef and cold, waterlogged soils, and
could establish in a nearby sheep, when animals are and water which is adequate to maintain
Trough size, herd size, diameter of the alkathene pipes and expecting them to drink. Worms, bacteria, so they are able to utilise the
stream, and don’t let the given ready access to health, vigour and satisfactory growth and
water pressure dictate the ease with which a cow can partake and other diseases spread by animals and nutrients brought in by the
trough run dry. good water’. production.’
vermin can be further spread through water, so that wetlands can
(from Bentley, 2003.)
this medium. Regular water tests will be 3.5 Adult and Growing Cattle be highly productive ecosys-
A note about chlorine and fluoride in water needed to monitor your water quality. This
‘Fresh water should be provided at all times. tems. This holding of surface
The affect of chlorinated water and the The clinical activity of any of these four bacteria killed, but it does cause the body to lose will also monitor the minerals in your water.
Water consumption may rise markedly during water run–off at the top of
well–known law of halogen displacement halogens is in inverse proportion to the much needed iodine. Some are good for health, others, such as
weight of its atom. The significance of this heat–waves or become unavailable due to the water catchment, followed
If your cows are drinking town water, monitor it iron and manganese in only small doses
has to be mentioned here as well. The being frozen in the winter. Troughs should be by its slow release, prevents
is that any one of the four halogens can and the animal’s health. If there is a choice, then
halogen displacement law influences the displace the element with a higher atomic and may need treatment. flash flooding lower down the
supply water free of chemicals to your animals. cleaned and maintained regularly.’
way in which a cow can get access to the weight but cannot displace an element with Our grazing animals also obtain fluoride through If you do find yourself with a problem of catchment, and also retains
a lesser atomic weight. Looking at this list Source: www.maf.govt.nz/biosecurity/animal–welfare
mineral elements in group 7 of the periodic phosphate type fertilisers and probably do not quality, then you will need to explore your more water in the system
table. fluorine can displace chlorine, bromine, and need the extra added via a town water supply. It is available in booklet form free from:
iodine. Chlorine can displace bromine and options as to how to overcome this. There so that there is a reduced
The halogen group of elements includes the If this is a problem, explore your options. There Animal Welfare Advisory Committee
iodine; and bromine can displace iodine but are many people around with experience and sell are many options. This may include finding C/– Ministry of Agriculture tendency for water courses
following:
the reverse order is not possible. If you are water dispensers . Alternatively explore other another source of water, reorganising your P O Box 2526, Wellington to dry out during periods of
Halogen Relative atomic weight putting iodine in your water to boost your water sources. Ph: 04 474 4129 Fax: 04 498 9888 little rain.
(weight of the atom) system, putting a filter system in. There are
cows’ intake, this may be unsuccessful if you
Fluorine 19 professionals around who will also be able This Animal Welfare Codes have many recom- While the water is slowly
have the presence of fluorine, chlorine or
Chlorine 35.5 bromine. Drinking chlorinated water does to help you if it is a major problem. mendations and is the one to be referred to at percolating through the
Bromine 80
provide us with water with the harmful all times for animal requirements. wetland system, any pollut-
Iodine 127

142 143
Organic Pastoral RESOURCE GUIDE Chapter 3 THE ENVIRONMENT

ants and excess nutrients are taken up by the wetland plants ability of wetlands. Some of our centralised reticulated human Toetoe (Cortaderia sp.) Trees:
and metabolised, thus removing them from the system and waste processing systems even use this natural technology Shrubs: Akeake (Dodonaea sp.)
preventing them from running off into the water courses where and are known to produce the cleanest processed effluent, Coprosmas (Coprosma sp.) Cabbage Tree (Cordyline australis)
Griselinias (Broadleaf, Puka) Houpara (Pseudopanax lessonii)
they can cause the death of wildlife and pollution of the water. (e.g.Whangarei).
Korokio (Corokia sp.) Kanuka (Kunzea ericoides)
Excess nutrients in the water is a state called ‘eutrophica- Also farmers are increasingly recognising the advantages of Karaka (Corynocarpus laevigatus)
Koromiko (Hebe stricta)
tion’, and is often noticeable by blooms of algae which are fencing stock out of wetlands, as well as fencing off buffer Kohekohe (Dysoxylum spectabile)
Karaka (Corynocarpus laevigatus)
reproducing rapidly, and a consequent death of fish and other strips along water courses, and providing stock with reticu- Mapou/ Red matipou (Myrsine australis) Mahoe/Whiteywood (Melicytus ramiflorus)
wildlife caused by a depletion of oxygen and imbalance in the lated drinking water instead of using natural water courses Tree Daisies (Olearias) Manuka (Leptospermum scoparium)
system. Wetlands also act as a filter for soil and other particles, Pittosporums (Pittosporum sp.) Mapou/Red matipou (Myrsine australis)
to water stock. These buffer strips need to be a minimum of Ngaio (Myoporum laetum)
holding them in the tightly bound roots of the wetland plants Poroporo (Solanum sp.)
3m wide from the edge of the water course, and should be Pohutakawa (Metrosideros excelsa)
and preventing them from entering the water where they would Shore Fuchsia (Fuchsia procumbens)
allowed to regenerate with natural vegetation which can be Puriri (Vitex lucens)
cause sedimentation and turbidity, which also has a negative enhanced by planting wetland species including shrubs and Trees: Wharangi (Melicope ternata)
impact on water quality and wildlife. trees. Suggestions of what to plant are given in our Wetland
Akeake (Dodonaea sp.) Whau (Entelea arborescens)
Cabbage Tree (Cordyline australis)
One of the other vital function of wetlands is actually the same Planting Guide below. Kanuka (Kunzea ericoides) Additional plants for sheltered wetland margins
as we have already been discussing with our forests and trees, This taller, ungrazed vegetation along the banks of water Lacebarks (Hoheria sp.) Shrubs:
for like wood the waterlogged, peaty soils of wetlands repre- courses and in wetlands maintains a micro–climate of shade Manuka (Leptospermum scoparium) Brooms – native (Carmichaelia sp.)
sent a store of carbon in the terrestrial ecosystem which does and high humidity, preventing any excessive rise in temperature
Ngaio (Myoporum laetum) Five finger (Pseudopanax arboreus)
not get released into the atmosphere as CO2. When we drain Pohutakawa (Metrosideros excelsa) Rangiora (Brachyglottis repanda)
or drying out, which keeps the water cool and saturated with Ribbonwoods (Plagianthus sp.)
our wetlands and the soils dry out, this stored carbon becomes Tutu (Coriaria arboria)
oxygen, as required by the wetland wildlife like invertebrates Totara (Podocarpus totara) Wineberry (Aristotelia serrata)
available and is metabolised by soil microflora and fauna to and fish. The vegetation also provides food for the system in
form carbohydrates, but much is also lost to the atmosphere as the form of leaves, seeds and insects, which fall into the water Plants for waterlogged sites Trees:
gaseous carbon dioxide in this breakdown process, thus adding Tall herbaceous species: Kowhai (Sophora sp.)
and are consumed. They also provide essential food and nesting
to our problem of global warming. Baumea reeds Lancewood (Pseudopanax crassifolius)
sites for other wetland wildlife like birds, which are again part Matai (Prumnopitys taxifolia)
Carex sedges
So, even in this brief introduction to the role of wetlands, we of the foodchain and the essential balance of the system. Spikerush (Eleocharis sphacelata) Miro (Prumnopitys ferruginea)
can see how invaluable they are to us in the functioning of Non–wetland plant species, like many of our agricultural Flax (Phormium tenax) Putaputaweta (Carpodetus serratus)
our water supplies. They provide us with a natural and free grasses, cannot grow nearly so well as wetland species can in Juncus rushes Rimu (Dacrydium cupressinum)
processing service which is very costly to rectify if it is removed, cold waterlogged soils, and so they are unable to process the Lake clubrush (Schoenoplectus validus) Tawa (Beilschmiedia tawa)
Raupo (Typha orientalis) Taraire (Beilschmiedia tarairi)
and they can also be very attractive and interesting places if we nutrient run–off from adjacent farmland which therefore flows
Scirpus clubrushes Tree ferns (Cyathea and Dicksonia sp.)
look a little closer and learn to appreciate their subtle colours on into our waterways. Tree fuchsia (Fuchsia excorticata)
Toetoe (Cortaderia fulvida)
and placid pace. Your local regional council is an excellent source of advice and Shrubs:
information about the wetland species which are local to your Other plants:
Karamu (Coprosma robusta)
Eleocharis sphacelata: Native, excellent filter
area, and for suggestions of nurseries which specialize in these Mingimingi (Coprosma propinqua)
Reed sweet grass Glayceria maxima previously Poa Aquatica:
Wetlands on the farm plants. Many regional councils also have grants and other help Pate (Schefflera digitata)
Restrict for grazing, can cause cyanide poisoning.
available for fencing, some even offer free trees, so it is defi- Trees:
Reed canary grass Phlaris arundacea: Summer fodder. Can cause
nitely worth giving them a call. Wetlands and waterways have Cabbage Tree (Cordyline australis) poisoning.
Wetlands on the farm have tended to be partially drained and Kahikatea (Dacrycarpus dacrydioides)
become a major concern to regional councils in recent years in Duckweed Lemma Sp: Can be harvested without disturbing
used as dry weather extra grazing, or sacrifice areas where we Maire (Syzygium maire)
their efforts to keep our drinking water clean, so they will be remaining wetland system.
put the bulls or other stock not in the normal paddock circula- Manuka (Leptospermum scoparium)
delighted to hear from farmers who are interested in working
tion. Or else we have planted them up with wet–loving trees Pukatea (Laurelia novae–zelandiae) Avoid:
with them. Ribbonwood (Plagianthus regius)
like willows, or dumped all our clapped out cars and washing Toetoe or pampas grass, Alligator Weed Alternanthera
machines into them. Thus our wetlands are badly degraded philoxeroides, Manchurian Wild Rice Zinzania Iantifolia, Water
Plants for estuarine margins Hyacinth Eichornia crassipes, Water Fern Salvania spp
and have become invaded by non–native dry land species, Tall herbaceous species:
and do not function as they should. The concentration of
dung from grazing stock actually contributes substantially to Wetland planting guide – Carex testacea sedge
Carex trifida sedge
See also the Effluent section for more information.

the eutrophication of our waterways, and the trampling and what are the choices? Juncus rushes A Word of Warning!
pugging of the soil causes sedimentation of the water as well Flax (Phormium sp.)
Toetoe (Cortaderia toetoe) Pukekos can wreck havoc in your newly planted
as severe erosion of the banks. Our waterways are much more Plants for exposed sites wetland sites!
prone to flash flooding, known only too well by people living Tall herbaceous species: Shrubs:
further downstream in the flood plains, with consequent costs Reeds (Baumea) Coprosmas (Coprosma sp.) They love to pull up the plants and chew the stalks.
to livestock and property. Sedges (Carex) Griselinias (Broadleaf, Puka)
Karo (Pittosporum crassifolium) Contact your local DOC office or Fish and Game Dept.
Spike–rushes (Eleocharis)
But increasingly we are seeing the benefits of restoring our Kawakawa (Macropiper excelsum) for ways of discouraging them.
Flaxes (Phormium sp.)
wetlands and they are now even being recreated in order to Juncus rushes Korokia (Corokia cotoneaster)
process our dairy effluent before it is returned to the land, Lake clubrush (Schoenoplectus validus) Koromiko (Hebe stricta)
and also in human septic processing systems in semi–rural Raupo (Typha orientalis) Olearias (some of the tree daisies)
Clubrushes (Scirpus) Shore fuchsia (Fuchsia procumbens)
locations where there is space to use the natural processing
Shore ribbonwood (Plagianthus divaricatus)

