An Analysis of Secondary Language Arts Curriculum in Canada: A Case Study

Background It has been so long that English as a foreign language has been part of the mainstream curriculum of formal education in Indonesia. It is part of mainstream curriculum of secondary school and is also taught in elementary school as the so-called local content and has been introduced in kindegarten level too. This means that the amount of time of English learning is considerably long. A person might have learned English for 9 to 14 years from kindegarten to senior high school. But this considerable amount of time of learning English seems not to result in good competence at the end of the progam school. After years of learning English, high school graduates still lack the competence of communicating in English. Only some students especially in big cities- master and are able to communicate in English. But this competence comes not from the result of the learning in the school, rather students in big cities really learn English from the informal courses they take outside school. Students who get English lesson only from subject in school and do not take any additional courses lack of competence in communicating in English. Some students may have knowledge of English such as tenses, sentence structure, etc. but lack the competency of using it as tool of communication. This indicates failure in English language education in Indonesia. This failure may be the result of various factors ranging from lack of competence of the teachers, facilities, management, curriculum, to language policy. The curriculum of English as foreign language in Indonesia hasnt succeeded in developing communicative competence in students (Nanang, 2012). Moreover, the English language education in Indonesia does not equip and inculcate critical thinking which is of vital importance in the era of globalization. The curriculum of English in Indonesia should be revised (Alwasilah, 1998).

