EVIDENCES, STRUCTURE AND TYPEES OF DNA

Two basic pre requisites, for a ateria! to be "e#etic, are rep!icatio# a#$ e%pressio# b& itse!f' DNA fu!fi!s a!! t(e criteria to be "e#etic especia!!& because) *i+ It rep!icates itse!f a#$ occur i# a!! t(e ce!!s' *ii+ It co#tro!s ce!!u!ar structure a#$ fu#ctio#s t(rou"( tra#scriptio# a#$ tra#s!atio# EVIDENCES OF DNA ,EIN- A -ENETIC .ATERIA/) 000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 *A+ -riffit(s E%peri e#t ) t(e e%peri e#t w(ic( "a1e t(e first e1i$e#ce of DNA bei#" a "e#etic ateria! was carrie$ out b& a# E#"!is( bacterio!o"ist, S'F'-riffit(s i# 2345' 6e co#$ucte$ a series of e%peri e#t o# Dip!ococcus p#eu#o#iae or P#eu#ococcus, a bacteria t(at causes p#eu o#ia i# a a!s, a bacteria t(at causes p#eu o#ia t&pe' T(ere are se1era! sub t&pes of t(ese two strai# S t&pe a#$ R t&pe ' t(ere are se1era! sub t&pes of t(ese two strai#s 1i7' S8 I, S8 II, S8 III a#$ R8 I, R8II, R8III etc' -riffit( use$ S8III a#$ R8 II' Co parati1e accou#t of S 9 strai# a#$ R8 strai# of bacteria Dip!ococcus S 9 strai# R8 strai# *i+ It is a 1iru!e#t strai#' It (as *i+ It is a #o# 1iru!e#t' It $oes #ot $isease pro$uci#" capacit&' (a1e t(e $isease pro$uci#" capacit&' *ii+ T(e& are capsu!ate$' Capsu!e is *ii+ T(e& are #o# capsu!ate$' a$e up of a s oot( a#$ "u & po!&sacc(ari$e coati#"' *iii+ T(e& for e$ S oot( *iii+ T(e& for e$ Rou"( co!o#ies "!iste#i#" co!o#ies, (e#ce ca!!e$ S wit( $u!! appeara#ce, (e#ce :#ow# 9 Strai#' as R8 strai# *i1+ T(e& e%ist i# 1arious sub8 t&pes *i1+ T(e& a!so e%ist i# 1arious sub 1i7 S8I' S8II, S8 III etc' t&pes' 1i7 R8 I, R8 II, R8 III etc'

T(e -riffit( co#$ucte$ e%peri e#ts are "i1e# be!ow)8 *i+ *ii+ *iii+ *i1+ I#;ecte$ S8 strai# i# ice, t(e ice $e1e!ope$ p#eur o#ia a#$ $ie$' I#;ecte$ R8 strai# i# ice, #o $e1e!op e#t of P#eu#o#ia a#$ ice sur1i1e$' I#;ecte$ (eat :i!!e$ S8 strai#, #o $e1e!op e#t of p#eu o#ia a#$ ice sur1i1e$' I#;ecte$ (eat :i!!e$ S8strai# a#$ !i1e R8 strai#, p#eu o#ia $e1e!ope$ a#$ ice $ie$'