144 145
Organic Pastoral RESOURCE GUIDE
Reusing dairy effluent
– some methods and tips
There are many ways we can treat dairy effluent and
there will be factors which will influence the one you
choose.
Three main goals should be:
• To return it to the land in some form at a rate that
delivers no more than 150kg nitrogen per hectare
per year.
Systems for treating effluent
• To prevent runoff of waste and effluent, including
detergents etc into the waterways until treated
Holding Ponds
adequately.
• To allow effluent to stay in any treatment pond
60–90 days to allow solids to settle and microbes
to breakdown organic material.
• To monitor bacterial levels through soil and water
tests, to ensure there is no risk to animal, human
and water health.
Failure to do these will result in a breakdown of soil health,
water quality and it will affect any plant, fish and insect life in
the water.
Whatever system you choose, minimise the amount of effluent
and runoff you have to deal with. This avoids overflows and
extra pumping, enables enough capacity to hold it longer and
get more benefit from it. It also reduces the amount you need
to spread.
How do I achieve this?
• Ensure there is no runoff of water from tanks, spouting,
yards or surrounding hills going into your holding ponds.
Have a diversion drain around the ponds and shut off the
access to your pond at the fill pipe, enabling that water to
go to the diversion drain instead.
• Repair hose leaks
• Pre wet the yard before milking – this speeds hosing down
and reduces water used
• Scrape the yard before hosing down
• Use a chain on the backing gate to break down the cow
pats
• Reuse cooling water and store it for washing down
• Keep cows as calm as possible and they will be less likely
to mess the yard
Stick to a routine
Avoid stray electricity
146
Avoid feeding molasses or meal in the shed.
Watch your dog and workers.
Remedy slippery surfaces
Work the cows positively and gently.
Let them drop their cowpats in the paddock. Wait at the gate
for them to get up, empty themselves, and move towards the
gate in their own time. This will spread the fertility all over the
paddock, without you having to respread it.
This is the system the majority of farmers have been operating,
although most new dairies are now installing a pumping system
directly onto the pasture. The traditional system (this process
should take 60–90 days before the end product is moved to
another system or returned to the land) consists of:
(a) Anaerobic pond: It settles solids and breaks them down.
This pond is usually 4 metres deep and it should bubble
and be active.
(b) Aerobic pond (oxidisation pond): The oxidisation breaks
down the organic material and changes mineral to a more
readily available form for the plants. It needs sunlight and
wind flow to help this process. It should be 2 metres deep.
This is the pond from which we irrigate to the land.
It can then be transferred to a wetland, or sprayed onto
pastures, put in a third holding tank for further treatment
depending on its composition.
(There is a diagram of this system in the Tree section under
Pond/Dam/Effluent pond plantings, page 136.)
Other information on this system:
• Check the pH of the ponds. It should be above 6.5. If not,
correct using lime – 1.6 kg/1000 cubic metre of volume
daily until the pH is 6.5–9.0.
• Poorer quality pasture eaten by the herd (kikuyu,
paspalum etc) can create excessive crusting. This will need
removing.
• Pumping oxygen can help reduce the nitrogen losses and
increase available N to crops. Aeration can be enhanced
by:
• Using effluent pond conditioners commercially
available
• Adding biodynamic compost preparations and/or
cowpat pits
• Pumping air through the pond. This can be expensive.
• One cheap way is to coil pvc pipe with 0.05mm
holes at the base of the pond. Use a compressor to
Chapter 3 THE ENVIRONMENT
push the air through it. Other Tips:
• Wind movement • Check the area has healthy plants throughout
• Circulating the pond contents through flowforms
• Using a stirrer from time to time.
•
•
Avoid bare areas.
Avoid invasive plants, and those unpalatable to stock
• The use of clay products, such as bentonite and zeolite will • Monitor for pests – pukekos and rodents – they destroy the
help bind free nitrogen and make it available. plants.
• 85% of weeds and seeds are killed through temperatures • Consider vegetation harvesting to ensure 75% is main-
of 8 degrees C tained in healthy plant growth.
• Covering the pond with straw, hay, old compost, sawdust • Fence it off
(ensure it is not treated) will increase the carbon to
nitrogen ratio, reducing the loss of nutrients through
evaporation, and it keeps the rain out.
Compost and vermicast
This is not common practice in New Zealand, but is currently
being explored by some farmers here. Scrapings from the yard
Advanced Pond Systems (APS) or stand off pad are collected and gathered into heaps and
These are being trialed in New Zealand, where environmental
composted.
restrictions do not allow land application. It is a four stage
• Worms can be added to inoculate the heap.
system:
• Biodynamic compost preparations can also be added to
1. Anaerobic pond.
keep it aerobic.
2. High rate pond
• Your site should be carefully chosen to avoid runoff to
3. Algae settling pond waterways and sensitive areas.
4. Maturation pond • Covering it will enable it to be heated and would minimise
the risk of runoff.
For more details contact Dr Chris Tanner, NIWA, P O Box 11–115
Hamilton. There is information on the website www.niwa.co.nz/rc/ • Allow it to work for at least 6 weeks.
pollution/pubs/no8/dairywaste2/dairywaste2–treatment
• When spreading, spread in thin layers to allow sunlight
Barrier ditches/blind drains through to the plants and to kill any bacteria.
This is the same principle as the two pond system, except they
Some Suppliers:
are elongated, or drains with no outlet. It is important there is
Tigercast Worms
enough space to hold 60–90 days of effluent. There must be at Specialise in Waste Management Solutions.
least 2, with a baffle between. The first is the anaerobic system Suppliers of tigerworms, commercial and residential worm farms
and the second the aerobic. You can have as many ditches as Nicole Masters
you like. A 150 cow herd needs 6 x 930 cubic metre ditches at Ph: 07 552 0034
1.5m deep and 300m long. The first sections will need cleaning Email: worms@tigercast.co.nz
frequently to avoid runoff. Integrated Systems Processing Plant
This is new on the market, patented, designed and distributed by
Wetlands Integrated Systems Engineers Ltd,
PO Box 5565, Hamilton.
Wetlands use plants, air, sunlight, insects and birds to filter
Ph: 07 847 6222
out and remove the nasties before going into the waterways.
Email: ise–ltd@wave.co.nz.
This can be used after a pond system to further treat effluent. It is a complex, environmentally friendly, self-contained unit that
It should take 7–10 days to go through the wetland under converts effluent and waste into fertiliser and energy.
this system. It is a good place to treat chemicals used (e.g.
detergents, zinc and copper sulphates from foot baths etc).
Constructed wetlands must not be part of a natural wetland,
as the latter is classified as natural water and part of a natural
aqua system. There has been a lot of work done on this by
Dr Chris Tanner and his colleagues at NIWA in Hamilton. This
can be accessed through their website: www.niwa.co.nz/rc/
pollution/pubs/no8/dairywaste2/dairywaste2–treatment
Check also the Wetlands section for more tips.
147
Organic Pastoral RESOURCE GUIDE
Applying fertiliser to the land
Northland regional council rules 16.1
(These are similar throughout NZ)
Permitted activities (disposal to land):
Disposal of farm dairy effluent to land is permitted
provided that there is:
• No discharge directly to ‘water’
• No application within 20 metres of ‘water’
• No overland flow of sludge
• No application within the streamside management
area
• No runoff to ‘water’
• No discharge within 20 metres of the property
boundary
And that there are:
• Contingency measures in place to ensure that
there is no discharge to water due to equipment
failure, overflow or prolonged wet weather.
How?
Effluent Cart:
This can be your own, or contractors can come in to spread it.
Ensure the contractor’s gear is washed out before starting on
your property.
Advantages:
Reduces the animal and plant health risk because you can spray
wherever you want, whenever, on your farm.
Disadvantages:
It can become a ‘round–to–it’ job and not applied at the best
times. It also means the effluent could be sitting around for a
long time, losing nutrients.
Sprinkler system:
This is a system using sprinklers either direct from a holding
tank at your dairy, or from a pond. It using only a certain specific
area of the farm and the sprinklers are either fixed in position,
or can be shifted. The effluent is generally very fresh, and
modern dairies have storage for as little as two days.
The rule of thumb for this system is that you need 12–15% of
your farm under this system to meet the 150kg/ha/yr restriction
(i.e. 370 square metres per cow or 4Ha/100cows).
It is also important to do regular soil and water tests for bacteria
levels for sprayed areas specifically, to ensure there is no build
up of toxins and to check fertility, especially potassium levels.
148
Advantages:
Can be spread every day, and very little other fertiliser is needed
on that area. It requires minimum labour input.
Disadvantages:
It is restricted to one part of the farm only. It is tempting to
use effluent that is fresh, which has not had time to remove all
the bacteria. There is possible ponding and leaching through
constant spraying.
On areas where the maximum 150kg N/ha is applied,
1 Tonne lime per ha every 4 years may be required.
This is why specific soil tests are so important.
Travelling irrigators
This can be mixed with water irrigation. The same principles as
sprinklers apply with this system.
Another disadvantage with this system is possible air pollu-
tion.
Direct land application
This is where a suitable area is irrigated with effluent direct
from the dairy on a daily basis.
Advantages:
There is good use of nutrients and no need for ponds.
Disadvantages:
It is a high maintenance system. It needs management to avoid
contamination of pastures and waterways. It produces odour.
Constant testing for soil and water is important here too.
Risks with applying effluent
to the land
With long term application, increased potassium levels in soil
and pasture in winter and spring can increase potential for
metabolic problems.
• Avoid grazing effluent paddocks with springing cows and
those recently calved
• Have pasture analysed regularly
• Increase your area or choose where you spread your
effluent using muck spreaders
Contaminating waterways through surface runoff, leaching or
spraying where there are tile drains
• High BOD’s (Biological Oxygen demands) and spread of
diseases, such as salmonella, and release of faecal coli-
forms destroy waterways and life in it
Sources of information
Contamination of soil through worms, coliforms etc. affect
animal and human health.
Chapter 3 THE ENVIRONMENT
Breeding:
• Soil test regularly to check these are not too high or
building up.
dairy, beef and sheep
Too much too often will destroy soil structure.
• Recommendation, apply three times a year.
Applying at the wrong time of the year. Contributed by Beverley Trowbridge
• Do not apply
when soils are
waterlogged.
• Rule of thumb:
When rainfall
does not
exceed evapo-
ration.
• It needs
sunlight to kill
faecal bacteria.
Other Tips:
• Take care
with personal
hygiene.
• Apply to
recently grazed
grass and do not graze until 10 days have passed, or rain Breed selection
has washed it off the grass. This allows contaminants
such as ecoli, salmonella to be killed off or removed. Many farmers feel that they do not have the option of buying in
• Mix sludge with water to avoid plant damage.
the most suitable livestock to start their organic farming enter-
prise, but have to work with what they have already.
• Never empty out the pond. Leave one third full to keep the
Over the generations the breeds and individual animals
process going.
adapted to particular environments and systems of manage-
• Use a stirrer prior to emptying. This will mix the layers. ment. There are breeds that have been developed for the New
• Late summer, early autumn is best for the sunlight and Zealand environment. There are still conventional stud breeders
around on harder country who have continued to breed a more
temperature breakdown of any disease–causing microor-
ganisms. moderate frame type of animal. You want to work with these
• Spray at least six weeks prior to cutting hay or silage and
breeds (unless you are keen to try something different), but
towards the traits that are more suitable to an organic system.
use older manure to avoid contamination. Talk to stock agents to help find out who has a reputation for
• Frequent spreading with thin layers is more beneficial than hardy animals. You also need to like the type of animal you are
heavy dressings. handling. This is a motivator to make things work.
• Avoid damage to the soil if spreading effluent with a cart. Current breeding tends to focus on producing animals for quick
return traits like high milk yields at first lactation, high weight
• Avoid loss to the air and evaporation.
gains at early maturing, and good early fleece growth. These
• Keep a record of where you applied the effluent, how much characteristics have often been emphasised at the cost of other
and when. factors like longevity, fertility, and robustness. Some of our
• Treat effluent areas separate when doing soil and herbage animals are culled from the system due to illness, poor perfor-
tests. mance or injury before they have reached peak performance.
• Avoid spraying at night. What we are looking for under an organic system is a way
to build on positive animal traits. We are aiming for profit-
• Think of your neighbours when spraying and spreading.
able system of farming with healthy, well–fed and contented
animals. All animals need to have robust constitutions, high
natural immunity and vigour to manage pests and disease, be
All regional councils in NZ are helpful – contact your local
thrifty to grow and reproduce with high fertility and few health
one.
problems.
149
Organic Pastoral RESOURCE GUIDE Chapter 3 THE ENVIRONMENT

Livestock selection
Breeding and livestock
more organic animals are available, it may be possible to begin the mother’s body has tried to respond to the threat. Natural
buying in. immunity in our stock is one of our main allies. However,

It is unlikely that the animals you source will have been reared
and managed under an organic regime. It pays to think long–
term when making livestock selection choices, not just for the
conversion period. Stock that are already managed organically,
and especially if they have been bred from organically–reared
stock, will be able to cope with your conversion to organics very
management
Contributed by Beverley Trowbridge
While there is a shortage of organic stock available
for rearing on, we may need to consider developing a
As a result, you want animals that have good stamina, fertility
and can live longer. Each farmer has their own theories on the
traits you should look for when choosing bulls. Animals do
adapt to certain areas and situations as time and generations
go by, and many breeds that have been farmed in New Zealand
and bred here for some time have adapted well to local condi-
sometimes the opposite will occur and an ailing dam will
produce ailing offspring. This tells us that there is something
missing in the genetics of that line and we don’t want it in our
organic flock/herd. It is very much a matter of close observation,
keeping an open mind, and acting accordingly.

Comments from farmers

much better than conventional stock (it seems to be the second system with a closed herd or flock. This means a herd or tions. Talk with your artificial insemination representative or
generation that makes the difference). flock which is self–sustaining in terms of numbers and local stud breeders and they should be able to help.
into which we do not normally introduce other animals

and practioners
The other important factors to bear in mind when selecting
except under occasional circumstances. Animals bred
stock is the environment they have been born and reared in,
and reared on the property tend to be more adapted. By
and also the environment that their parents came from. Animals
adapt very rapidly to their local environmental conditions. They
selecting the best animals for breeding, you will improve Cross–breeding and grading–up
your stock and their genetic fitness in relation to your
learn to adapt directly from their parents, particularly the dam.
particular circumstances. If you are farming at a commercial scale you may need a
They learn how to forage and develop preferences for plants
based on the environment in which they live. They also learn Occasionally we may want or need to bring in new herd/flock
cross–breeding programme, utilizing the traits of more than one
breed and the hybrid vigour of your terminal sires for increased
A comment on dairy cattle
how to adapt to the physical environment in which they are sires to introduce or improve particular traits or to prevent
size and vigour in your calves and lambs. This approach can Forty years of artificial breeding with the
living (e.g. weather patterns, ground conditions and wind). continued close in–breeding. Although the sire’s contribution
still work well in an organic system since different breeds emphasis on milk production has resulted in
to the adaptedness of the offspring is certainly less than that
Young stock also acquires immunity provide access to other traits. Remember that hybrid vigour a very different dairy animal. The modern
of the dam’s, it still plays a significant
during lactation. This is particularly dilutes very rapidly after the first cross and then you are left cow will lose an awful lot of body weight to
part.
true for ruminants, which need to get with a highly variable gene pool. You will need to be regularly continue milking if she is inadequately fed. Her
the appropriate rumen biota (bacteria Organic pastoral farmers have found bringing in new purebred sires, and often replacement dams
A hypothesis udder is like a huge parasite in this respect.
and so forth) from their mothers to that it is also beneficial to allow too, to maintain the genetic consistency and traits you want. In
This was largely not the case up until the
be able to do well on the particular It is preferable to keep the herd/flock sire young stock to wean themselves doing this you can lose some benefit of the stock adapting to
1970s where if starved beyond a certain
local vegetation, as well as acquiring with the breeding group if at all possible rather than imposing a weaning their specific environment. An alternative is to run a commercial
point, cows would tend to dry off rather than
immunity. and to maintain mixed age groups rather regime at a certain age (obviously crossbred herd/flock and a small purebred group, specifically for
lose too much condition. They were possibly
than separating them out according to this doesn’t apply to dairy farmers). replacements.
So when selecting stock we also need more ‘robust’ (they certainly got in calf easier
age cohorts. This reduces the psycho- This again greatly increases the
to choose animals which have come Due to the lack of availability of organic stock you will probably than today’s cows probably because of this
logical stress on the animals as they are natural immunity of the young stock,
from conditions as close as possible need to compromise and buy in some replacement stock self–preserving characteristic). However, these
much more content in this more natural as it does not expose them to that
to those on our own farm, that for your organic conversion, but being left with the task of cows were not particularly efficient due to the
grouping, and it also reduces the rate of dangerous post–weaning period
means farming and environmental grading–up with your existing animals to achieve the livestock relatively high proportion of feed they needed
re–infestation of the young stock from the when they can become susceptible
conditions. Animals which have come genetics you are looking for a little way down the track. Your for maintenance.
environment of pathogens like intestinal to parasite loading and loss of condi-
from very harsh environmental condi- carefully selected bought–in animals will make this task much
parasites, since the older immune animals tion. It is important to provide plenty Today’s dairy cows are very efficient at
tions will usually adapt fairly well to easier, as they will bring in much of the genetics that you are
act as pasture cleaners. of feed to the weaned calves to avoid converting grass to milk. It is possible to
conditions that are easier. Animals aiming for, and then it is a matter of planning your breeding
worm burdens. Dams wean their fully feed cows on a conventional farm but
raised in a fertile environment will programme to make best use of this and spread it through the
offspring when needed. not sustainably. Organic farming has the
not perhaps adapt very well to a flock/herd. At the same time you will also be able to select the
harsher environment, certainly not genetic traits in your existing stock that enables stock to thrive opportunity to provide cows with a balanced
for a few generations. If possible choose animals which have under the new organic system. This is obviously not a simple diet in a sustainable fashion - it’s a matter
been managed least intensively as possible (i.e. farms with a
minimal drenching policy and who use RPR rather than super-
Animal longevity or quick task, it takes time and you will have set–backs and
failures. However, that is to be expected and so don’t let it put
of adjusting stocking rates to ensure they
can be fully–fed all year round. Having big,
phosphate), so that their natural immunity and constitution will This is a feature of long term organic farms and is encouraged. you off your overall goals. high producing cows and less of them is one
be least compromised.
Longevity is important in that, to a certain degree, the farm Some of your existing animals won’t be able to cope under the way of maximising productive, economic
You may need to make significant compromises when selecting does become a closed system. Only 10% of animals can be new regime. If they are ailing under an organic regime they and ecological efficiency, although there
and breeding the stock for your organic farming enterprise, as brought in each year and they have a time lag of 12 months may need to be culled depending on their ailments. However, if are aspects of management which need
there are limited organic livestock resources to source from. (depending on certification) before being granted organic status. a dam is failing due to a lack of adaptation rather than to any consideration with this approach (e.g. possible
However, if we bear in mind the fundamental principles of what Consequently, it is best at this point in time to look after what predominantly congenital defects, then it pays to keep their difficulties in controlling pasture quality in a
we need and why, we can at least make an informed and hope- you already have and raise all your own replacements. Feed and offspring. The young animal will have full exposure to the new
good season and controlling pasture damage
fully, wise decision. treat your entire herd well, especially your young stock. environment from birth and so will have a much better chance
in a bad one).
of doing well. A good example of this is intestinal parasites in
Some farms struggle during transition because of the
sheep. While a dam may not be able to cope with exposure to • Contributed by: Alan Thatcher
elimination, through death and culling, of those who haven’t
a higher worm burden and start to ail, her offspring will have
coped with the change to organics. Have a strategy plan in
been getting antibodies passed to them through her milk as
case this happens. When more farms become organic, and