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For the improvement of English language education in Indonesia, a review of other countrys language curriculum and policy is worth undertaking. In a report Education at Glance, 2011 the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) reported ten most educated countries in the world (Stockdale and Sauter, 2012). They are in order from top to tenth position- Canada, Israel, Japan, United States, New Zealand, South Korea, Norway, United Kingdom, Australia, and Finland. The report rated the countries based on the educational attainment of the countries in the world. These ten countries with most-educated people are also some of the wealthiest countries in the world as with the largest GDPs. These countries invest aggressively in education. As an attempt to improve EFL teaching in Indonesia, it is worth finding out what the most educated countries have done in their language education, here foreign or second language education. We may take a look on Canada the number one most educated country- as a reference. We may take a look on the curriculum of the foreign or second language in Canada. French is the language taught as second language in Canada, and therefore we can compare Indonesias EFL curriculum with the curriculum of FSL (French as Second Language) in Canada, although the different status may implicate different practices and managements, but it shares the same thread as curriculum of non-native languages. From the examination of the secondary curriculum documents of EFL of Indonesia and FSL of Canada, it is found that the EFL curriculum of Indonesia and the curriculum of FSL in Canada share some common features. They are the emphasis on the mastery of the so-called four language skills (BSNP, 2006: 123) which is termed as strands in Canadas curriculum (Ministry of Education and Training Ontario, 1999: 6). Both are aimed at developing the four language skills which are grouped into three strands in Canadas curriculum: oral communication (listening and speaking), reading, and writing. The other common item is that the learning objectives or expectations of both curriculums expect students to attain the same level of literacy which is functional literacy a level of literacy in which students are able to read and write to fulfill their daily purposes (Wells, 1987 in Alwasilah, 2008: 145). The functional literacy skills include the oral skills such as transactional conversations, and the literateness of written
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materials such as the understanding of brochures, advertisements, posters, ability to write a letter, a postcard, email message, greeting card, etc. Both curriculums also include the reading of texts such as narratives, shorts stories, recount and the like. Both curriculums are behavioral curriculum, since they list the expected behaviors of the students at the end of the program. Some distinct features are also found in the secondary curriculum of second language in Canada compared to one of Indonesia. The first difference is that since French is a second language in Canada, the FSL program offers students with choices of programs. They are Core French, Extended French and French Immersion. Students can choose the program which suits their needs best. In grade 11 and 12, there are two types of Core French offered: the university preparation and the open course. So students have chances to choose the programs which suit their needs, purposes and interest. Of course, this varied programs offered in FSL cannot be compared to Indonesias EFL since the status of the languages is different, but the point to make is that there is an accomodation and facilitation of students differing interests and needs in the language curriculum of Canada. The foreign language curriculum in Canada also accommodates students with special needs in primary education (Ministry of Education, The Ontario Curriculum, 2006). The other distinction of Indonesias EFL curriculum of secondary education and Canadas language curriculum is that while the application of critical thinking is expected to be demonstrated by students in grade 10 in Canadas curriculum, there is no mention of critical thinking in the curriculum of English language in Indonesias secondary education, Standar Isi KTSP, 2006. This indicates a backwardness of our language education in that our language education does not inculcate critical thinking in students. The other distinctive feature found is the assignment of independent reading in Canadas secondary curriculum. In the curriculum of FSL in Canada students are required to read independently a minimum of 40 pages fiction and non-fiction narratives and make the summary of the story or present it to the class. Another feature is the teaching of dictionary skills are stated explicitly in the curriculum. Such skills are
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recognizing short forms for parts of speech, pronunciation cues, abbreviations, etc. While in Indonesia, the skills of using dictionary are not mentioned in the curriculum and thus do not get much attention from the teachers. There are also explicit lists of language structures which need to be learned by students in order to be able to reach the objectives and expectations stated in the curriculum. These explicit lists of language structures function as guidelines for teachers to teach language structures required for attaining the learning expectations and objectives. Whereas in Indonesia s EFL curriculum, there is no guideline for teachers to teach language structures. There is no explicit list of language structures required for attaining the learning objectives. Indonesias EFL curriculum comprises certain competence standards and basic competences which reflect the behaviors that the students are expected to demonstrate. To fulfill the expected outcomes, teachers need to formulate on their own the prerequisite knowledge and activities to attain the expectations. This is of course, not easy for novel teachers, since the official curriculum document from the government does not provide the guidelines for attaining the curriculum expectations. There is another distinct and interesting feature of Canadas secondary language curriculum that is the teaching of research skills in the writing strand. One of the expectations of the writing strand is that students can prepare and conduct a survey to gather information, and summarize the data in short sentences in grade 9. In grade 11, students are expected to be able to write for audience. These research skills are not taught in the secondary language curriculum in Indonesia. It is worth considering that we may adopt some of the aspects of the language curriculum in other country for the improvement of the EFL teaching in Indonesia. Objectives of the Paper The objectives of this paper are: 1. To broaden our knowledge on language arts curriculum 2. To give description of how other country, Canada, provides second or foreign language education for secondary students as one of references 3. To synthesize best practices for EFL in Indonesia
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Literature Review The review of the literature covers discussions about curriculum in general, and curriculum of foreign language education. Curriculum There are many disputes about what curriculum is and how we should deal with education. According to Posner (1992: 3), educational decision is best approached using reflective eclecticism. Being eclectic means that we do not believe or stick to one single approach or method in dealing with education, rather we flexibly use various approaches and methods and the combination of them depending on the kinds of the cases and contexts we are dealing with. This is because there is no panacea in education. The eclecticism is also accompanied with reflective attitude. So, in adopting various kinds of methods and approaches, we have to be reflective. We have to reflect whether certain method or the combination of approaches we use suits the contexts and purposes, whether it meets its goal effectively, or whether it has been implemented well. The word curriculum originated from the running/ chariot tracks of Greece. It comes from Latin currere which means to run/ the running/ course (Smith, 1996; Posner, 1992). In a race, there is a place or the finish line as our destination, and to get to the destination, there is a course which we have to go through. This means that in learning, there is a destination or goals which we want to achieve as the result of our learning, and to achieve the result, there are learning experiences that we must undergo. A starting point in defining curriculum was offered by John Kerr in Kelly (1999) which is quoted by Smith (1996). Kerr defines curriculum as all the learning which is planned and guided by the school, whether it is carried on in groups or individually, inside or outside school. Smith (1996) suggests there are two features which are implied by this definition. The first is that learning is planned and guided. This suggests that in learning, we should determine what we would like to achieve and how to go about it. The second is that the definition refers to schooling. We just appreciate and recognize the concept of curriculum in the school. The thing to highlight is that curriculum is that in learning, we should determine in advance what we would like to achieve and the way

