Section B - Globalization in the future Chapter 31 Globalization and the transformation of the political community -> Nationalism and

d political community The nation state has been the dominant form of political community since the French Revolution. Before, rights of political participation were restricted to adult male citizens. o Women were not full members of the community because they were denied citizenship. Most forms of political community in human history have been hostile to popular rule. o Empires for example have been governed by military elites. Ruling elites did not believe that states should represent nations r think that each nation should have its own state. Territorial states that were governed by absolutist monarchs engaged in a struggle for economic and political powers (17th century).

Territorial states As Max Weber argued, all states aim to monopolize control of the instruments of violence. o But they differ greatly in what they can do with coercive power. Pre modern states had limited ability to direct the lives of their subjects whereas modern states have the capacity to regulate (if not control) most aspects of society, including the economy. Michael Mann (1986) argues that modern states have acquired high levels of intensive power: power that can be projected deep into society. Pre modern states had poorly defined frontiers and limited ability to control frontier populations. Viable modern states have clearly demarcated borders and the ability to project power across and often beyond national territories. Michael Mann argues that modern territorial states have acquired a high level of extensive power: power that can be projected across space. Global reach is crucial for the understanding of the history of globalization. o E.g. when Europe embarked on a second wave of imperial expansion in the 19th century, it was states that created new levels and from of global interconnectedness (Held et al. 1999).

From territorial states to nation states States control of the instruments of violence led to the pacification of society where closer emotional ties between citizens developed. This development occurred for two reasons: o The rise of capitalism. o The rise of endemic warfare. The idea of print capitalism (Benedict Anderson 1991). o Strangers who would never meet could identify with the imagined community if the nation.

Ernest Gellner (1983) argued that industrialization was a primary reason for the rise of national languages and culture. o As a result of the sheer number of commercial exchanges. States played a central role in creating national identities not least by building education systems that promoted shared values. Warfare was crucial for the transition from territorial states to national states. Warring states promoted national solidarity to ensure that citizens would stay loyal in times of military conflict. Turning point in modern history was the French Revolution where it created the idea of the nation in arms along with national conscription. From that period, nationalism has been the ideology that has had the great influence on the evolution of political communities. Warfare and industrialisation created modern people with a strong sense of national consciousness. Nation state played has played a central role in the economic and political integration of the human race whist intensifying national differences. Nationalism was a European invention that spread across the world. o Third world nationalist movements used European ideas to replace alien government with self-rule. Ethnic rivalries meant that a sense of identification with the state did not develop. o E.g. separation of India and Pakistan in 1947. Decolonization later became the principle form of political community across the world.

-> Community and citizenship People resisted the states power over their lives and organized politically to extract citizenship rights from the state. These demands for human rights underline the global political culture that has emerged due to the increased connectedness of people.

Citizenship and rights During 18th and 19th centuries, the rising commercial and industrial classes challenged monarchical power; they argued for political rights due to their increasing economic importance. Middle classes demanded the rule of law and representation. o They succeeded in winning democratic rights but they refused to grant the same rights to subordinate groups such as women and the working class. o This was a dominant feature in modern industrial societies. Labour movements and political parties on the Left argued that inequalities of power and wealth had increased under capitalism. Pressures mounted to deepen the meaning of citizenship by adding social or welfare rights. o By 20th, many Western states introduced national health services. Most influential account of the evolution of citizenship, at least in Britain was found in the writings of T.H. Marshall who stated that political communities acquired great legitimacy by becoming more inclusive, and by giving all

citizens the legal, political, and social rights which had previously been monopolized by dominant groups. Modernization theorists believed that new states would undergo democratization and imitate Western models of capitalist development. o Global connectedness would lead to a general consensus about the most desirable system of government. However, ethnic and religious conflicts rise if military government as opposed to democratization and economic stagnation rather than capitalist development demonstrated the modernization theories has underestimated the challenges facing post - colonial societies.

-> The changing nature of political community The global influence of Western capitalist democracies is seen as a reason why the globalization of economic and political life has increased. The processes of globalization and fragmentation are two major influences on political communities at the present time. The concept of quasi state describes states that enjoy international recognition as sovereign communities but are unable to protect the basic needs of their populations (Jackson 1990). A failed state is a state that is unable to govern their societies without significant external support. o E.g., the disintegration of the former Yugoslavia where violent nationalism destroyed a multicultural political community that seemed to have succeeded in creating harmony between different cultural groups. Al Qaeda relied on globalization in the form of the global banking and communications system to promote its objectives and rally support for a transnational cause.

The politics of cultural difference To understand the changes, we must look at the relationship between war and the evolution of modern political communities. Success in war went to states that succeeded in creating an overarching idea of the nation. The desire to preserve local cultures and to achieve some degree of autonomy is found in all modern nation states but success is limited when political communities are faced with the threat of war. The war on terror and the 2003 invasion of Iraq have shown that states can harness popular support for war if they can convince citizens of immediate threats to personal and national security. The nature of loyalty is important. Evident when opposition to the Iraq war would be loyal to the state provided it complied with international law and respect for the United Nations system.