150 151
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A comment on sheep
The selection of the right breed of
sheep for the conditions is very impor-
tant. Sheep have evolved over many
thousands of years, and many different
breeds have become established to suit
different environments and conditions.
There is also a large variation of types
or strains within the breeds. Some have
the ability to withstand varied seasonal
conditions, with good resistance to para-
sites and diseases, but some don’t.
Unfortunately a lot of the hardiness has
been bred out of some sheep now, and
these cannot be kept under an organic
situation, but can survive quite well
under a chemical farming situation, with
drenches, dips, vaccines, antibiotics etc.
Question whether you should keep these
lines.
Some hardy strains are still available so
these are the ones to keep. Parasite-and-
facial-eczema-resistant rams are now
available in some common breeds.
The best way to prevent worms and
fly strike in sheep is to have a good
varied mixture of grasses and herbs in
your pastures, and to not overstock.
Remember, all livestock need plenty of
clean fresh water too.
• Contributed by: David Johnstone
152
Comments on beef cattle
As with sheep, cattle have evolved over many thousands
of years, and since having been domesticated they have
been bred especially for beef, dairy or draught.
When keeping beef cattle, a true beef breed to suit
the conditions must be selected. These will be efficient
converters of pasture to good tender beef. They must
also be very quiet to handle. Dairy breeds produce
more milk and draught breed, develop coarse heavy
muscling to pull implements etc, but these are not
suitable for top quality beef production.
Cattle thrive best on fertile, wetter soils, with reason-
able drainage. They like quite tall pastures, with a lot
of roughage, so they can wrap their tongue around it
when grazing. Sheep, on the other hand, like shorter,
more succulent pastures with less roughage, as they
tend to nibble when grazing. Beef cattle are quite
hardy, and if given a bit of shelter and plenty of good
organic grazing will have very few health problems at
all.
• Contributed by David Johnstone
Beef cattle in some parts of the country have had little
or no serious breeding for generations. If you want a
robust, adaptable animal, it would be difficult to go
past the Angus cattle of the steep North Island papa
country, encompassing eastern Taranaki, Wanganui
and southern King Country. These cows only get to
see real grass for about 3 months of the year if they’re
lucky, the rest of the time their diet seems to consist
largely of thistles, fern, rushes and pasture the sheep
have left behind. Despite this, they maintain good
condition and, as long as they get a bit of copper (papa
is severely copper deficient), they get in calf easily. If
yearlings are well fed after weaning, they can be calved
as 2 year olds.
These cows are run in a virtually chemical–free system,
many of the farms having had little or no fertiliser on
the hills for 20 years. Economic circumstances mean
that little in the way of animal remedies are used. Adult
stock are only ever likely to receive a copper injection
and the odd liver fluke drench. This means they have
become well adapted to a harsh environment.
• Contributed by: Alan Thatcher
Conversion issues for
livestock management
Contributed by Beverley Trowbridge
Beef:
Suckler beef systems are probably the easiest of all live-
stock systems to convert to an organic regime as we are
making use of the unrivalled abilities of the dam to look
after her offspring. Mature cattle have a much higher
resistance to parasites and disease than sheep on organic
farms, as it is much closer to their natural environment of
wet, lowland grasslands and woodland edge.
Beef systems also tend to be some of the least intensive
systems in farming. The main requirements of the organic beef
enterprise are that they are based mainly on natural pasture
grazing. Calves should be left on their dam for a minimum of
3 months, and preferably much longer, with natural weaning
being the ideal. The time of weaning is the main danger time
for organic beef as this is when the young calf is exposed for
the first time to its environment without any support from its
mother. Weaned calves should be given an organic drench to
boost their immunity and put on to abundant, clean pasture.
This treatment may need to be repeated if they show signs of
lack of thrift, and their grazing rotation needs to ensure they are
always moving onto clean, fresh pasture.
The first winter is usually a critical time for weaned calves. They
need to be going into it in the best possible condition, so early
calving and/or late weaning are ideal, and their quality of feed
intake needs to be kept high through the bad weather. This is
the time when any worm burden will take its toll as feed quality
drops and temperatures and wind chill increase body mainte-
nance needs. Good preparation and planning are essential. For
this reason some farmers switch to late spring or late summer
calving so that calves are still on their dams over–winter.
Natural weaning may assist in this process.
However, autumn weaned calves can be successfully brought
through the winter with some care. Good shelter from the
elements is essential, and a balanced mineral lick can also be
very beneficial in the conversion years when the pasture may
not yet be fully mineralised. Lack of adequate food and minerals
is very often the cause of illness or ill thrift in the conversion
period.
Sheep:
Sheep are native to dry habitats in Asia and so they are
the most difficult to keep healthy and thriving under
organic systems in our wet pastures here in New Zealand.
Unlike mature cows, ewes do not act as pasture hoovers
Chapter 3 THE ENVIRONMENT
for parasites all year round, as at lambing they become
increasingly susceptible to internal parasites and act as
infective agents on the pasture, causing a double–dose
effect when the lambs are starting to graze. Preferably
they need to be cross–grazed with cattle, particularly
at this time and when the lambs are weaned, so that
the cattle can help to clean the pasture. Sheep can be
kept organically successfully without cross–grazing with
cattle but there needs to be a plentiful range of clean
grazing available to keep moving the sheep on to, and
a good range of natural herbs in the pasture to allow
the sheep to self–medicate. Preferably the lambs should
be kept on the ewes as long as possible to get the best
start as the larger more thrifty lambs are much less prone
to problems from worms. If possible allow the lambs to
self–wean, especially during the conversion period
when your pastures won’t yet be fully mineralised and
balanced, and your stock’s immunity will be being tested
to the full in trying to adapt to the new regime.
Plants with a high tannin content have been shown to reduce
worm burdens. Research has shown that pasture species can
also have a significant affect on the infective larvae burden,
with animals being fed species like chicory, white clover and
Yorkshire fog having a much lower incidence of parasites (Niezen
1999). Niezen’s work found that biologically–managed farms
carried a lower infective worm larvae burden on their pastures
than conventionally managed farms. This was due to the faster
turnover of livestock dung back into the soil.
So there are a number of ways of keeping your lambs healthy
and growing well. If you do decide to wean it pays to use an
organic drench at weaning, and at 3–4 weekly intervals there-
after if there is scouring or noticeable lack of thrift. After each
drench they should be moved to clean grazing.
It often pays to give the ewes an organic drench just prior to
lambing to boost their immunity, especially during the conver-
sion period. Having a good balanced mineral lick available for
the flock at all times during conversion can reap dividends. This
is where it pays to have had your soil and pasture tested so you
know what is lacking and can supply it in a lick as compensa-
tion.
During conversion your flock will also be exposed to the other
common ailments of sheep like fly strike, lice, facial eczema
and pulpy kidney. Treatments for these as well as other sheep
ailments are given in the Animal Health Chapter.
Pulpy kidney is triggered by excessively lush pastures and a
sudden change in diet. Not vaccinating for pulpy kidney needs
permission from certifying agencies. Ewes can become immune
to the local strains of Clostridium pathogen over time. Facial
eczema also seems to be virtually absent from organic farms.
You may have a problem in the first few years which you can
deal with by supplementing with zinc.
Fly strike also seems to be more a phenomenon of modern
intensive farming. Once the pastures are fully active and
balanced with the use of slow–release organic fertilisers and
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the animal’s health is in tune, then fly strike seems to become
a rarer problem with only sickly animals being susceptible. This
seems to be strongly determined by the fact that a naturally
healthy animal does not give off an odour that blowflies are
attracted to. One exception is that lice tend to accentuate the
fly problem as the fleece smells, particularly when it is damp.
Another important factor is faecal staining of wool around
the crutch caused by parasites and excessively lush pasture.
Keeping lambs wool short and clean around the crutch is the
main thing for them.
Sheep are certainly a challenge in organic farming, but once
converted it is a joy to see such healthy and self–supporting
animals.
Feeding
Under an organic system animals must be fed on their
natural foods, which for cattle and sheep is basically pasture.
Supplementary feed can be given as a minor proportion of the
diet, which should be checked with your certifier as the permis-
sible amount can vary. There is a permitted daily percentage as
well as permitted annual amount. All ruminants need a diet
that is high in fibre. This is because of the particular workings
of the rumen. The rumen contains a rich and diverse cocktail
of bacteria and other micro flora and fauna, which permit the
animal to digest the cellulose of the plants it ingests. It is simi-
larly a finely balanced system and needs to be looked after in
the same way as we look after our soils.
Only certain friendly microbes contain the enzyme cellulase,
which is required, and they work best at a pH around 6.5. They
produce simple organic acids, called volatile fatty acids (VFAs),
which provide energy for the animal. Inadequate fibre in the
diet can lead to difficulties in achieving a stable pH in the rumen
during late winter and early spring when there is insufficient
fibre in the pasture. This can be corrected by feeding small
amounts of hay or straw (up to 1kg dry matter per cow per
day). Feeding high levels of concentrates like cereals or maize
without adequate fibre gives rise to problems in the rumen
caused by low pH (acidosis), which in turn can affect the liver
and leads to gut torsion and lameness in dairy cows. Barley beef
systems can have similar animal health problems.
The other major dietary consideration for pastoral organic
farming is adequate minerals; none of the biological systems
can work without the correct mineral balance as they play vital
roles in producing vitamins, enzymes and physiological precur-
sors. Minerals should be balanced in the long term through
the pasture, but in the meantime they must be supplied in a
supplementary lick form, either as a bought in, approved lick,
or as a home–made mix formulated to your own particular
pastoral needs. Spraying your pastures with liquid seaweed
will certainly help the process, as will supplying kelp in the
mineral lick. Supplementary molasses can help make the lick
more palatable and add other important trace elements, as can
154
adding cider vinegar to your drinking troughs. Cider vinegar is
also an effective pick–me–up drench for ailing stock, especially
in combination with other ingredients like garlic and kelp.
Animal handling and intervention
We must ensure that our animals are stress–free and live as
contented lives as we can possibly give them. It also means
they are likely to be healthier, do better, and live longer, and
that their meat, milk or fibre will taste better or be of better
quality.
Most mutilations of stock are prohibited under organic certifi-
cation, except for de–horning of cattle, docking of sheep, and
castration at a young age of bulls or rams. Docking of dairy
cows is prohibited.
Even permitted mutilations should be reviewed in the context
of your own operation to evaluate whether or not they are
actually necessary. Tail docking of sheep is a good example. It
tends to be carried out as a routine practice without regard to
its implications for the animals. Anyone watching tailed sheep
will soon realize that their tails have some important functions
to perform, which is presumably why they were given them.
During dunging sheep use their tails to disperse the droppings
away from their back ends, to keep themselves clean. If the tail
becomes soiled, it is attractive to flies, and is a nuisance to the
shearer trying to cut away the soiled wool. The tail can be left
on to perform its essential functions for the sheep, which also
include acting as a fly swat and keeping the vulva warm and
clean. Another part of the solution may be to use the Wiltshire
Horn as a terminal sire to eliminate unwanted wool in the
crutch area and on the tail.
All handling of livestock should be done with the minimum
of stress for animals and humans. Animals should be moved
quietly and calmly and in an unhurried manner, using an under-
standing of their natural behaviour to anticipate their reactions
and working with them to achieve the desired result. They
should be handled firmly but gently to avoid injury to either
them or to the handler. All handling should be of minimal
duration, and at all times there should be adequate shade and
shelter, especially over yards or where animals are held for any
length of time, and fresh water should always be available. It
can get to the point on an organic stock rearing farm where the
only handling that becomes necessary is annual tagging, with
possibly also drenching and weighing at weaning time. Apart
from that it’s just a matter of standing and admiring them! It
must be remembered though, the less you handle them, the
wilder and more stressed they will be when you do. Moving
amongst them every day, talking to them, helps them to get
used to you, and they learn to trust you.
All stock transportation needs to be done again with minimum
stress. Each certifier will have their own specific restrictions,
but basically they are there to ensure consideration and high
welfare for the livestock. For organic meat production it is
certainly worthwhile developing a good relationship with your
nearest abattoir and persuading them to become certified to
handle your slaughtering, as distance to slaughter is one of
the important considerations in organic meat quality. Years of
good handling and management on the farm can be undone
by animals highly stressed by a long travel distance to slaughter
and bad treatment prior to killing. This is a whole area that
needs more attention for the organic meat industry to expand
in New Zealand, and can perhaps be addressed by organic meat
producers banding together to ensure adequate throughput for
abattoirs to justify the cost of certification.
Collaborative marketing ventures would also help to ensure
continuity of supply vital for the development of imaginative
sales strategies.
Suppliers of Certified Organic Older Breeds in NZ:
Tim Gow
Mangapiri Downs Stud, Blackmount, R D 2, Otautau
Southland.
Ph (03) 225 5283
Website: www.organicstud.com
Bio–Gro certified, Highland Cattle, White–headed Marsh sheep,
Wiltipoll (modern breed from old Wiltshire Horn)
Beverly Trowbridge
Murivall Stud & Heritage Breeds, Muriwai Valley Farm,
194 Muriwai Valle Rd, R D 1, Waimauku, Auckland.
Ph 09 411 8557
Website: lifestylelivestock.co.nz
Bio–Gro certified, Red Devon Cattle, Wiltshire Horn Sheep
References on older breeds
Have a browse through the following websites for information
on different breeds to see what could be most suitable for your
needs:–
NZ Rare Breeds Society: www.rarebreeds.co.nz
Australian Rare Breeds Trust: www.rbta.org
British Rare Breeds Survival Trust: www.rbst.org.uk /
www.rare–breeds.com
Canadian Rare Breeds: www.trentu.cararebreedscanada
American Livestock Breeds Conservancy: www.albc–usa.org
Further information can be obtained from the
Rare Breeds Survival Trust, National Agricultural Centre
Stoneleigh Park, Warwickshire, CV8 2LG, England
Tel: 024 7669 6551, Fax: 024 7669 6706
E–mail: enquires@rbst.org.uk
Some Examples of Older Breeds that are Available in NZ:–
Dairy: Guernsey, Ayrshire, Brown Swiss
Beef: Welsh Black, Galloway, Red Devon, Red Poll,
Sussex
Wool sheep: Leicester and Lincoln Longwools, White–headed
Marsh
Meat sheep: WiltshireHorn (no wool), Ryeland, Dorset Horn
Chapter 3 THE ENVIRONMENT
Dairy cow condition scoring
There are a number of cow condition scoring systems and the
one mentioned here is presently used by consultants, veterinar-
ians and farmers alike. The Waikato Polytechnic has a excellent