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to go about it. It implies that learning has ends and takes process/ way/ means to reach the expected ends. There are differing concepts of the definition of curriculum, concerning the ends and means. The first concept defines curriculum as the expected ends of education, e.g. the intended learning outcome, and the second defines curriculum as the expected means of education, i.e. instructional plans (Posner, 1992: 4). But then, plans, either for ends or means, are insignificant when the actual implementation and practice differ from the plans. So there appear fundamentally different conceptions of curriculum, one focusing on curriculum as means or ends and curriculum as a plan for or a report of actual educational report. The followings are some common concepts of curriculum that people would think of (Posner, 1992). 1. Scope and Sequence: scope and sequence curriculum document is a document listing a series of intended learning outcomes in each grade level, thus giving sequence. The outcomes are grouped based on topics, themes, thus giving the scope of the curriculum. 2. Syllabus: Syllabus is a plan for a course. It consists of goals/ the intended outcomes, topics covered, resources used, assignments, and evaluation strategies. Syllabus represents both elements of means and ends. 3. Content outline: some people when asked for their curriculum, they give content outline. Content outline is a list of contents to be taught. When we consider teaching as merely transmission of knowledge, this equation of curriculum to content outline may be sufficient. But when learning has other purposes, content outline lacks the information about objectives, rationale, teaching and learning modes, etc. 4. Textbooks: Textbooks are usually used by teachers as day-to-day guide, that is guide to both the ends and means of instruction. 5. Course of Study: set of courses, that curriculum is a series of courses that students must get through.

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6. Planned experiences: curriculum comprises all the experiences of the students planned by the school. Curriculum Models In planning a curriculum, framework is needed. A curriculum model can provide a framework for getting a procedure to plan a curriculum. One model which is very influential in the field of curriculum work is one of Ralph Tyler, often called the Tyler Rationale (Posner, 1992). The Tyler model consists of four questions which guide a curriculum planner in developing a curriculum. The four questions of the Tyler Rationale are as follow: 1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain? 2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes? 3. How can these experiences be effectively organized? 4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained? First, a curriculum planner should determine what educational objectives the school should seek to attain. These objectives come from the studies of the learners, the study of contemporary life in society, and the study of subject matter by the experts. The objectives should be formulated as specifically and unambiguously as possible, so that the evaluation of the attainment of these objectives can be undertaken. Second, after formulating the objectives precisely, a curriculum developer should determine what experiences can be provided to attain the objectives. The experiences are choosen as a means of learning with regard to the consistency with the objectives and the financial expense. Third, the next step after choosing educational experiences is about the organization of the experiences. The planner should organize the experiences in such a way so that it can result cumulative effects on students. Experiences are organized, buliding on one another and should enable students to understand the relationship of the experiences across fields. Organizing experiences also deals with sequence. Experiences should be
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put in appropriate sequence, that experiences build on one another, and that certain experiences might require other certain experiences to be undergone earlier. Attention should also be given to the integration of knowledge and skills gained from the experiences. Certain concepts, knowledge and skills are considerably complex that they need repeated study across grades or levels with increasing degree of complexity and sophistication. Fourth, a curriculum planner should determine whether the educational objectives are being attained. Learning should be evaluated whether the objectives are attained. Evaluation is conducted using instruments such as tests, project work, observation of students performance, questionnaires, etc. The instruments are developed to check the effectiveness of the curriculum. The criterion of success is behavioral evidence. Curriculum Theoretical Framework Each curriculum has their underlying assumptions or beliefs, or theoretical perspective. Posner (1992: 47) summarizes the most famous theoretical perspectives of curriculum with their central question are as follow: 1. Traditional: What are the most important aspects of our cultural heritage that should be preserved? 2. Experiential: What experiences will lead to the healthy growth of the individual? 3. Structure of the Discipline: What is the structure of the disciplines of knowledge? 4. Behavioral: At the completion of the curriculum, what should the learners be able to do? 5. Cognitive: How can people learn to make sense of the world and to think more productively and creatively? Foreign Language Curriculum According to McLaren and Madrid (2004), foreign language curriculum is concerned with planning, implementation, management, administration, and evaluation of the foreign language program. According to them, in designing curriculum for foreign language, we combine the principles of language learning and the elements brought by