<e

a& su

ari7e t(e abo1e e%peri e#ts as fo!!ows

/i1e S = ice 88888888 ice $ie$ /i1e R = ice 888888888 ice sur1i1e$ 6eat :i!!e$ S= ice 88888888 ice sur1i1e$ 6eat :i!!e$ S = /i1e R = ice 888888888 ice $ea$ > ,!oo$ of $ie$ ice co#tai#e$ t(e !i1e S bacteria' 6ow $i$ !i1i#" S ce!!s appeare$ i# t(e b!oo$ a#$ cause$ t(e $eat( ? -riffit( co#c!u$e$ t(at occurre#ce of !i1i#" S8 t&pe 1iru!e#t bacteria is possib!e o#!& b& t(eir for atio# fro R 9 t&pe #o# 1iru!e#t bacteria w(ic( pic: up t(e trait of 1iru!e#ce fro $ea$ bacteria' T(e p(&e#o e#o# is ca!!e$ -riffit( Effect' I# 23@@, O'T A1er&, .c Cart& a#$ .ac/eo$, after :#owi#" t(e resu!ts -ri""it( e%peri e#ts i# cu!ture e$ia, co#$ucte$ fo!!owi#" e%peri e#ts8 *i+ *ii+ *iii+ *i1+ R8 strai# = Protei# of S t&pe 88888888R strai# o#!& R 9 strai# = carbo(&$rate S t&pe 8888888888 R strai# o#!& R8 strai# =*DNA of S 9strai# =DNA 9 ase+ 8888888 S 9 strai# o#!& R8strai# = DNA of S8t&pe 88888888 R 9 t&pe = S 9 t&pe

O#!& DNA of S 9 t&pe (as t(e capabi!it& to c(a#"e R 9 strai# of bacteria i#to St&p' It is a proof t(at "e#e of 1iru!e#ce is !ocate$ i# DNA ca# be tra#sferre$ fro o#e or"a#is to a#ot(er a#$ co#ti#ues to e%press its "e#etic qua!ities' *,+ 6ers(e& a#$ C(ase E%peri e#t) t(e ost co#c!usi1e proof of DNA bei#" a "e#etic ateria! was pro1i$e$ b& A'D 6ers(e& a#$ a bacteria E' 23A4' T(e& "rew bacteria! 1irus T4 a#$ a bacteria E' co!i i# cu!ture e$ia b& !abe!e$ isotope SBA a#$ PB4,' T(e e%peri e#t a& be su ari7e$ as fo!!ows' *a+ ,acteria = 1irus wit( !abe!e$ Protei# coat cu!ture 88888888888 No# Ra$ioacti1e ,acteria' *b+ ,acteria = Virus wit( !abe!e$ DNA cu!ture88888888 Ra$ioacti1e ,acteria ce#trifu"atio# ,ot( cu!ture e$ia were a#a!&se$' It was fou#$ t(at super#ata#t of cu!ture e$ia I (as t(e ra$ioacti1it& but ba$Ccteria pro"e#& $i$ #ot co#tai# ra$ioacti1e S s(owi#" t(at protei# cost $oes #ot pass t(e i#for atio#' T(e super#ata#t of cu!ture e$ia II $i$ #ot possess ra$ioacti1it& but bacteria pro"e#& obtai#e$ co#tai#e$ ra$ioacti1e but bacteria pro"e#& obtai#e$ co#tai#e$ ra$ioacti1e DNA

T(e abo1e e%peri e#t furt(er c!arifie$ t(at DNA is a "e#etic ateria! because t(e p(a"e DNA e#tere$ t(e bacteria! ce!! a#$ #ot t(e protei# coat' D ,io 9 c(e ica! E1i$e#ces) T(e fact t(at DNA is "e#etic ateria! a& be furt(er sub ta#itiate$ b& t(e fo!!owi#" bio c(e ica! e1i$e#ces *i+ ,io c(e ica!!&, it (as bee# estab!is(e$ t(at t(e a ou#t of DNA i# a#& "i1e# ce!! of a# or"a#is is re ar:ab!& co#sta#t a#$ ca##ot be a!tere$ b& e#1iro# e#ta! circu sta#ces or b& c(a#"es i# t(e #utritio# of etabo!is of t(e ce!!, a# propert& to be e%pecte$ i# "e#etic ateria!' Tab!e s(owi#" DNA co#te#t of ce!!s of t(e c(ic:e# 8888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888 Tissue DNA pico"ra *2E 824 " + per ce!! 6eart 4'@A Fi$#e& 4'4E /i1er 4'GG Sp!ee# 4'AA Pa#creas 4'G2 Er&t(roc&te 4'@3 Sper ce!!s * (ap!oi$+ 2'4G *ii+ ,ase Equi1a!e#ces i# DNA * C(ar"aff Ru!e + o#e of t(e ost i porta#t ,io c(e ica! e1i$e#ce supporti#" t(e co#cept t(at DNA is t(e bearer of "e#etic i#for atio# (as bee# t(e $isco1er& t(at t(e base co positio# of DNA is re!ate$ to t(e species of ori"i#'