printed card complete with a diagram that is ideal to refer to if
you are not familiar with the method.
You really do have to know some basic anatomy of the cow
to do condition scoring. The backbone is rather obvious and
doesn’t need explanation. The hips are the bones protruding
out from the backbone and are the ones that can get knocked if
cows rush through a narrow gap. The ‘pins’ refer to the points
either side of the tail arch. The ‘side of the pin’ refers to the
area to the side of this area (to the lateral side of the cow or
outside) and the ‘rear of the pin’ refers to the area below the
pin on the back end or rear side of the cow as opposed to the
side of the cow.
To score a cow one follows the following order. There are seven
possible positions to feel depending upon how thin the cow is.
The best way to learn is to find a friendly cow and practice by
placing your hands on each of these ‘positions’ and get familiar
with this order and then look at the chart to determine what
the condition score is.
First position – feel the hips and pins – are they flat? (Put your
hands on these two points and actually feel them).
Second position – feel along the backbone in the middle of the
back – is it bumpy or smooth?
Third position – feel the side of the pins – is it concave?
(Deviates inwards?)
Fourth position – feel the rear of the pins – is it concave?
(Below the pin bone and on the rear surface of the cow).
Fifth position – feel behind the shoulder – is there a prominent
ridge?
Sixth position – feel this ridge again – can you feel the sides of
the bony vertebrae?
Seventh position – feel the valley between the hip and the
backbone – do you bump into a sharp ridge?
You have to memorise this order. Once you have done this
then you look at the following number system and decide
whether you stop at that condition score described or go up
or down from it.
It is common to start at the condition score of 5 (C.S. 5) and
work downwards as it is rare to find dairy cows over this condi-
tion.
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Organic Pastoral RESOURCE GUIDE
C.S. 5
If rounded on hips and pins – go above C.S. 5 (see below)
If not rounded on hips and pins – go below C.S. 5
C.S. 4.5 If the backbone is flat and smooth (not bumpy) – go
above 4.5
If the backbone is bumpy – go below 4.5
C.S. 4 If the area is flat around the pins – not scooped inwards
or concave – go above 4
If the area is concave around the outside of the pins – go
below 4
C.S. 3.5 If the area below the pin is flat – go above 3.5
If the area below the pin is concave or scooped inwards
– go below 3.5
C.S. 3 If the backbone has no prominent ridge behind the
shoulder blades – go above 3
If there is a prominent ridge behind the shoulder blade
(you can feel the vertebrae – go below 3
C.S. 2.5 If you can feel the side and base of the vertebrae behind
the shoulder – this is 2.5
C.S. 2 If the connective tissue (band of tissue) between the
hipbone and the spine (backbone) has a slight cover
– go above 2
If this band of tissue is extremely prominent – go below
2.
If you have an obese cow start at the position 5 condition score
and work up.
C.S. 6 If the back is rounded across the loin, or if you cannot feel
the ends of the short ribs – go above 6
If the two positions are negative (i.e. you can feel or see
them) – go to below 6
C.S. 7 If the back is flat across the loin. The backbone can only
be felt by pressing down very firmly.
C.S. 8 The tail–head has large folds of fat on either side or the
tail–head is covered by a thick layer of fat and cannot be
felt.
Note: If a cow is between the half scores then you will have to decide
which end she is nearest too. For example, if she is below 4 but
better than a 3.5 then you may score her at 3.7 or 3.8. You can
become very accurate and be highly repeatable too.
If you read all this and still need help, get someone to show you
the system, as it can be learnt in 15 minutes.
156
Behaviour: cattle, deer
and goats
• Cattle have a social hierarchy and prefer to stay with
groups with minimal swapping.
• Calm and quiet handling is best
• Always be wary – animals can become unpredictable
• Their most efficient sense is smell, followed by vision and
hearing
• Behaviour during mating is described.
Cattle are social animals and as a stockperson you become the
‘dominant animal’ the ‘boss animal’ in the herd. Cattle actually
respond best to the farmer who is confident, and consistent
when handling them. They appreciate the stockperson talking
to them, petting them, and stroking them (particularly around
the neck and head).
Keep calm (when working with stock and deer): Evidence
suggests that unstressed cattle grow faster. Never move cattle or
deer when you are in a hurry. With deer you can use ‘a rattle’: a
continual gentle noise that lets them know where you are. With
cattle you can move them by placing your hand firmly on the
pelvic area of the last animal, the animal responds by moving
forward, his/her movement and direction, gets the rest of the
group moving forward. Be very, very calm when dealing with
deer. Be calm when handling cattle. Avoid stress by preparing
gates prior to moving cattle, and particularly deer. If bringing
cattle and deer to areas that are unfamiliar to them (e.g.
perhaps the yards) let them, at ease, wander around and calmly
check out the new environment well before beginning ‘work’.
Separation from group causes stress: Cattle, deer and sheep
are herd/flock animals. Isolation from group causes stress. If an
animal has become separated from the group, send in a herd
mate or two. Then together move them back to the original group.
Deer management: Avoid handling deer on a windy, or very hot
day. Deer have a keen sense of smell. Stress rapidly dehydrates
deer (have water available).
When handling bulls: Always take a stick with you and never turn
your back on a bull (hand reared bulls lose their fear of man). An
overprotective cow with calf may threaten you. Be cautious, she
can mean business (observe her for signs of hypomagnesaemia)
If you’re threatened by an animal: Give the offending animal a
hefty ‘THWACK’ across the nose with your stick. They’ll draw
back and reconsider. It is suggested that by stretching out your
arms you will appear wider to a charging bull.
The senses
Hearing and Vision: Cattle have adequate vision
including colour vision. Not as ‘fine tuned’ as sheep, who
are supposed to be able to distinguish between lighter and
darker shades of grass when grazing. Binocular vision is
limited because the eyes are situated in the side of the head.
They have a much greater field of vision than we have. Cattle
have adequate hearing (cattle ears are anatomically similar to
man’s). There is a difference however in the frequencies cattle
can hear.
Smell: Cattle’s social, nutritional and reproductive behav-
iour revolves around their very efficient ability to recognise
odours.
Deer: Their survival in the wild depends of their very good
sense of smell.
Cattle Blood: Cattle go ‘quite silly’ when they smell
blood. They’ll sniff away at the source, ‘moo’ frequently, and
behave in an agitated or excited manner (beware if there are
any blood smells following a vet’s visit). It is said that in the
days prior to ‘internal protection’ cows could sniff out the
menstruating milker.
Reproduction and smell
Some definitions:
Flehman:
The characteristic flehman expression is where the head
is held upwards, with the mouth partly open. The tongue
is flat and the lips curled back (the animal has an attitude
of ‘studying’). This is ‘odour sampling in ruminants’
and it allows air to flow over the roof of the mouth (it
also has uses as a deliberate non–threatening display).
Pheromones: Are a group of chemical attractants, produced by
animals to attract other animals. They are present in all body
fluids (milk, urine, sweat). The specific oestrus pheromones
(smells) are particularly released from the genital region and
the hindquarters of the cow, plus her body.
Oestrus behaviour in cattle:
True oestrus is characterised by the cow allowing
other cattle (male or female) to mount her. Her
back will arch (to take the extra weight) and she
won’t move if ‘on heat’ (a lot of ‘trialling’ goes on!)
You’ll notice a trail of mucus from the vaginal
area plus her vulva may be reddened and swollen.
Her appearance, if she’s had a ‘busy’ night, her flanks may
be ‘dirty’ from being ridden by herd mates. The skin may
be worn from the bony prominences either side of the
top of the tail (hair may have gone from the top of her
tail and ‘tail–painting’ the head of the tail is painted a
bright colour. If the paint has been rubbed off you know
she has been ‘ridden’ overnight, and is ready for mating).
Herd mates will sniff her perennial area, frequently using
flehmen. She’ll urinate frequently to spread the pheromones
around. If isolated, she’ll ‘Moooo’ a lot. She may even go
searching for the bull, to get his attention. Older, heavier
cows have a more dramatic ‘heat’ than younger cows.
Chapter 3 THE ENVIRONMENT
plus, a lot of on heat activity occurs in the early evening.
’Nymphomaniac’ behaviour, if she’s on heat for several
days (see your vet), can be caused by an ovarian cyst.
Another sign is more than one cycle every 21 days.
Caution, an ‘over friendly’ heifer/cow may try to ride you!
The bull:
He can tell, by smell, 2 days prior to a cow coming on heat (he
may even guard her to keep her to himself). He may sample
her urine for pheromones by licking her vulva. He may put
his chin on her back to test if she will arch her back slightly
(getting ready to take his weight). You can place your hand
in this position and press down as a heat detection method).
Two working bulls will compete with each other. If buying a
bull, make sure he’s fertile and a good worker (a ‘proven’ bull).
Caution: If he observes that the cows on the neighbour’s farm
need him, your boundary fence may not be a great obstacle
(i.e. keep him well out of sight from the on heat ‘girls’). It’s a lot
easier if your neighbours are farming deer, goat or sheep!
Young bulls:
Bulls raised without females may not know ‘what to do’ when
put in with a group of on heat cows (personally I haven’t had
any problems. I separate them from the heifers at 8 months of
age. During winter (our non–milking period) they go in with
the precalvers). Young, keen, yearling bulls will stand on the
tips of their hooves to mate with a cow (and can injure the tips
of their hooves).
Contributed by elise@2farm.co.nz, who has an interesting
website www.2farm.co.nz
Be nice to your cows
Do you talk quietly to your cows, pat them in the
paddock and use the alkathene to guide them rather
than hit them? If not, the results of a major 6 year study
into human/animal interactions carried out in Australia
suggest you should. Endearing yourself to your cows can
improve production by up to 10% and the report also
concluded that fear of humans accounted for up to 20%
of the variation in milk yield between farms.
During the first stage of the study, farmers were asked to answer
a questionnaire on their attitudes towards cows and how they
handled their animals. This was combined with direct observa-
tion of stock handling and standard tests of avoidance used to
assess fear. The researchers were able to establish that:
• Negative attitudes to patting or talking to cows correlated
with more pushes, slaps and hits
• The more often slaps and hits were used, the more fearful
the cows
• Fear of humans was associated with lower productivity.
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Organic Pastoral RESOURCE GUIDE
The second part of the study involved 94 Victoria dairy farms
and set out to see if a change in farmer behaviour would result
in a change in production. Half the farmers were put through
a training course which emphasized that while slaps and hits
may sometimes be necessary, they should be greatly outnum-
bered by positive behaviours – patting not hitting, talking not
shouting. The course was followed up with booklets, newslet-
ters and regular visits. By the end of the trial period most
farmers reported a marked improvement in cow behaviour and
a change in their own beliefs about how much force is needed.
There was a significant production increase at zero cost to
farmers which, it was pointed out, also fits neatly with the new
industry emphasis on animal welfare and quality assurance.
A similar scheme is now being tried out on pig farms.
Contributed by: Alan Thatcher, Massey University
Source: Australian Publication The Veterinarian 2001.
Quarantine paddocks
The quarantine paddock (sometime known as sacrifice
paddock) is an area for animals to expel prohibited
medications they have been given.
It is essential it is big enough to hold any animal or animals you
may have treated with a prohibited substance. They must stay
there for double the withholding period for meat (check the
details with your own certifying agency – they change). It must
be a paddock where it is easy enough to transfer the animal to
the milking parlour to be milked each day.
No other organic animal can graze this at any time. You can
apply to have it converted back after 12 months of having no
animals on it.
What does this mean?
• It will probably be an area that will never be classed as
organic.
• You have to have one
• At times the grass will get away on you and you will need
to top it, or sell it as hay or silage and introduce it to the
farm as part of 10% brought-in feed. Alternatively, it can
be sold on to a conventional farmer. You may need plan B
for emergencies only – an area large enough to hold the
whole mob if you have to blanket drench for worms or lice.
Remember it will be 12 months plus before you can apply
to use that land again for organics.
• It is prudent to make quarantine paddocks smaller as it is
easier to expand them rather than decrease them.
• You need yards to hold animals off for 48 hours before
entering an organic property. This is to enable them to
empty out.
158
Bio–Gro rules state:
An area must be clearly designated on the farm map that can
be used as a quarantine area if required. This is a designated
area of the property where any treated stock and any incoming
conventional stock can be run for the duration of the required
quarantine period. If the designated area has been used for
quarantining in the last 12 months men it is classed as ‘the
quarantine area’. After 12 months has elapsed since the last
use of the quarantine area for quarantining, the quarantine
area regains the certification status of the lowest certification
status land on the farm.
The quarantine area cannot be used for the production of certi-
fied crops. It can only be grazed by animals, which will not be
sold for meat for at least 12 months, or will not be producing
any certified progeny or products for at least 6 months (e.g.
breeding sires, heifers, replacement ewe lambs). The quarantine
area can be used to make supplementary feed such as hay and
silage, provided the feeding of this complies with the maximum
allowances specified in the 10% rule.
Minimise contamination
With organic certification it is very important to
minimise contamination to your property and crop.
This is the key issue that consumers are looking for.
It is best to identify the risks and deal with them
before contamination happens. Possible sources of
contamination, and a potential threat to your organic
certification, are: your neighbours, old spray tanks,
seed, contractors.
Neighbours
Identify areas of risk:
Run off
Contact the council and neighbours and work out how to
manage this.
Have ‘No Spraying’ signs
Offer to maintain the areas where contamination comes from
e.g. roadside.
Drains that contaminants travel down
Fence off
Allow for room to put drain cleanings in fenced off area.
Spray drift
Contact your regional council
They may declare you a sensitive area
They will advise you on procedures
Write and send letters to neighbours, contractors.
Make a pact with your neighbour:
Ask them to refrain from spraying 10 to 15m from the boundary
(buffer zone) and you will grub/pull out the weeds and thistles
in that area. The buffer zone is then worked organically but no
product comes off it.
Grow trees around the perimeter to slow the spray drift (see
Tree section)
Most important:
Keep positive communications with neighbours.
Cleaning old spray tanks
If you are using spray tanks that have had chemical sprays
in them the following is the proceedure for cleaning it out
according to Bio–Gro rules:
Annex 3 s3.3.2 Spray equipment (no matter who owns it)
that has had prohibited materials used in it at any time, must be
approved and cleaned out using the cleaning directions given
prior to use on a certified property.
Clean down directions:
Spray equipment that has had prohibited materials in it, and
which is to be used on certified property, must go through the
following steps:
• Fill tank with cold tap water and with the hose continuing
to run, activate the sprayer and leave running for 10
minutes
• Drain, refill with tap water and add alkaline detergent at
500g/100 litres (or with the addition of washing soda that
has been dissolved in hot water, at lOOg/100 litres final
concentration), circulate for 10 minutes, then flush with
clean tap water
Chapter 3 THE ENVIRONMENT
• Drain and refill, circulate a 1% solution of household
ammonia and then leave to stand for 24 hours before
flushing out with clean water.