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learners into the classroom such as, experiences, knowledge, interests, needs, and motivation. There are factors which need to be considered in designing curriculum for foreign language. Sterns (1983) in McLaren and Madrid (2004) has put forward the factors as follow. 1. Linguistic factors: Linguistic uniformity and diversity in the community Relationship between L1 and L2 Attitudes of learners towards L2 Language differences and social groups Choice of particular L2 Political relations with the L2 country Geographical distance between the community Need of L2 for economic development Starting age Time allocated for L2 weekly Introduction of other foreign languages

2. Social and cultural factors

3. Historical setting and the national political situation

4. Geographical aspects 5. Economic and technological development 6. Educational framework in the region/ Autonomous community

One of concepts of curriculum is a syllabus. Over years, foreign language syllabus has been organized in different ways based on their underlying theory or assumptions. There are two major kinds of syllabuses of foreign language. The first is the productoriented syllabus and the second is the process-oriented syllabus (McLaren and Madrid, 2004). The product-oriented syllabus has several characteristics. It is goal-centred. In this kind of syllabus, there is a planning of learning outcome or objectives. The objectives are
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usually the expected students performance. The class tends to be teacher -directed as the teacher is conceived as the model to be imitated. Initiatives come from the teacher. The assessments are usually criterion-referenced. The criterion is based on the objectives planned previously. Tests are administered. The product-oriented syllabuses include the structural-grammatical syllabus and the notional-functional syllabus. The process-oriented syllabuses are usually concerned with tasks and activities which students perform. Language will be used by students in the activity and in doing the tasks. Process-oriented syllabuses aim at developing efficient learning strategies. They accommodate individual learning style. Students are allowed to negotiate activities with the teachers. There is a special attention for affective factors such as students feelings, emotions, and values. Students metacognitive awareness is developed as they are involved in decision-making. Examples of process-oriented syllabuses are procedural syllabus, task-based syllabus, and natural approach. The curriculum above has their own strengths and weaknesses as they also receive critiques. Recent issues of language learning now consider the importance of incorporating critical thinking into language teaching. Critical thinking in language education is taught by raising issues related to social problems and unjustice, about race, gender and class. This can be done by choosing texts which discusses controversial social issues as teaching materials. From the perspective of Critical Pedagogy, language is seen as a practice that constructs and is constructed by the ways language learners understand themselves, their social surroundings, their histories and their possibilities for the future (Norton an d Toohey, 2004). Here language constructs and is also constructed by the way we understand themselves and our surroundings. In the society, then language plays a role in the production and reproduction of power and social unjustice. That means adopting critical pedagogy for language education is very important.

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Synthesis There are some aspects that may be adopted from Canadas secondary curriculum of language education. They are the inculcation of critical thinking in students, that language learning should promote critical thinking skills. The critical thinking skills can be trained by using texts which raise issues related to social problems, social unjustice, race, gender and class. The critical thinking can also be trained during oral communication activities in which students try to express their opinions and ideas about the topics. The teaching of critical thinking in English as foreign language in Indonesia can be started by employing simple but controversial topics and themes e.g. about smoking, about Indonesias culinary heritage vs western food, etc. Themes and topics which are selected by teachers should be simple, regarding the limited language repertoire of the students. Topics should be simple enough for the students so that, with their limited language, they still can discuss the topics. Another aspect that is important to be adopted is the promotion of literacy habit in language learning with the assignment of independent reading. While FSL students in Canada are expected to read independently a story or a chapter of a book, or a novel, Indonesian EFL students can be assigned to read simple anecdotes on English magazines. The assignment of independent readings should be adjusted to students situation and their interests and motivations. We cannot directly assign students to read independently an article or chapter of a book (which is long). The assignment of independent reading should be given step-by-step. Dictionary skills are also important to be taught to students. Other important thing to be considered is the itemization of language structure in curriculum. It is very useful for novel teachers as guidelines. While FSL students in Canada are taught research skills such as conducting a simple survey, gathering data and summarizing data in short sentences, EFL students in Indonesia can also be assigned to do the same thing. Students can be assigned to conduct a survey on classmates favorite meals, for instance. In gathering the data, they should interview their classmates in English, asking what kind of food they like and why. They record the data using field notes and then classify the data, which meals belong to
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healthy food and which meals belong to unhealthy food, what is the percentage of classmates who like healthy food and classmates who like the unhealthy food. Then they should make judgment on the result. The assignment of simple research like this integrates a number of language skills at the same time that are speaking, listening, and writing. In addition to that, it also promotes critical, analytical, and creative thinking as students are exposed to issues (healthy vs unhealthy food), have to analyze the data they gather and learn to judge and write their simple research. This mode of learning language is in line with the process-oriented syllabus which incorporates language learning through tasks and activities, and this mode of learning also integrates critical thinking. Therefore, a combination of process-oriented syllabus and critical thinking through project work will be very beneficial for language learning and worth implementing.