Group rights Have produced global changes in attitudes to citizenship. Advancement of citizenship ignored the special needs of women. Migrant and other groups should integrate into the wider community.

Feminist movements have influenced definitions of community. Many have challenged gendered ideas of the national culture that has been shared by male experience of war. Global interconnections facilitate the spread of modern Western values.

Cosmopolitan democracy and transitional citizenship Internal differences of class. Increased connection between human groups will encourage a greater sense of solidarity between the members of different communities or generate new conflicts over how human beings are bound together. Globalization questions the idea that political communities are responsible for promoting the interests of their citizens. Various global problems that states cannot handle have encouraged the development of NGOs. National populations are unwilling to sacrifice their lives for strangers.

Cosmopolitan democracy The idea of world citizenship is a concept that INGOs have used to promote a stronger sense of responsibility for the global environment and for the human species. National democracies have little control over global markets, and limited ability to influence decisions taken by transnational corporations that influences currency values and employment to name a few. The role of international organizations such as the WTO. Democracy requires a level of trust and a commitment to the public good.

Neo medievalist approaches Refers to an ideal political order in which individuals are governed by several overlapping authorities. Forces of globalization and fragmentation have renewed the interest in neo medievalist world order in which states transfer some powers to international institutions that will deal with global problems while other powers are transferred to domestic regions where the sense of cultural difference remains strong. o National governments should remain loyal to the state and citizens should remain loyal to the state. Best example is the European Union where some erosion of sovereign powers has taken place and where traditional conceptions of national interests have reduced importance. o Supports a global civilising process through efforts to maintain respect for global norms.

-> Beyond realism? Globalization and fragmentation has weakened centralized nation states. The desire not to return to a major war was the main reason for the creation of the European community after the Second World War and for the development of the universal human rights culture.

Realist approach to international relations insists there is no warranty that peace between the great powers will survive indefinitely. The level of public support that Bush and Blair commanded during the war against Iraq demonstrated that the state matters more than the United Nations when fear for personal and national security run high. The future of the political community is whether effective measures can be taken to protect the security of its citizens. o Certain that they will look to the state for security. The transformation of politics by globalization and fragmentation that pose new challenges to states will be influenced by realism and neo realism with their focus on continuities rather than change.

Communitarianism Believe that the cosmopolitans underestimate the role that separate communities play in the moral lives of human beings. Communitarians do not deny that societies have obligations to one another, but they insist that it is appropriate that most human beings are moved more by attachments to their community than by appeals to common humanity. With this view, it is therefore wrong to suppose that globalization will weaken particular communities that human beings will replace will national ties with cosmopolitan loyalties. Waltz 1994 argues that citizenship refers to a web of political rights and duties that only exist where there is a strong sense of identification with the nation state. o E.g. the Maastricht Treaty, the citizens of member states of the European Union are European citizens. Communitarian realism argues that the struggle for power and security in the context of anarchy will ensure the survival of strong attachments to independent political communities.

Post structuralism All standpoints that claim to represent humanity contain the risk of domination. Foucault claims that all forms of knowledge are potentially dangerous, even those promoting progress. Marxism however sets out to liberate the human race but became an instrument of totalitarian rule. The uncovering of universal moral and political truths contains danger also. The idea of humanitarian intervention has been criticized because it elevates civilized Western liberal societies and because it increases the danger of force that may cause great suffering to those it is designed to assist. o Iraq at present. Jaques Derrida (1992) argued that a Europe which reduces the monopoly power of the nation state and gives the expression to new forms of citizenship. o Not risk free as distinctions could be present between two cultures such as Europe and Islam. Women tend to be excluded. Danger will remain whether peoples remain loyal to sovereign states or try to build new forms of political community at regional and global levels.

Cosmopolitanism Globalization may seem to help to promote the cosmopolitan idea that all human beings are equal. The greater interconnectedness of human beings has increased popular awareness of common threats. Role of global institutions such as the International Criminal Court and reform global organizations such as the WTO.

Chapter 32 Globalization and the post cold war order -> Typology of order Different ideas about order: o State centric and retain traditional concerns with the structure of the balance of power, the polarity of the international system, and the different forms of collective security. o The relationship between economic and political dimensions new thinking about human security. At the end of the cold war, President Bush spoke about his vision of a New World Order to congress on 11 September 1990 outlining o Freer from the threat of terror, stronger in pursuit of justice and more secure in the quest for peacea world in which nations recognize the shares responsibility for freedom and justice. Competing frameworks of order produces problems. Realist concentrates upon the structure of the post cold war system, especially upon the number of great power actors and the distribution of capabilities among them. o Defines order largely in terms of the security structure. Broadly liberal focuses upon regimes and institutions, and their associated norms and values. o Central claim is that patterns of integration and interdependence had become so deeply embedded in the cold war period, although for strategic and geopolitical reasons, they had by then created a selfsustaining momentum. Terms of achievement of individual human freedom. o Governments are the main source of abuse of human rights (Ken Booth 1999). Globalization an on-going process.