• Drain and refill, circulate a 1% solution of chlorine bleach
containing 3% sodium hypochlorite then flush out with
clean water.
Flushings must not be disposed of in accordance with the local
District Plan.
Flushings should not be disposed of:
• Anywhere on any certified property
• Anywhere where it is likely to contaminate surface or
groundwater
On any natural and/or un–farmed areas. .
•
Seed contamination
Ensure you are not purchasing genetically modified or coated
seed
Try to get organic or uncoated seed.
Do your homework before buying and look at your options
Don’t pick up the seed without a letter from the supplier stating
it is clean!
If the only alternative is coated seed you must wash it and take
the washings to your local toxic dump (usually the regional
council) Avoid this scenario if at all possible!
Contractors
The only contamination is from equipment and tractors. Point
out to the contractor their equipment must be cleaned before
entering your property. You may need a letter stating this
for certification. It is your responsibility to identify possible
contamination to your property or crop.
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Organic Pastoral RESOURCE GUIDE
Once you have identified all possible types and sources
of contamination, you must then decide if it can be elimi-
nated, or reduced to an acceptable or manageable level
and the steps you are going to take for this to happen.
Often the biggest obstacle is your neighbours or people who
are unaware of your status and this can be overcome with good
public relations and signs to informing people you are organic.
Radionics
Since the introduction of the Ag–Enviro Radionic device to
NZ in the mid 1990s, there has been a significant number of
practitioners and farmers treating farms and animals with this
frequency modality. It has been in use in many countries since
the 1940s, particularly the USA, UK, Europe, and Australia. It
was even used by the Mayans 2000 years ago to increase soil
fertility and control pests and weeds.
To explain how radionics works is beyond the scope of this
Resource Guide. The reference work at the end of this section
will give you an understanding and the history of its develop-
ment. Suffice to say that radionics identifies the frequency at
which any life form (or part thereof) vibrate at, and if it is out of
balance, generate the required frequency to correct that vibra-
tion and bring it into balance.
Treating a farm and herd with a radionic device requires
constant vigilance and much time. The treatments (frequen-
cies) available are only those given to the practioner/farmer
when he/she buys their machine. Using radionics as a tool on
your farm is no excuse to forgo physical inputs. It is there to
assist these inputs.
Resources and Suggested Reading:
Russell, E. Report on Radionics ISBN 85435–002–0
Byrd & Tompkins Secrets of the Soil
Byrd & Tompkins. Secret Life of Plants
Lyle, H. Enlivened Rock Powders
Moore, A. Stone Age Farming
Callahan, P. Paramagnetism
The Findhorn Community Gardens published by the Findhorn
Press.
Suppliers:
(there are others – check the internet – type in radionics)
Aquarius Technologies Ltd
Box 11–525, Ellerslie, Auckland
Ph/fax: 09 579 4551
Email: alcox@paradise.net.nz
160
References
Breeding
Coleby, P. 2000. Healthy Sheep Naturally. Landlinks Press,
Collingwood, Vic. 2nd Ed.
de Bairacli Levy, J. 1984. The Complete Herbal Handbook for Farm
and Stable. Faber and Faber, London. 3rd. Ed.
Lampkin, N., 1990. Organic Farming. Farming Press, Ipswich, UK.
Lampkin, N. and Padel, S. 1994. The Economics of Organic Farming:
An International Perspective. CAB International, Wallingford, UK.
Climate and weather
Kenny, G., Robertson, F. and Fisher, M, 2003. The view from the
ground: a farmer perspective on climate change and adaptation.
Published by Earthwise Consulting Limited and the Hawke’s Bay
Climate Change Adaptation Group.
NIWA, 2003. The Greenhouse Effect: a New Zealand perspective on
climate change. NIWA Information Series No. 29.
The Global Livestock Group, 2001. Frequently Asked Questions.
Web: www.theglg.com
Cropping
Gita Henderson Biodynamic Perspectives Farming and Gardening. by
NZ Biodynamic Assn pub Random House. IBSN 1 86941 460 8
Pearce, N. A Biodynamic Farmer’s Handbook. by IBSN 0 473 01894 2
Shepherd, T.G., Ross, C.W., Bashar, L.R. and Saggar, S., 2000. Soil
Management Guidelines for Sustainable Cropping. Available from
Touchwood Books. Web: touchwoodbooks.co.nz
Effluent
Dexcel. 2003 A Guide to managing Farm Dairy Effluent. Farm 4
Tomorrow – environment and animal welfare. Version 1 pub 2003,
constantly being updated. A very valuable resource.
Farm Dairy Effluent. Published by the Dairying and Environment
Committee. Available through Fonterra
Farm Dairy Management. Published by the Dairying and Environment
Committee. Available through Fonterra
Farm Production and Practice – Effluent Ponds , Tree Surrounds.
- MAF Information sheet
Lampkin, N. 1990. Organic Farming. Farming Press, Ipswich UK
Ravensdown Fertiliser Newsletter. Aug 2002. Where there’s Muck
there’s…grass.
Tanner, C. Research done on APS and wetland systems for effluent.
NIWA. P O Box 11–115, Hamilton. Web: www.niwa.co.nz
Livestock
Niezen, J.H. Effect of Pasture Species on Parasitism in Lambs. Report
to MRDC on Project 91 MT 25/1.1, reported in the Bio-Gro Newsletter
25 February 1999.
Pasture
Anderson, A.B. 2000 Science in Agriculture. Available from
www.touchwoodbooks.co.nz
Agriseeds, 2002. The New Zealand Pasture Guide – Dairy
Anchormart, 2002. Seed Guide.
Farmlands, 2002. Farmlands Pasture Guide.
Specialty Grains and Seeds NZ Ltd. Seed Data – Spring Autumn
– Seed sowing catalogue.
Wrightson Seeds, 2002. Dairy Pasture Guide.
Chapter 3 THE ENVIRONMENT
Pests Certification Issues:
Bio Dynamic Farming and Gardening Association of New Zealand. www.biodynamics.org.nz
Biodynamic Perspectives. by NZ Biodynamic Association. ISBN 1
www.bio–gro.co.nz
86941 460 8.
Environment Bay of Plenty. Sustainable Options Plant Pest Control www.agriquality.co.nz
Fact Sheets.*
Northland Regional Council. Pest Fact Sheets and Animal Fact Suppliers of organic products and services:
Sheets*.
www.bio–gro.co.nz
OPENZ. www.organicsnewzealand.org.nz Look in their publications
directory for weed and pest management information. www.organicpathways.co.nz
Pfeiffer, E.E. Weeds and what they tell you. Pub Biodynamic Farming www.organic–register.com
and Gardening Assn USA Inc ISBN 0 938250–04–3.
* Note: Your regional council will have similar information specific
home.xtra.co.nz/hosts/earthwise
to your region.
Earthwise and Bettacrop, Box 9128 Hamilton Ph: 07 824 4881
Trees
Biodynamics New Directions for Farming and Gardening in New
Zealand by NZ Biodynamic Association. Pub Random House 1989
reprinted 1993 – currently out of print but available through libraries.
ISBN 1 86954001 8 It has a good list of trees on pp 103 – 105.
Connor, H.E. 1977. The poisonous plants in New Zealand. 2nd rev.
ed. Bulletin 99. New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial
Research, Christchurch, New Zealand. Printed by E.C. Keating, Gov’t
Printer, Wellington, New Zealand. p. 247.
Crowe, A. Native Edible Plants of New Zealand. 1990 ISBN 0–340–
50830–2F.
Hamblett, A. ‘Protecting Bush Remnants’ NZ Growing Today. July
2003.
Mortimer,J & B. Trees for the New Zealand Countryside: a Planter’s
Guide. Butterworth of New Zealand, Wellington.
Mortimer, K. Trees for the Land – Growing Trees in Northland for
Protection, Production, and Pleasure. ISBN 0–909006–03–2
available from Northland regional council, Private Bag 9021,
Whangarei. Ph: 09 438 4639. Fax: 09 438 0012.
New Zealand Tree Crops Association Directory. 2001. Homepage http:
//www.purangi.co.nz/tree/index.htmlNew Zealand Growing Today.
Sept. 1996, pages 50– 61.
New Zealand Growing Today. Jan 2002, pages 24 – 35.Soil and
Health. Feb/Mar 1980 Pages 37 – 39.
Peeles Plant Propagation – Tree planting on farmlands. Jim and
Coralie Peele. Te Aroha. Ph: 07 884 9963 Fax: 07 884 9972 Email:
peeles@actrix.gen.nz
Siegmund, O.H. et al The Merck Veterinary Manual. Fifth Edition 1979.
ISBN 0076–6542.
The Tree Cropper Issue 25 Spring 2000 – Natives, pages 13 – 15.
Your local regional council or Landcare Trust will have lots of
information to draw from.
Water
Bentley, R. ‘A Thirst for Knowledge’ Growing Today. July 2003 pp 66
and 67.
Wetlands
Regional Councils. Dairying and the Environment Committee 1996
Available from regional councils.
General
www.organicsnewzealand.co.nz
www.2farm.co.nz
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Appendix 1
Trees for shelter & profit
Contributed by Alan Thatcher
Taranaki, Manawatu and Canterbury are traditionally the
windiest areas of the country, although anywhere near
the coast can also be tough. This article is written with
cold wet winds in mind, although the principles can also
be applied to hot dry conditions as experienced in the
South Island.
The value of a good shelterbelt for the protection of animals
from wintery winds has long been recognised. What has not
been generally realised are the likely positive effects on pasture
growth. Unfortunately, many dairy farmers have been slow to
appreciate the benefits and most existing shelter is inadequate.
Hedges typically cut wind speed for only 2–3 metres into the
paddock. Cows bunching together and walking along hedge-
rows create a mudbath. Over–mature trees that have not been
looked after are wet underneath, shade races and cause fertility
transfer due to animals camping under them. In high winds they
represent an injury risk to animals, a damage risk to fences and,
in the case of macrocarpa, an abortion risk to in–calf cows.
Characteristics
of a good shelter belt
The idea is not to form a solid barrier to the wind as this creates
turbulence and down–draughts on the lee side – the belts must
be permeable. Properly planted and maintained shelter growing
to a height of say, 15 metres, should cut wind speeds to toler-
able levels (where cows will not actively seek shelter in all but
gale force winds) for at least 4 times the height of the shelter
– in this case 60 metres into the paddock.
Airflow over an
impermeable object
(a hedge):
Airflow through a
permeable shelter
belt. Wind is slowed,
turbulence occurs
well above ground
level.
162
Benefits for animals
On higher altitude farms wind chill factors of –10º to –15º
are not uncommon in exposed areas. The effect on animal
health and production is well known by those who regularly
experience it. What may not be appreciated by those at lower
altitudes is the less dramatic but still very significant stress
placed on animals by adverse conditions, especially the combi-
nation of cold and wet
Benefits for pasture
Less pugging due to:
• Less cows walking and gathering in one spot
• Better stabilisation of soil moisture (trees suck moisture out
of the soil when it’s wet and slow winds down when it’s
dry)
• Warmer soil temperatures in spring
A preliminary study carried out in South Taranaki a
few years ago suggested improved pasture growth
rates in the middle of sheltered paddocks more
than compensated for reduced growth on
the south (shaded) side of well designed
shelter belts.
Design
A well-designed belt consists
of tall trees pruned to 6–8
metres, growing to 15–20
metres in height at 4 to 6
metre spacings. Around the base is an
understorey of smaller trees and shrubs.
The tall trees may eventually be felled for a
timber crop so a variation may be to plant
a second lot of seedlings half way through
the rotation between the more mature
ones and set back 11⁄2 metres. The diagram
(above) illustrates an example using radiata.
This allows periodic harvesting without all
the shelter suddenly disappearing.
Natives vs exotics
Unfortunately, most tall native trees do
not handle wind very well until mature.
The exceptions in some places may be
kahikatea or totara, but totara needs an
awful lot of work and kahikatea does not
like it dry. Neither withstand salt particularly well. In a natural
forest young native trees grow with all light excluded from the
sides, a difficult situation to replicate in a shelterbelt. If they are
planted in the open, they straggle and develop multiple leaders
which may cause the tree to eventually split down the middle.
Tall natives are much more suited to a woodlot – that scrubby
hillside or gorse–filled gully is perfect – just plant them in light
wells and watch them go.
Smaller natives, however, are the best for under-storey planting.
Check out what grows easily in your area but mahoe (whit-
eywood), karamu, five finger, makomako (wineberry), tarata
(lemonwood) and other pittosporums do well just about
anywhere. They grow fast, self–seed, attract birds and act as
wildlife corridors. Mahoe in particular makes a good emergency
cattle feed and purportedly accumulates selenium. You can fill
gaps with flaxes and toe toe (not pampas). The cows will keep
it trimmed but if it all starts to straggle over the fences out of
reach of the cows, it can be controlled using standard hedge
cutting equipment. Stay away from karaka, ngaio, rangiora and
possibly kowhai unless you can be sure that they or their fruits
cannot be reached by the cows.
The classic tall shelter tree is radiata and it does a very good job
in a wide range of environments. It’s relatively easy to maintain,
has a short rotation (around 28 years) and there’s a large estab-
lished market for a timber crop. However, if you really can’t
stand the thought of planting them on your property, consider
some alternatives:
• Norfolk Pines will flourish despite the most salt–laden of
winds and may be the tree of choice in coastal areas. The
timber is very good (although subject to insect attack) and
there is a small market for it. Pohutukawa makes a good
under-storey where there’s a lot of salt.
• Cyprusses (lusitanica, lawsoniana, torulosa) all produce
a top quality, easy milling insect–resistant timber with an
established market. Rotation length is around 35 years.
Pruning can be hard work. Canker–prone varieties, such as
C. macrocarpa or avosomana, should be avoided. Canker
disease kills or deforms most trees in most of New Zealand
today.
All American conifers produce a toxin in their leaves
called isocupressic acid which can cause abortion
in cattle during the last 3 months of pregnancy. On
average, macrocarpa leaves tend to contain higher
levels than other species, but there is a lot of variation
between different varieties and even individual trees.
It should be relatively easy to breed an ‘abortion–free’
cypress sp but as yet, no one has done it. The risk
should be put in perspective. Considering the number
of grossly over–mature macrocarpa still growing on
dairy farms around the country, the number of attribut-
able abortions is quite small. You can reduce the risk
further by pruning on time and taking care the cows
cannot reach the prunings.
APPENDICES
• Poplar. Fast growing. Excellent for soil stabilisation and
for bringing deep minerals to the surface. You need to
plant one of the possum–resistant varieties. Deciduous,
so it casts less of a shadow in winter but also a less effec-
tive wind–break. Once mature, poplars can be prone to
wind throw. There is a small but not particularly consistent
market for the timber. Difficult to mill.
• Eucalypts. There are so many varieties adapted to different
environments, there is one for your farm. 30–35 year
rotation. Require careful pruning. Prone to wind throw
in areas with a high water table. May be prone to new
diseases suddenly introduced from Australia. Excellent
timber varieties are available but milling requires expertise.
There is an established and growing market in high value
grades. Timber is generally insect resistant, some varieties
are ground–hardy. Eucalyptus are great, but not for the
faint hearted, as great disasters must be expected from
time to time.
• Cedrus deodara. The ultimate shelter tree for windy and
dry conditions. It does not like salt wind, however.
Seedling selection
When planting timber trees in a belt, you don’t have the luxury
of thinning to the extent you do in a woodlot so good seedling
selection is critical. If aged cuttings are available in the species
you want to plant then that’s the way to go. Cuttings have a
better survival rate and grow much more evenly.
Maintenance
Protection of seedlings from pests (hares, possums) may be
necessary. There is an organic repellant available, originally
developed by the Forest Research Institute. Releasing and
pruning the timber crop trees are tasks that must absolutely
be done on time if you want to gain maximum value from the
trees both in terms of timber and shelter. If you’ve got extensive
plantings and minimal time, consider employing a contractor,
especially for the higher pruning lifts.
Not only birds will love your shelterbelts – possums and stoats
will move in too. Control is particularly important if you are in
a TB endemic area.
It will occasionally be necessary to trim overgrowth away from
electric fences, although the cows will mostly do it for you if the
bottom wire is high enough.
This is a brief summary of things to consider when planting
shelter. For more detailed information and to find out what
works best in your area, contact your local branch of the NZ
Farm Forestry Association.
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Organic Pastoral RESOURCE GUIDE APPENDICES