Curriculum of English as Foreign Language for Grade X Senior High School Semester 1 Objectives: Listening: Respond to functional conversation Respond to interpersonal conversation Respond to spoken texts

Speaking: Communicate in the target language for functional purposes Communicate in the target language for interpersonal purposes Make a simple guided oral presentation
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Reading: Demonstrate an understanding of a functional and informational reading material Apply critical thinking as they read (taking notes)

Writing: Express ideas and opinions in short written text Create short written texts, e.g. procedural, narratives, etc.

No. Objectives Listening Respond to functional conversation Respond to interpersonal conversation Respond to spoken texts

Competencies Respond to invitation, appoinmentaccepting or rejecting Respond to ones self-introduction, greeting, meeting and parting Respond to ones recount, narrative and procedure texts

Modes of learning and teaching Listening to a taped conversation of inviting someone Listening to a taped conversation of selfintroduction, greeting, and parting Listening to a narrative, recount spoken by the teacher, procedure spoken and acted by the teacher Question and answer about the taped conversation Teacher perform the

Teaching Materials Taped conversati on, Script for teacher

Evaluation Observation , students responding to stimulus by teacher

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Speaking Communicat e in the target language for functional purposes Communicat e in the target language for interpersonal purposes Make a simple guided oral presentation Reading Demonstrate an understandin g of a functional and informational reading material Apply critical thinking as they read (taking notes)

Inviting someone, accepting or rejecting invitation Students are able to introduce themselves to others, greet and part with others in English Students are able to present guided presentation of narrative/ recount/ procedure text

invitation, selfintro, greeting and parting, students respond Performing dialog on a given story line by teacher (selfintroduction, invitation) Students oral guided presentation of narrative/ procedure with Powerpoint they have made

Teachers prepared story line Students presentati on slides

Observation on students performanc e on dialog and Students oral presentatio n

Students demonstrate an understanding of functional texts of advertisment, pamphlet, invitation, etc. by answering questions, or re-tell the texts. Demonstrate critical thinking skills by identifying issues and values in reading selection, analysing root causes, expressing their views Students are able to write point entries (summary) of their reading

Students reading and discussion Students summarizing and note taking of texts

Examples Test of pamphlet, advertise ment taken from C n S Magazine,

Narrative, recount, and procedure texts

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Writing Express ideas and opinions in short written text Create short written texts, e.g. procedural, narratives, etc.

Students are able to create simple texts/ presentation slide of narrative/ procedure/ recount texts. Past Tense for Narrative and Recount Imperative sentence for Procedure text, coherence in explaining every step in procedure (use of discourse marker)

Students writing simple narrative texts based on given pictures,

A series of pictures as writing prompt

Writing assignment, Project work, Simple survey project

Students do project Project on practicing making something at home, then take pictures on each step, then compose presentation slides of a procedure text, with the pictures they have taken during the project

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Lesson Unit School Class Subject Time Objectives Create short written texts, e.g. procedure : SMA Muhammadiyah 1 Cimahi :X : English : 2 x 45 minutes (one session)

Competencies Students are able to create simple texts/ presentation slide of procedure. Accurate use of Imperative sentence for Procedure text and discourse marker such as, Firstly, then, after that, etc.