-> The elements of contemporary order The social state system The state system is social. o States over the past century have performed a range of social functions. o The revival in the political viability of states from its lowest point of the Second World War.

Responsibility for development, economic management and social planning would be seen as essential tasks for the state. Reinforce patterns of behaviour similar forms of state international structure. Sovereignty and non-intervention are undergoing considerable adaption in order to confront issues such as standards of human rights.

Identity and the nation state Nationalism. State is challenged by new forms of political community driven by ethnic separation, transnational projects, social movements and returns to religion. Citizenship who is to count as a citizen? Revolution In Iran in 1979 resurgence of religion.

Polarity and the collectivization of security Concerns with the traditional security order. o Addresses present distribution of power, and whether that distribution should be described as unipolarity, bipolar or multipolar. American hegemony due to economic success in 1990. o Japans economy stagnated. o Russia became involved with economic and political transformation. o EU had difficulties in acting decisively on its own international crisis. o Chinas power remained a long-term prospect. Key factor in determining order was the role that the US played. o Iraq 2003 and Sudan 2005-6 contrasting roles.

The organization of production and exchange Degree of stability within the international trading and financial systems. Triads North America, Europe and Asia. o Trading relationship with the developing world. Economic order managed by IMF, World Bank and WTO. o Such bodies do not determine just the rules. Full effect of this internationalization of production includes many aspects that determine the quality of human lives: o Social rights, gender inequalities and labour to name a few.

Multilateral management and governance Network of contemporary forms of international governance. o Covers aspects of developments in legal, environment and political regimes. o Core peacekeeping activities of universal organizations such as the UN.

Regionalism Forms - Economic trading regions EU; security NATO and cultural activities. Same as the universal spread of the nation state. Greater degree of autonomy enjoyed by regions in constituting new forms of identity.

The liberal rights order Was highlighted with the collapse of the Soviet Bloc, since that event portrayed a major step forward in extending the liberal order. Future of democratization; the status of democracy as a universal norm and the future of democracy as a source of inter-state peace and stability.

North South and the two world orders The gap between the industrialized North and the marginalized South. Tensions may rise undermining prospects for longer-term stability. Significant inequalities exist. o Living standards. Globalization is aggravating these inequalities. Supporters state that it remains the best available means of adjusting them in the long term.

-> Globalization and the post Westphalian order Globalization is a consequence of the end of the cold war. o Geographical extent. o Breaking down of barriers preventing globalization, particularly the case with the socialist world. o Intensification of financial integration. Areas of the world are now more integrated with global capitalism, communication and cultural intrusions. Global financial order is virtually universal as is the influence of principle institutions such as the World Bank and IMF. Globalization is the difference between the cold war and the post cold war. o Problem with saying this globalization marks a point of continuity, not discontinuity between the two periods. o Neglects other dimensions of continuity liberal capitalist order. Principle element is the globalization developed out of the core of Western Capitalist states that formed during the cold war. o Weakened Soviet Union was not integrated into the technological and financial views of global capitalism. Globalization is seen as a long-term historical trend. No common goal? o A group of market, technological, ideological and cultural developments that have nothing in common (Falk 1997). o Does not constitute minimum order. Westphalian Order defined states with hard borders, each enjoying full sovereignty and jurisdiction within its own territory. o States would not intervene with the domestic affairs of each other. Human rights and humanitarian intervention has put increasing pressure on the norms of the Westphalian order.

-> Globalization and legitimacy Creates problems for political stability.

o Central problem is understood to be the limited effectiveness of democratic practices in present world conditions (World Bank, IMF and UN). Representation and accountability. o Citizens are represented in national electoral institution, but what voice does this give them in controlling economic, social and political forces. o Pointless if they remain powerless to exercise influence over global leaders/institutions. Lack of agreement between geographical organizations of various political systems anxiety about legitimacy deficits at a regional level. These concerns have led to the rise of a civil society. o Cross national social movements including anti-globalization and INGOs such as Greenpeace. o Only way to directly influence global policies. o Others believe civil society has no legitimate basis of representation (Van Rooy 2003) simply represents interests. Governments in the South believe civil society worsens the inequalities between rich and poor. o Seen as an extension of power for the North as such movements have a much more solid basis. o Economic development objectives (South) vs. Environmental movements (North). Contrasting global orders. o North strong governments and strong civil society movements. o South weak governments and weak civil society movements. May contribute to a perceived crisis of legitimacy for the state in the developing world.

-> An international order of globalized states? Globalization is more of an element within state transformation rather than a process above states. o A conception of a globalized state. Globalized international order. Globalization is a force wholly external to the individual state, and demands an outside in perspective on the resulting outcomes. o A claim about the degree of interconnectedness between states such that borders and the reality of separate state actors are called into question. Outside-in view and Inside-out view. The reconfiguration of the principles of international order to reflect the new realities of globalized states.