Appendix 2
Certification & sources Things to be aware of Fertilisers:
with certification Typically agencies have on their permitted lists materials

of information This information has been taken from three certifying

such as:
Low Cadmium natural rock, salt or minerals that are Bio–
agencies, Demeter, Bio–Gro and AgriQuality and so is Gro approved. All fertilisers must have minimal heavy metal
generalised information. It is a general guide so you content. A certificate is required confirming this. RPR, lime is
know what you have to think about and be aware the most commonly used. On dairy farms RPR, lime etc. can
There are currently three of. Please read the rules of the certifying agency you be brought in and spread in the normal procedure. Before
recognised certifying agencies: Support groups: are planning to work with and get details of their
particular requirements.
the first application, check with your certifier. Fertilisers
should be bought from certified/approved suppliers where
Bio–Gro, administered by the NZ Biological Producers Assn Organic Dairy Producers Group All agencies allow for a transition/conversion period known available.
Inc NZ Russell Simmons as ‘In Transition to…’ or ‘In Conversion’, and after you have Restricted fertilisers:
Further information: Private Box 69 proved you are able to farm organically full certification will
Bio–Gro Te Aroha. Other approved forms of trace elements, elemental sulphur,
Ph: 07 884 9797 be granted. Each certifying agency has different time spans for
P O Box 9693 potassium sulphate, Epsom salts, wood ash (free from
Marion Square Fax: 07 884 9797 Transition/Conversion.
contaminants). Get permission first.
Wellington. Mobile: 025 206 6196
Important: When seriously considering certification, please
Ph: 04 801 9241 Email: rjsimmons@clear.net.nz The above is an illustration only. No reliance should be placed
check the details with your own particular certifier.
Fax: 04 801 9242 on this list matching the requirements of any particular
Email: info@bio–gro.co.nz Ray & Jenny Ridings, certification agency. Consult the relevant standards and/or the
15 Ridings Rd, RD 1 Record keeping:
Web: www.bio–gro.co.nz
Paeroa, certification agency in every case before making any decisions.
1. Keep good records. Buy yourself a diary and fill it out every
Ph: 07 867 6809
AgriQuality, administered by AgriQuality New Zealand Fax: 07 867 6899 day. Trivial details will become important, so keep a record General:
Further information: Mobile: 025 290 8109 of everything, how you used it, what for, how much, at
1. Weeds and pests must be dealt with through preventa-
David Brown, Organic Service Manager Email: ridings@wave.co.nz what rate, where it came from.
tive methods, through habitation, cultivation and rotation,
P O Box 307 2. Read and keep all labels. Ask questions before making grazing, mechanical or biological methods.
Pukekohe Massey University Organic Unit
Auckland
purchases or using a product. Once you are registered
Organic /Convention Dairy Systems Trial 2. Brought in conventional materials for compost are to be
Ph: 09 237 1807 with the certifier, you must have proof from them of their
Agricultural Services hot composted before applying. Composts can be made
Fax: 09 238 3757 Massey University approval for all products you use. Don’t accept salespeo-
and must be heated, aerated, mixed and matured. Demeter
Email: brownd@AgriQuality.co.nz Private Bag 11222 ples’ words, ask for written approval (certificates etc).
Web: www.AgriQuality.com (biodynamic) certification also requires the use of the
Palmerston North
Ph: 06 350 4499 3. Gather up letters and certificates, especially for brought–in compost preparations to aid the fermentation of all liquid
Demeter, administered by the Bio Dynamic Farming and Fax: 06 350 5646 materials, animals and feed as you go, giving details of the manures and composts.
Gardening Association in New Zealand Inc. Email:agservices@massey.ac.nz source, any treatments and if so, when, and ensuring that
3. Milking plant and parlours must be kept up to the stan-
Further information: it is free from GE.
Dexcel dards required by NZ Dairy Regulations and MAF approved
Bio Dynamic Farming and Gardening sanitisers and cleaners can be used.
Association in NZ Private Bag 3221, Hamilton Care of the soil:
P O Box 39 045 Ph: 07 858 3750 4. A soil test for contaminants will be required. A minimum
Fax: 07 858 3751
1. You must aim to sustain and enhance the fertility and life
Wellington Mail Centre of 10% of the level permitted under the food and safety
Ph: 04 589 5366 Email: info@dexcel.co.nz
supporting ability of the soil.
regulations. The main concerns seem to be DDT (max
Fax: 04 589 5365 Web: www.dexcel.co.nz 2. Demeter certification (biodynamic) requires you to enhance 0.2mg/kg).
Email: info@biodynamic.org.nz this by a minimum of one application of preparation 500,
Web: www.biodynamic.org.nz NZ Biodynamic Consultancy Society (Inc) one of preparation 501 over the whole farm per year. Animal requirements:
Secretary: B Gillatt
3. This all means you must endeavour to be as self–contained 1. Have appropriate breeds of animals that can adapt to your
Redhill Rd, R D 1
There is also a new small grower certification scheme for as is practically possible. local conditions and breed the ones that are resistant to
Dargaville
national certification of produce: Ph: 09 439 5904 4. Aim to minimise damage to the soil structure through disease and illness.
Organic Farm NZ Fax: 09 439 5906
sensible grazing regimes or crop rotations. 2. Stocking rate must be considered. Each certifier is different,
Soil and Health Association of NZ Inc. Email: Gillatts@xtra.co.nz
P O Box 36–170 5. Each standard has lists of permitted and restricted and may specify maximum allowed such as 16 SU/HA or 2
Web: www.organicconsultants.co.nz
Northcote fertilisers and animal remedies. A permitted material, fresian cows per HA. This enables animals to produce no
Auckland Other contacts can be found in: A Review of New Zealand and generally speaking, is one that may be used as of right. more than 170kg nitrogen/HA.
Ph: 09 419 4536
International Organic Land Management Research Relevant to 3. Have a good uncontaminated water source for animals and
Fax: 09 419 4556 6. A restricted material, generally speaking, is one that the
Soil Dairy Pasture and Orchard Management in New Zealand dairy shed. A test may be required for this.
Email: info@organicnz.pl.net certifying agency wants eventually not to be used at all.
by The Research and Development Group of the Biodynamic
Web: www.organicnz.org However, different agencies have different procedures 4. Animals must have free access to grazing with a wide
Farming and Gardening Assn in NZ, 2002. It has articles,
associated with such lists and such materials, and may range of species, so they can perform their natural feeding
summaries, and a wealth of resources and contacts. Available
have additional specific requirements. behaviour.
from the Bio Dynamic Farming and Gardening Association in NZ
(On website: www.biodynamics.org.nz) or Dexcel

164 165
Organic Pastoral RESOURCE GUIDE
5. No intensive livestock farming
6. Feeding pads and barns can be used for short periods of
time.
Brought–in materials/animal movement/grazing off:
1. Supplementary feed: Brought–in feed is to be used
in times of feed shortages only and is not generally
permitted as routine practice. Where possible plan ahead
to avoid these. No GMO’s allowed and always check on
this – don’t assume! If you chose to buy in certified meal
or get it made up especially, ensure there are no disallowed
additives which may mean no materials such as: meat meal
or blood and bone, preservatives, pure amino acids, antibi-
otics, synthetic appetisers, growth promotants, stimulants,
urea etc. Check with your certifying agency before commit-
ting yourself. Keep the labels with the ingredients and get
a letter from your supplier. Hay and silage can also be
brought and treated the same as above. A certificate of
all treatments to the land and crop will be required. Total
maximum allowed: 10% total dry matter requirements for
year for stock carried.
In cases such as natural disasters or short–term shortages
the 10% can be reviewed; however permission must be
granted first. Total allowed to be fed each day: 10% to
25% of total daily allowance of dry matter (different certi-
fications have different rates – please check)
2. Animals brought in from conventional farms are not imme-
diately certified for milk and fibre or meat. The length of
time depends on your certifying agency’s ruling. Exception:
calves up to 7 days old can be brought from conventional
farms and reared, gaining organic status after 12 months,
provided they have not been treated with antibiotics or
other drugs before coming onto your property. Letters
declaring treatments at the previous property, any bolus
treatments, and identification of the animals must be
provided. All animals must be quarantined or held in yards
for 48 hours to empty them out, and any animal that has
been treated or has bolus treatment must continue to stay
in your quarantine paddock for double the withholding
period for meat. Make sure your quarantine paddock is an
adequate size, as the animals are in there for many weeks if
they need to be treated. 10% of uncertified animals can be
brought in each year. In special circumstances, like droughts
or infertility, this can be increased. However application
must be made to the certifying agency before actioning.
3. Grazing off is allowed on certified land. There are limits
as to grazing off on non organic–certified pasture (called
conventional) depending on the certifier. Grazing beyond
the specified limits means the animals concerned lose their
organic status.
Animal welfare:
1. Natural mating is encouraged. Artificial Insemination is
permitted for herd improvement. Definitely no embryo
166
APPENDICES
transplants, oestrus synchronisation or routine inductions. period it is more likely to be on the agency’s permitted list. Anaesthetics with nil withholding
2. Surgical practices are discouraged. However the following Important: Ensure you check the rules of the certi- Injections and drenches for trace element and vitamin
are permitted for animal health and safety reasons: fying agencies to ensure they are allowed before deficiencies (covered earlier)
administering them. If in doubt phone or fax
• Dock lambs under 6 weeks (check your methods) The above is an illustration only. No reliance should
someone to make sure.
be placed on this list matching the requirements
• Castration under 6 weeks
Each standard has lists of permitted and restricted fertilisers of any particular certification agency. Consult the
• Nose rings and animal remedies. A permitted material, generally speaking, relevant standards and/or the certification agency in
• Dehorning up to 6 weeks (debudding) and any older is one that may be used as of right. every case before making any decisions.
dehorning standards under animal welfare rules. A restricted material, generally speaking, is one that the certi- Demeter certification rules allow, on farms In Conversion to
Anaesthetics are involved and a withholding period fying agency wants eventually not to be used at all. However, Demeter only:
also. No animal is to be tethered. different agencies have different procedures associated with For internal parasites, one annual drench that had a with-
3. The minimum standards of the Animal Welfare Advisory such lists and such materials, and may have additional specific holding period less than 14 days.
Committee (AWAC) must be adhered to. requirements.
For flystrike, one annual treatment using a cyromazine prepara-
tion.
Seeds: Typically agencies have on their permitted lists materials such as:
Seed should be from a certified organic source. If not, ensure Permitted Materials: Animals must be identified, quarantined and lose certification
the seed is not treated (with fungicide or insecticide) and has Zinc sulphate* for life for meat and 1 year from the end of quarantine for milk.
no GE. All certifying agencies are different in the procedures you The land will not lose certification under these conditions, as it
Vegetable and paraffin oils would if it were full Demeter and the whole herd were similarly
must go through, so check with your certifying agency before
proceeding. Treated seed must have prior written approval, it Electrolytes* drenched.
must be proven to be the only available seed and is neces- Zinc oxide
sary for your operation. This seed must be then cleaned, the
Iodine
washings sent to a toxic waste agent. Suggestion is to explore
your options carefully. Always get a letter or certificate from the Stockholm tar Forbidden practices:
supplier giving the status of the seed regardless (even clean Natural prostoglandins
Any drug not listed in the rules are generally forbidden.
seed). Also keep the labels from the bags.
Dextrose* Any drug that has a withholding period for meat including anti-
Calves: Magnesium chloride biotics, long acting penicillin, chemically–synthesised allopathic
Calves must receive natural organic milk for a minimum of medicines, hormones, anaesthetics etc.
Natural vitamin D
3 months. It is preferable you use milk from your own cows.
Teat spray: glycerine, iodine, plant oils Bolus treatments.
Lambs 45 days.
Elemental sulphur Hormones or growth promotants.
Animal health remedies: Neem oil Blanket or routine vaccinations unless required by law.
Animal health and restricted remedies: Pyrethrum
Use prevention methods through feed supply, herbal remedies Herbal remedies
and homoeopathy. Homoeopathy
It is important to remember an animal is not allowed to suffer. Cider vinegar
If this means administering an allopathic remedy, then it must
Calcined magnesite, chalk, dolomite
be done. The animal will no longer be organic and must be put
into the quarantine paddock, as described below. Diatomaceous earth
If it is an on–going problem, a documented health plan must be Petroleum jelly
submitted to address it.
Disinfectant for wounds
There is to be no routine or scheduled use of interim animal
Copper sulphate (foot bath)*
health remedies or drugs.
*Depending on certification these can be restricted. Please check.
All animals treated must be held in the quarantine paddock for
Restricted Materials:
double the withholding period for meat and lose their organic
status for a certain period. Check the standards for your certi- Vaccinations for known diseases on farm
fying agency for details. Vaccinations required by law
Each certifying agency has slight variations on what is Magnesium sulphate (Epsom salts)
permitted, restricted and not allowed. This is a general list to
Electrolytes (all forms)
give you some idea of the type of remedies you can use. It is
not complete. The basic rule of thumb is if it has no withholding Propylene glycol, choline and dextrose preparations
167
Organic Pastoral RESOURCE GUIDE APPENDICES