Content: Writing Procedure texts Learning Activities: Pre-Activities: Prayer Apperception: Review of the previous reading of procedure texts

Whilst Activities: Students are divided into groups of four. Teacher lists some kinds of food on the board for the students to choose. Students choose the kinds of food that they will write the recipe of the food. After deciding on the recipe that they will write, students start making their draft in groups. Teacher walks around the class to help students with their writing. After finishing their draft, students revise their draft with the help and guidance of the teacher. Students produce final draft of their recipe with approval of the teacher.

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Post-Activities: Students are given homework that is project in which students practice their recipe at home in groups, and take pictures of every step they do in cooking. Using the pictures theyve taken, and the recipe they have written, students create a PowerPoint presentation to be presented in the next session.

Learning resources: Examples of procedure text in the previous session Teachers prepared themes (food recipes)

Assessment: Assessment on students final draft Assessment on students PowerPoint presentation slides

Cimahi, 28 June 2012 Subject Teacher

Ainun Jariyah

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References Alwasilah, A.C. (1998). English Language Teaching Must Be Reformed (2). In Alwasilah (2001) Language, Culture, and Education: A Portrait of Contemporary Indonesia. Page 45. Bandung: Andira Alwasilah, A.C. (2008). Pokoknya BHMN: Ayat-ayat Pendidikan Tinggi. Bandung: Penerbit CV. Lubuk Agung BSNP. (2006). Standar Isi untuk Satuan Pendidikan Dasar dan Menengah: Standar Kompetensi dan Kompetensi Dasar SMA/ MA. Jakarta: Badan Standar Nasional Pendidikan retrieved 25 June 2012 from the World Wide Web: http://litbang.kemdikbud.go.id/content/BUKUST~1(4).pdf K M, Nanang. (2012). Mengapa Pembelajaran Bahasa Inggris Kita Gagal?.PaGI. Retrieved 24 June 2012 from http://padepokanguru.org/2012/01/05/mengapa-pelajaran-bahasa-inggriskita-gagal/ McLaren, N. y Madrid, D. (2004): The Foreign Language Curriculum, en Madrid, D. y McLaren, N. (eds.): TEFL in Primary Education. Granada: Editorial Universidad de Granada, pp. 144-176 Retrieved 28 June 2012 http://www.ugr.es/~dmadrid/DLI-3%20Primaria/Chapter%204-TEFL-UGRFL%20Curriculum.pdf Ministry of Education and Training Ontario. (1999). The Ontario Curriculum Grades 9 and 10: French as a Second Language: Core, Extended and Immersion French. Ontario. Retrieved 3 May 2012 from the World Wide Web site at http://www.edu.gov.on.ca. Ministry of Education Ontario. (2000). The Ontario Curriculum Grades 11 and 12: French as a Second Language: Core, Extended and Immersion French. Ontario. Retrieved 3 May 2012 from the website at http://www.edu.gov.on.ca. Ministry of Education Ontario. (2006). The Ontario Curriculum Grades 1 8: Language. Ontario: Ministry of Education. Retrieved 25 June 2012 website, at http://www.edu.gov.on.ca. Norton, Bonny and Kelleen Toohey. 2004. (Editor). Critical Pedagogies and Language Learning. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. http://catdir.loc.gov/catdir/samples/cam041/2003048557.pdf 23 May 2012 Posner, George J. (1992). Analyzing the Curriculum. United States of America: McGraw-Hill
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Smith, M. K. (1996, 2000) 'Curriculum theory and practice' the encyclopaedia of informal education, www.infed.org/biblio/b-curric.htm 24 June 2012 Stockdale, Charles B. and Michael B. Sauter. (2012, Feb 14). The 10 Most Educated Countries in the World. Retrieved 26 June 2012 from the World Wide Web: http://ca.finance.yahoo.com/news/the-10-most-educated-countries-in-theworld.html

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(problems in countryside school, lack of performance compared to knowledge, perlunya terobosan dlm pendiidkan bahasa di jaman globalisasi: critical thinking)

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