I# 23AE823AB, Erwi# C(ar"aff a#$ (is co!!ea"ues app!ie$ qua#titati1e c(ro ato"rap(ic et(o$s to t(e swparatio# a#$ qaua#titati1e a#a!&sis of t(e four bases i# (&$ro!&7ates of DNA speci e# iso!ate$ fro $iffere#t or"a#is s' T(e fi#$i#"s were "e#era!i7e$, as E' c(ar"aff Ru!e a#$ are as fo!!ows *a+ T(e base co positio# of DNA 1aries fro o#e species to a#ot(er' *b+ DNA speci e#s iso!ate$ fro $iffere#t tissues of t(e sa e species (a1e t(e sa e base co positio#' *c+ A8T base pairs equa! i# #u ber to t(e -8C base pairs *$+ T(e a ou#t of puri#es a#$ p&ri i$i#es are equa! A=- H T =C *e+ T(e a ou#t of a$e#i#e is a!wa&s equa! to t(& i#e a#$ t(e a ou#t of "ua#i#e is a!wa&s equa! to t(at of c&tosi#e i'e AHT a#$ -HC'

P6YSICO C6E.ICA/ STRUCTUREOF DNA Doub!e (e!ica! structure' T(e DNA' T(e DNA structure as $e$uce$ b& <atso# a#$ cric: (as t(e fo!!owi#" sa!ie#t features8 a+ DNA is a$e upto of two po!&#uc!eoti$e c(ai#s' b+ T(e two sta#$s of po!&#uc!eoti$es are coi! arou#$ eac( ot(er i# t(e for of a $oub!e (e!i%' c+ T(e bac: bo#e of DNA o!ecu!e is a$e of p(osp(ate su"ar a#$ ce#tre of t(e DNA o!ecu!e is for e$ of #itro"e# bases' $+ ,ot( po!&#uc!eoti$e c(ai#s are ;oi#e$ to"et(er b& wee: (&$ro"e# bo#$s' e+ ,ot( t(e stra#$s are a# i$e#tica! i# base equi1a!e#ce or co positio# but t(e& are co p!e e#tar& to eac( ot(er' f+ ,ot( t(e stra#$s ru# a#tipara!!e! i'e if o#e stra#$ ru#s fro AI to BI t(e ot(er ru#s i# BI to AI $irectio#'+

History of DNA
i+ ii+ iii+ i1+ 1+ 1i+ 1ii+ t(e -er a# scie#tist, Frie$ric( .iesc(er i# 23G3 was t(e first to iso!ate DNA fro #uc!ei of a pus ce!! a#$ #a e$ it JNuc!ei#K i# 25L4 a si i!ar p(osp(orus co pou#$ was iso!ate$ b& .iesc(er fro sa! o# sper ' I# 255E Fisc(er $isco1ere$ t(e prese#ce of puri#e a#$ p&ri i$i#e bases i# #uc!eic aci$' I# 2533, A!t a##$ue to aci$ic #ature of "e#etic it #uc!eo#ic aci$ a#$ t(e# #uc!eic aci$' ateria!s ca!!e$