Appendix 3
Research & Case Studies
Visit the Sustainable Farming Fund website www.maf.govt.nz.sff
for information on other organic projects. Organic projects
currently listed on the SFF website (September 2003) are:
02/103 Evaluating organic seed and organic seed production
systems in NZ and informing growers of the outcomes
L02/017 Organic control of downy mildew (Peronospora sparsa
Berk) in boysenberries
01/225 Organic management of internal parasites
01/179 Development of technical information resources and an
advisory capability for organic and biodynamic producers
01/172 Development of a commercially viable system for
organic strawberry–runner production
01/021 Evaluating organic technologies and disseminating
protocols to growers
00/355 Canterbury Organic Growers Technology Transfer
Project
00/220 Enhanced skill and knowledge for organic pipfruit
growers
00/211 Enhancing NZ organic exports by providing informa-
tion .
Case Study of New Zealand Dairy Farms in Transition by Dr
A Neil Macgregor, Institute of Natural Resources, Massey
University, Palmerston North. This can be found at the above
websites and in the review report mentioned above.
A financial study of organic dairy farms in New Zealand by Hella
Bauer–Eden.
This can be found on the Soil and Health Association website:
www.organicnz.org/organic2020.htm
There is much research and information gathering currently
happening in New Zealand, mainly through Massey and Lincoln
Universities. Lincoln University has done much, especially on
cropping. See Appendix 2 for Massey contact details.
The work being done at Massey, as of March 2003, includes:
1. Organic/Conventional Dairy Systems Trial. In addition there
is a number of other Massey Organic Dairy Projects.
2. AGMARDT Animal Health project to collate best practice
from existing organic dairy farmers.
3. Organic Dairy Extension Service – Fonterra funded and
established to run specialist field–days and one day work-
Appendix
Milli–eqivalents
4 Appendix
Parts Per Million
5
(PPM or Pounds Per Acre or Kilograms per Hectare)
Milli–equivalents is designed to represent the amount of
colloidal energy required to absorb and hold to the soil’s One acre of topsoil weighs about 2,000,000lbs therefore one
negatively charged holding sites certain specific amounts PPM = 2 pounds per acre
of the various positively charged cations as governed by
their each element’s individual specific atomic weight. 1 PPM = 2lb/acre
1 PPM = 2.24kg/hectare
So 1 ME of total (base) exchange capacity equals the energy to
hold the soil’s colloidal system in the top 15 to 17.5 cm of 1 ha
of soil of will have approximately:
• to convert PPM to lb/acre X2
400kg of the element calcium
• to convert lb/acre to kg/hectare X 1.12
240kg of the element magnesium
Reason is that you have to divide by 2.2 and to convert
780kg of the element potassium lb to kg and divide by 2.47 to convert the lb to hectares
(2.47/2.2 = 1.12)
440kg of the element sodium
20kg of the element hydrogen
Lets take two soils – one is a sandy soil with a CEC of 5 me/ • to convert PPM to kg/hectare X 2.24
100g the other is a peat soil and has a CEC of 40 me/100g. Reason is that you have to multiply PPM by 2 to get lb/acre then
Let’s look at the colloidal energy difference between these two multiply this answer by 1.12 to convert lb/acre to kg/hectare
soil assuming that they were only going to hold the element (2 X 1.12 = 2.24)
calcium.
The 5 ME soil would be able to hold 5 X 400kg of Note: for rough calculations it is close enough to consider that
calcium = 2000 kg 1 PPM = 2 lb/acre is the same as 1PPM = 2 kg/hectare.
The 40 ME soil would be able to hold 40 X 400kg
of calcium = 16,000kg

A review of New Zealand and International Organic Land

shops followed by monthly specialist discussion groups
supporting farmers interested in conversion.
The ME can be likened to the capacity of the soil. It is very
important to understand this concept of total exchange Volume weight
Management Research – relevant to soil dairy pasture and capacity. (was called Bulk Density)
orchard management in New Zealand by the Research and This is the weight of a known volume of air–dried and ground
Development Group of the Bio Dynamic Farming and Gardening Here is another table that can be used to convert some of the soil. This figure gives and idea of the soil’s physical character-
Association in New Zealand 2002. Funded by the Sustainable units in soil test reports istics. It also allows for the conversion of test results to other
Management Fund. to convert me/100g to ug/ml for units if necessary.
This is available in hard copy for the cost of postage and Guidelines
potassium me/100g X 391 X VW = ug/ml
handling.
calcium me/100g X 200 X VW = ug/ml Soil type V W (g/ml)
The full report is also available online at www.biodynamic.org.nz
magnesium me/100g X 122 X VW = ug/ml Sandy 1.0

Soil quality and financial performance of biodynamic and sodium me/100g X 230 X VW = ug/ml Clay 0.8
conventional farms in New Zealand. Science 260: 344–349. to convert me/100g to MAF units Peat 0.5
Also known as ‘The Reganold Report’ can be found on the
OPENZ website: www.organicsnewzealand.org.nz potassium me/100g X 20.8 X VW = MAF K
calcium me/100g X 1.29 X VW = MAF Ca
magnesium me/100g X 23.3 X VW = MAF Mg
sodium me/100g X 53 X VW = MAF Na

Note:
• for results on a weight basis ug/g = mg/kg = PPM
• for results on a volume basis ug/ml = mg/L = PPM
• for results on a per hectare basis (7.5cm sample) ug/mL X
0.75 =kg/ha
• VW = volume weight (used to be referred to as bulk
density)

168 169
Organic Pastoral RESOURCE GUIDE APPENDICES

Appendix 6
Observing your clovers
Appendix
General Resources
7 Suppliers (this list is not complete and may change)
Product:
and legumes: Most resources are found in their specific topics www.organicvalley.com
Earthwise and Bettacrop
Box 9128 Hamilton
Ph: 07 824 4881
throughout the document. www.meat.co.nz

Deficiency indicators Acres USA Acres USA (magazine). There is also a bookstore. www.koanga.org.nz Soil Foodweb contact:
Touchwood Books in Hastings has access to the Bookstore www.qconz.co.nz Richard and Cherryle Prew
Yellowing especially in the older leaves catalogue. www.acresusa.com 982 Kaipaki Rd, R D 3 Cambridge
Nitrogen Research/certification: Ph: 07 827 6682 Fax: 07 827 3787
which die and drop off. Dairying and Environment Committee, Farm Dairy Management
published by the Available through Fonterra or Dairy Insight Email: cherryle.prew@xtra.co.nz
www.organicsnewzealand.org
Web: www.compost–tea.co.nz
Blue–green colour, stiff stunted and erect Davies Peter MJ 1988 Organic Farming in New Zealand, The Farmer www.biodynamics.org.nz
Phosphorus growth. Small dark green to purplish and His Environment. Pub by Tokoroa Printers, NZ Available from Fertiliser
Touchwood Books. hwww.bio–gro.co.nz
curled leaves. Ocean Organics Ltd
de Bairacli Levy Juliette. 1991 The Complete Herbal Handbook for hwww.agriquality.co.nz
4 Fraser St, Paeroa, New Zealand
Farm and Stable Faber. ISBN 0–571–13205–7 www.eartheal.org.nz : (permaculture) Ph: 07 862 8424 Fax: 07 862 8404
White spots in an even pattern around
du Faur Ralph 1981 Dairy Herd Husbandry. Dairy Exporter ISBN Web: www.oceanorganics.co.nz.
Potassium leaf margins. Yellowing and death of www.soilandhealth.org.nz
0–908596–11–1
leaves. www.organic–research.com Sieber NZ Ltd (Biophos and Moana Chelates)
Fisk T, 2003, Practical Organics for New Zealand farmers. Pub NZ P O Box 405, Waiuku
www.environment.org.nz/ccog
Stalks collapse on youngest fully devel- Lampkin N, 1990 Organic Farming. Pub Farming Press, Ipswich UK Ph: 09 239 0210
www.agresearch.cri.nz
Calcium oped leaves. Impaired root growth or Organic Broadcaster (newsletter) www.mosesorganic.org Agrissentials NZ Ltd (fertiliser)
www.hortreasearch.cri.nz
rotting. Pearce. Norrie 1993 A Biodynamic Farmer’s Handbook. Pub by 126 Lochead Rd, P O Box 16 091, Tauranga
Norrie Pearce, NZ. ISBN 0–473–01894–2 Soil: Ph: 07 552 4343 Fax: 07 552 4383
Yellowing of lower leaves, margins initially Freeph: 0800 843 539
Magnesium Proctor Peter and Cole Gillian 1997 Grasp the Nettle. Random House, www.soilfoodweb.com Email: organic100@clear.net.nz
remain green. NZ ISBN 1–86941–318–0 Web: www.agrissentials.com
www.compost–tea.co.nz
Vet Science Faculty Massey University 1992 The Farmers’ Veterinary
Dwarfed plants with red–purple discol- Guide. Dairy Exporter Books ,NZ Books
USA organic sites:
Boron ouration of lower leaves and yellow top Zimmer Gary Dairy Nutrition. Available from Touchwood Books
www.acresusa.com Box 610, Hastings.
foliage. www.midweternbioag.com
www.mosesorganic.org Ph: 06 874 2872
Zimmer Gary The Biological Farmer.Available from Web: www.touchwoodbooks.co.nz
Yellowing of youngest leaves, bleached www.midweternbioag.com
www.midwesternbioag.com
Iron
appearance. Source of refractometers
Lists of suppliers giving sources of
organic products and services: Bell Technology – John Butler
Yellowing of leaves and growth reduc- 0–18% Brix model RES Series
Manganese
tion. Websites: www.bio–gro.co.nz
www.organicpathways.co.nz
Ph: 09 525 1875 or Fax: 09 525 1874

Probitas Ltd
Reduced leaf size and upward curling of www.touchwoodbooks.co.nz Woodland Rd, R D 2, Waihi
Zinc Consultants/general information:
youngest leaves. www.organic–register.com Ph: 07 863 7981 Fax: 07 863 7989
www.organicconsultants.co.nz
Youngest leaves are bent back with pale
home.xtra.co.nz/hosts/earthwise Homoeopathy for Animals
www.lifestyleblock.co.nz/
Copper www.soilandhealth.org/index.html Seasonal Solutions Ltd
grey to white spots. www.2farm.co.nz Heather Stewart
www.dexcel.co.nz/ Welcome Bay, Tauranga
Pale green stunted as with nitrogen Freeph: 0800 926462
Molybdenum www.farmwise.co.nz/
deficiency.
www.caprine.co.nz/ HFS (Homoeopathic Farm Support)
P O Box 9025, Hamilton
www.qconz.co.nz
Source: Taranaki Farmers Maize Silage Club Newsletter Aug Edition 2002. with permission
Ph: 07 858 4233 Fax: 07 858 4234
Email: hfs@xtra.co.nz
from Taranaki Farmers.
Animal health: Web: www.farmsupport.co.nz
www.searchnz.co.nz/mastitis
www.dreamland.co.nz/haurakihomeopathics Cider vinegar and animal remedies
(Email: haurakihomeopathics@xtra.co.nz)
Coral Tree Organic Products Ltd
www.farmsupport.co.nz/ 44 Waihou Rd, P O Box 660, Levin.
www.maf.govt.nz/MAFnet/links/organiclnk.html Ph: 06 368 0833 Fax: 06 368 7888
Email kim@coraltree.co.nz
www.guardian.co.uk/Archive/Article/0,4273,4152521,00.html Web: www.organically-nz.co.nz
(homoeopathy research)

170 171
Organic Pastoral RESOURCE GUIDE INDEX

Appendix
Paramagnetic values8of various elements found in rock Index
Element uCGS. The composition of igneous rock (that which comes from larva or magma - volcanic rock) is listed below. Symbols H
Aluminium (Al) . . . . . . . . 16.5 Element . . . . . . . . . . . . PPM. (part per million) Element . . . . . . . . . . . . PPM. (part per million) Chicory 83, 117, 121, 122, 125, 129 herbal ley 112, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123
16 elements 18, 39
Americium (Am) . . . . 1000.0 chlorine 18, 20, 29, 81, 142, 159 Herbs 69, 117
Ac Actinium . . . . . . . . . . . . N Nitrogen . . . . . . . . 20
Cerium (Ce) . . . . . . . . 2420.0 - 6230.0 Herb teas 81
Cesium (Cs) . . . . . . . . 29.0
0.0000000000000005.5 Na Sodium .... 23600 A Cider vinegar 66, 73, 78, 81, 87, 91, 99,
Humates 33
Ag Silver . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.07 Nb Niobium . . . . . . . . 20 100, 101, 106, 154, 167, 171
CsO2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4504.0 abortion 99, 106, 162, 163 Clay 169 humic acids 33, 56, 61
Al Aluminum . . . . . . . . 5000 Nd Neodymium . . . . 28
Chromium (Cr) . . . . . . . . 180.0 aerobic 33, 35, 44, 47, 59, 135, 147 Clovers 115 Humus 12, 16, 24, 48
Ar Argon . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 - 5 Ne Neon . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.005
Cr(SO4)2*8H20 . . . . 12700.0 Air 11 Cobalt 36, 58, 64, 71, 79, 81, 98 hydrogen 18, 19, 20, 25, 28, 30, 53, 59,
As Arsenic ........ 1-8 Ni Nickel . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Cobalt (Co) (ferro) Algae 15 Cocksfoot 113, 119, 122, 124 169
Au Gold . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.004 O Oxygen . . . . 464000
CoBr2 ........ 13000.0 Alterative 71 Compost 33, 35, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 54,
B Boron . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Os Osmium ........ 0.0015
Co(PO4)2 . . . . . . . . 28110.0
Ba Barium . . . . . . . . 425 P Phosphorus . . . . . . . . 1050 Aluminium 23, 24, 25 61, 147 I
Copper (Cu) ........ -5.5 (diamagnetic) Analgesic 71, 100 Compost Preparations 44
Be Beryllium . . . . . . . . 2 - 8 Pa Protoactinium . . . . 0.000001.4
Cu(NO3)2*6H2O . . . . 1625.0 Animal Remedies Act 67 Compost tea 50 infections. See Antiseptic
Bi Bismuth ........ 0.17 Pb Lead . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.5
Dysprosium (Dy) 103500.0 Animal requirements 165 Copper 16, 18, 23, 27, 37, 55, 58, 64, 71, infection of the uterus 101
Br Bromium . . . . . . . . 3 - 5 Pd Palladium . . . . . . . . 0.01
Dy2(SO4)2 . . . . . . . . 91400.0 Animal Welfare Act 7 79, 82, 83, 85, 129, 167, 170 Infertility 96, 107
C Carbon . . . . . . . . 200 Po Polonium . . . . . . . . 0.0000000002
Erbium (Er) .... 44300.0 Anoestrus 96, 97, 98 Coppicing 140 initiate labour 99
Ca Calcium .... 41500 Pr Praseodymium . . . . 8.2
Er2S3 ........ 77200.0 anti-fungal. See Antimicrobial cow condition scoring 155 Iodine 64, 79, 83, 87, 129, 142, 167
Cd Cadmium . . . . . . . . 0.2 Pt Platinum ........ 0.005
Europium (Eu) . . . . 34000.0 Anti-spasmodic 71 cow manure composts. See cow pat pits Iron 16, 18, 23, 37, 55, 58, 71, 79, 82, 83,
Ce Cerium . . . . . . . . 60 Ra Radium ........ 0.0000009
Gadolinium (Gd) 755000.0 Anti- inflammatory 71 cow pat pits 44 129, 170
Cl Chlorine . . . . . . . . 130 Rb Rubidium . . . . . . . . 90
Holmium (Ho) - Antimicrobial 71 Cow Pox 105
Cm Curium ........ 0.001 Re Rhenium . . . . . . . . 0.005
Ho2(SO4)2 . . . . . . . . 91700.0
Co Cobalt . . . . . . . . 25 Rh Rhodium . . . . . . . . 0.001 Antiseptic 71 Cracks 105 L
Iron (Fe) (ferro) Arthropods 17 Crop nutrients 19
Cr Chromium . . . . . . . . 100 Rn Radon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FeCl3*6H2O .... 15250.0 Crop rotation 41 lameness 65, 84, 101, 102, 109, 154
Cs Cesium ........ 1 0.0000000000004
Manganese (Mn) . . . . 529.0 Land Management Research 164, 168
MnSO4*5 H2O . . . . 14700.0
Cu Copper . . . . . . . . 55 Ru Ruthenium . . . . . . . . 0.001 B Cud chewing 65
legumes 36, 38, 49, 56, 79, 81, 112, 113,
Dy Dysprosium .... 3 S Sulfur . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Molybdennum (Mo) . . . . 108.0
MoCl4 . . . . . . . . . . . . 1750.0
Er Erbium ........ 2.8 Sb Antimony . . . . . . . . 0.2 Bacteria 14 D 115, 118, 119, 120, 121, 125, 139,
Eu Europium . . . . . . . . 1 - 2 basalt 45, 58, 59 170
Sc Scandium . . . . . . . . 22
Neodymium (Nd) . . . . 5628.0 base exchange 20 Demulcent 71 liquid fertilisers 44, 45, 79, 80, 125, 127,
F Florine . . . . . . . . . . . . 625 Se Selenium . . . . . . . . 0.05
Nd2O3 ........ 10200.0 base saturation 24, 27, 28, 29, 116 digestive. See Carminative 128
Fe Iron . . . . . . . . 56300 Si Silicon . . . . . . . . 281500
Nickel (Ni) (ferro) beef 79, 120, 123, 127, 133, 142, 143, drench gun, 106 liquid teas, 44
Ga Gallium . . . . . . . . 15 Sm Samarium . . . . . . . . 6
NiCl2 . . . . . . . . . . . . 6145.0 149, 153, 154 Drying off 105 Liver samples 64, 79
Gd Gadolium . . . . . . . . 5.4 Sn Tin ............ 2
Niobium (Nb) . . . . . . . . 195.0 behaviour 29, 60, 63, 88, 97, 109, 154, Lucerne 113, 116, 117, 122, 124, 125,
Ge Germanium .... 5.4 Sr Strontium . . . . . . . . 375
Palladium (Pd) . . . . . . . . 567.4 157, 158, 165 E 129, 139
H Hydrogen . . . . . . . . 1000 Ta Tantalum . . . . . . . . 2
PdF3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1760.0 Biodynamic 47, 60 lungs. See Pectoral
He Helium ........ 0.008 Tb Terbium ........ 0.9
Potassium (K) . . . . . . . . 20.0 biological control 41, 61 Earthworms 15
Hf Hafnium ........ 3 Te Tellurium . . . . . . . . 0.001
(most compounds are diamagnetic)
Hg Mercury ........ 0.08 Th Thorium ........ 6-9 Birdsfoot Trefoil 116, 122 earthworms 43 M
K2 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3230.0 Black leg 103 effluent 44, 45, 52, 53, 61, 81, 109, 111,
Ho Holmium . . . . . . . . 1.2 Ti Titanium . . . . . . . . 5700
(with this exception) bleeding. See Syptic 125, 135, 136, 144, 146, 147, 148, MAF 23
I Iodine . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.5 Tl Thallium ........ 0.45
Praseodymium (Pr) . . . . 5010.0 blood purifier. See Alterative 149, 160 Magnesium 16, 18, 24, 25, 28, 170, 172
In Indium ........ 0.05 - 1.0 Tm Thullium . . . . . . . . 0.48
Pr2S3 . . . . . . . . . . . . 10770.0 Blood tests 64 elemental sulphur 32, 89, 165 Mandersonís Mixture 93
Ir Iridium . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.001 U Uranium ........ 2.7
Rhenium (Re) . . . . . . . . 67.6 boron 18, 24, 27, 36 endophyte 113, 114 manganese 18, 19, 20, 27, 37, 143
K Potassium . . . . 20000 V Vanadium . . . . . . . . 135
ReCl5 . . . . . . . . . . . . 1225.0 bray 31 excessive element 18 Manuka Honey 106
Kr Krypton ........ 0.001 W Tungsten . . . . . . . . 1.5
Rhodium (Rh) . . . . . . . . 111.0 breeding 77, 90, 95, 96, 102, 149, 151, Existing Bush 133 Mastitis 86, 107
La Lanthanum . . . . . . . . 30 Xe Xenon . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.00003
Rh2O3 . . . . . . . . . . . . 500.0 158 extracts or oils 71 mating 80, 81, 96, 97, 98, 156, 157, 166
Li Lithium . . . . . . . . 20 Y Yttrium . . . . . . . . 33
Rubidium (Rb) . . . . . . . . 17.0 Brix 18, 51, 52, 60, 61, 139, 171 Matua 113
Lu Lutecium . . . . . . . . 0.5 Yb Ytterbium . . . . . . . . 3
RbO2
Ruthenium (Ru)
. . . . . . . . . . . . 1527.0
. . . . 43.2
Mg Magnesium 23300 Zn Zinc . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Brome. See Matua F mechanical 41
Mn Manganese . . . . 950 Brought-in feed 166 mercury 18
Zr Zirconium . . . . . . . . 165
RuCl3 . . . . . . . . . . . . 1998.0 Bulk Density). See Volume Weight Fibre 65 micro-organisms 46
Mo Molybdenum .... 1.5
Samarium (Sm) . . . . 1860.0 bulls 73, 98, 144, 151, 154, 156, 157 financial study 168 milk production. See Galactorue
SmBr2 . . . . . . . . . . . . 5337.0 burns. See Demulcent fish 6, 31, 35, 49, 53, 54, 64, 144, 146 Mineral 11
Scandium (Sc) . . . . . . . . 315.0 Hence the reason for adding volcanic rock to soils in a finely ground form! five freedoms 63. See Animal Welfare Act Molasses 94
Tantalum (Ta) . . . . . . . . 154.0 molybdenum 18, 19, 20, 36, 37, 38, 82,
TaF3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795.0
C Fly strike 153
125
Fodder trees 137
Technetium (Tc) . . . . 250.0 cadmium 18 Footbaths 102 mutilations 154, 166
Terbium (Tb) . . . . 146000.0 Calcium 16, 18, 23, 24, 27, 33, 57, 60, 71, Fungi 14 mycorrhizal fungi 21, 56
Thulium (Tm) . . . . 25500.0 79, 83, 129 fungi 20, 31, 34, 50
TmO3 ........ 51444.0 calves 32, 76, 77 N
Titanium (Ti) . . . . . . . . 153.0
TiF2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1790.0
Carbohydrates 33 G
Carbon 18, 33, 34, 47, 49, 79 Navel Ill 78
Tungsten (W) . . . . . . . . 59.0 Carminative 71 Gorse 127, 128 Neem oil 89, 90, 167
WO3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5850.0 Case Study 168 granite 58, 59 Nematodes 15
Uranium (U) . . . . . . . . 395.0 cation balance 22 Grasses 113 nematodes 34, 50
UH3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9306.0 Cation exchange capacity (CEC) 24 Grass staggers 95 nerves. See Sedative; See Sedative
Vanadium (V) . . . . . . . . 255.0 Certification 45, 161, 164 grazing off 65, 166 Nitrogen 16, 18, 33, 34, 35, 47, 52, 58,
VBr3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8540.0 Chaffing 105 Green manures 35, 120 79, 170
Ytterbium (Yb) . . . . . . . . 249.0 nitrogen cycle 28, 33, 34
Yb2S3 ........ 18300.0

172 173
Organic Pastoral RESOURCE GUIDE

nourishes. See Nutritive S U

Nutrient uptake by roots 20
Nutritive 71 sacrifice paddock). See quarantine paddock Udder treatments 87
salt 19, 25, 27, 29, 36, 49, 59, 60 Ulcers 105
O Salt fertilisers 59 uterine contractions. See Oxytocic
salt lick 94
Oats 31, 70, 71, 124, 125 Sand 20 V
Oestrus 97, 98, 157, 166 Sandy 169
Ointments 72, 87 Scours 76, 78 Vaccination 76
Olsen P 23, 30 seaweed 41, 44, 49, 53, 54, 64, 80, 81, Vermicast 54, 55, 56, 147
Organic matter 11, 24 93, 94, 98, 99, 100, 104, 106, 111, vitamin C 82, 93, 99
Oxygen 18, 47, 58, 172 133, 154 Volume weight 23, 169
Oxytocic 71 Sedative 71
Selenium 38, 64, 71, 79, 81, 85, 98 W
P Sheep 107, 115, 135, 143, 149, 153, 154,
155, 160 Warts 105
pain relief. See Analgesic Sheeps/Salad Burnett 118 Water 11, 141
Paralysis 100 shelter belt 162 Water requirements 143
paramagnetic 41, 57, 58, 59, 60 Shock 105 Water uptake 19
Peat 169 Silicon 38, 79, 129 Weeds 79, 107, 113, 126, 127, 161, 165
Pectoral 71 Sodium 16, 23, 24, 29, 30, 55, 60, 79, 83, Welfare 63, 67, 75, 111, 143, 166
Peppering 128, 130 90, 124, 129 Wetlands 53, 135, 143, 144, 147, 161
Permitted Materials 167 sodium content 124 White Clover 115
Pest control 130 Soil and plant interaction 18 White line disease 101, 102
pH 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 25, 27, 30, 37, 38, soil food web 20, 47, 52 Woody tongue 104
47, 49, 52 Soil nutrient reserves 17 Worms 75, 76, 77, 106, 129, 143, 147
Phalaris 117, 118, 122, 124 soil testing 22 Wounds 104
Phosphate retention 31 Somatic cell counts 84
phosphorus 18, 20, 23, 28, 30, 31, 83, soothing. See Demulcent Y
116, 129 Sore Teats 105
Poisonous Native Plants 138 spray drift 50, 57, 111, 132, 134, 138, 159 Yorkshire Fog 115
Possums 130, 135 Spray equipment. See spray tanks
potassium 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, 24, 25, 27, spray tanks 158, 159 Z
28, 29, 30, 36, 39, 40, 44, 53, 54, steam cleaning 76
57, 169 Stocking rate 165 Zinc 16, 18, 23, 39, 55, 64, 79, 82, 85,
Potassium chloride 29, 60 stock management 63, 64 102, 167, 170
Potassium sulphate 28, 40, 60 stock transportation 154
Potentisation 68, 128 Straw 8, 29, 66
Power Lines 132 Strawberry clover 117
Preparation 500 43 Subterranean Clover 117
Preparation 501 44 Sulla 117, 122
Protozoa 15 sulphur 24, 27, 28, 29, 32, 33, 43, 44,
protozoa 34, 50 49, 57
Pulpy kidney 153 superphosphate 30, 31, 32, 60, 64
Syptic 71
Q
T
quarantine paddock 109, 116, 121, 122,
158, 166 Tail docking 154
Tall Fescue 114, 115, 122, 124
R Teas 61, 72, 128
Teatree oil 101
Rabbits 130 Teat sprays 87
Ragwort 127, 128 The Senses 156
Rearing calves 75 Timothy 114, 115, 119, 122, 124
Record keeping 165 Tonic 71, 73, 106
Red Clover 71, 82, 115, 117, 124, 125 transpiration 19
refractometer 18, 30, 51, 52, 60 treating effluent 146
Reserve Potassium 29 Trees and shrubs for honey 139
Resin P 23, 30, 31 Trees for Firewood 140
Restricted fertilisers 165 Trees for protection of waterways 135
Restricted Materials 167 Trees for shade 134
Retained membranes 100 Trees for shelter 134
Ribwort Plantain 118 Trees for timber and erosion control 135
Ringworm 89, 105 Tree Planting around ponds, dams, and
rock dust 57, 128 effluent ponds 135
Rotavirus 76
Ryegrass 113, 114, 122, 124

174