I# 232E /e1e#e, fou#$ t(at DNA co#tai#s p(osp(oric aci$ as wi!! as $eo%&ribose su"ar' I# 23AE E 'c(ar"aff fou#$ equi1a!e#ce bases i# DAN' I# 23AE823AA <'T Astbur& o# t(e bsis of M ra& $iffractio# fou#$ t(at DNA is a po!&#uc!eoti$e c(ai# i# w(ic( #uc!eoti$es are arra#"e$ perpe#$icu!ar to t(e !o#" a%is a#$ separate$ fro o#e a#ot(er b& a "ap of E'B@#

1iii+ I# 23AB wi!:i#s a#$ Fra#:!i# fou#$ o# t(e basis of %8 ra& p(oto"rap( of DNA t(at it is a (e!i% wit( a wi$t( of 4# ' 6e!i% is B'@# !o#" wit( 2E!a&ers of baswses stac:e$ i# it' i%+ I# 23AB, <atso# a#$ cric: $e$uce$ B8D structure of DNA o# t(e basis of M ra& p(oto"rap( of wi!i#s a#$ Fra#:!i#' T(e& weBre awar$e$ Nob!e pro7e ;i# 23G4' Ot(er re!ate$ $isco1eries i+ Feu!"e# pro1e$ DNA is !ocate$ i# c(ro oso a! area of #uc!eus' Nuc!eus is Feu"e# positi1e' ii+ ,e(ra state$ t(at #uc!eic aci$ are of 4t&pes DNA a#$ RNA iii+ A1er&'.cCart& a#$ .ac!eBo$ estab!is(e$ bio c(e ica! a#$ "e#etica! #ature of DNA i1+ cair#s first iso!ate$ DNA fro E' coi! bacteriu ' V+ sa#"er $eter i#e$ seque#ce of bases i# #uc!eic aci$' 1i+ :ore#ber" first s&#t(esi7e$, i# 1itro'DNA 1ii+ 6ar"obi#$, s&#t(esi7e$ "e#e i# 1itro'

T(e wi$t( of a DNA o!ecu!e is 4# *4EAE + O#e tur# of a DNA (e!i% is B'@ !o#" a#$ t(ere are te# base pairs stac:e$ at $ista#ces of E'B@ # to eac( ot(er' ,ase pairi#" is 1er& specific a#$ t(e patter# fo!!owe$ is 9 A$e#i#e a#$ T(& i#e wit( 4 (&$ro"e# bo#$s *AHT+ C&tosi#e a#$ -ua#i#e wit( B (&$ro(e# bo#$s *CH-+ T(e p(osp(o$iester b(o#$s bi#$ $iffere#t #uc!eoti$es' 88888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888888 C6E.ICA/ STRUCTURE AND CO.POSITIONOF DNA <(e# DNA is (eate$ wit( stro#" aci$s or $i!ute a!:a!is or treate$wit( specific e#7& es it $e"ra$es i#to co pou#$s (a1i#" s a!! o!ecu!ar wei"(ts co pou#$s' T(ese a& be cssifie$ i#to t(e fo!!owi#" t(ree "roups i+ ii+ iii+ #itro"e#ous bases su"ars p(osp(oric aci$ a& be broa$!&

NITRO-ENOUS ,ASES 9 T(e #itro"e#ous bases $i1i$e$ i#to two t&pes 9 puri#es a#$ p&ri i$i#es'

a+ Puri#es ) Puri#e, t(e pare#t co pou#$ , is co#tai#i#" a tota! of #i#e ri#"s ato s ' t(ese i#c!u$es A$e#i#e a#$ -ua#i#e' b+ P&ri i$i#es) P&ri i$i#e, t(e pare#t co pou#$, is a o#oc&c!ic co pou#$ co#tai#i#" si% ri#"s ato s, t(ese i#c!u$e T(& i#e a#$ C&toosi#e' RNA (as uraci! base i#stea$ of t(& i#e' So e rare p&ri i$i#es !i:e A et(&! c&tosi#e A (&$ro%& et(&! c&tosi#e a#$ so e rare puri#es !i:e G et(& a$e#i#e a#$ 4 et(& "ua#i#e a& a!so occur but t(e& are pro i#e#t!& prese#t i# t8 RNA s

SU-ARS 9 t(e su"ars prese#t i# t(e #uc!eic aci$ are of t(e fo!!owi#" 4 t&pe 9 I + D 9 Ribose su"ar fou#$ i# RNA a#$ ii+ Deo%&ribose su"ar fou#$ i# DNA t(ses su"ars e%ist i# fura#ose for ' T(e& are a$eB up of fi1e carbo# ato s' P6OSP6ORIC ACID 8 t(e p(osp(oric aci$ (as t(e fo!!owi#" structure

T(is p(osp(oric aci$ i# aqueous so!utio# e%ists as p(osp(ate "roup'

NUC/EOSIDES AND NUC/EOTIDES If a!! t(e t(ree basic u#its i'e #itro"e# bases, su"ers a#$ p(osp(ate "roup are !i#:e$ to"et(er' It is ca!!e$ a #uc!eoti$e' Nitro"e#ous base= su"ar oiet&= p(osp(ate "roup H #uc!eoti$e

It t(e p(osp(oric aci$ "roup fro a #uc!eoti$e is re o1e$, t(e resu!ti#" co pou#$ is ca!!e$ is ca!!e$ #uc!eosi$e' Nitor"#ous base= su"ar oiet&H Nuc!eosi$e Nuc!eoti$e8 p(osp(o3ric aci$ H Nuc!eosi$e It is #otab!e t(at t(e su"ar oiet& is attac(e$ to t(e #i#t( positio# i# puri#e a#$ t(e first positio# i# t(e p&ri i$i#e' T(e base is atta$c(e$ to t(e su"ar i# t(e 2 positio# b& ' t(e p(osp(ate "roup of #uc!eoti$e is i# ester !i#:a"e wit( carbo# ato A of t(e pe#tose su"ar' PO/Y.ORP6IS. IN DNA STRUCTURE T(e DNA o!ecu!e $oes #ot e%ist i# a o#oto#ous structura! for e%p!ai#e$ ear!ier' Subseque#t e%peri e#ts i# o!ecu!ar bio!o"& (a1e s(ow# t(at DNA is po!& orp(ic o!ecu!e' DNA a& e%ist i# t(e fo!!owi#" for s 9A8 , ,8 , C8, N8 for s w(ic( are co o# but D a#$ E for s are of rare occurre#ce' T(e A8 , ,8, C'8 a#$ N8 DNA !ar"e!& co#for s t(e <atso# a#$ Cric: structure' T(e& s(ow i#or 1ariatio#s i# p(tsio!o"i%a! co#$itio#s, ,ase pair tur#, Rotatio# of (e!i%, A#"!e of rotatio# a#$ 6e!ica! $ia eter as s(ow# i# Tab!e'

A co parati1e accou#t of ,8DNA a#$ N 8 DNA ,8 DNA N 8 DNA i+ It is a (e!ica! structure i+ it is a!so a (e!ica! structure' ii+ Two po!&#uc!eoti$es c(ai#s are ii+ A#tipara!!e! po!&#uc!eoti$es a#tipara!!e!' c(ai#s are prese#t iii+ Pairi#" of - a#$ C base pair iii+ Pairi#" of - a#$ C base pair prese#t' prese#t ' Dissi i!arities i+ Ri"(t (a#$e$ (e!ica! ii+ Re"u!ar bac: bo#e of p(osp(ate "roup' iii+ su"ar oiet& (a1e t(e sa e orie#tatio#' a#$ repeati#" u#it is a o#o#uc!eoti$e' i1+ 2E base pairs i# a co p!ete tur# 1+ Rotatio# per repeati#" u#it is BG 1i+ t(e !e#"t( o3f a co p!ete tur# is B@ A 1ii+ t(e wi$t( of (e!i% is 4E A TYPE OF DNA T(ere are se1era! :i#$s of DNA T(e i porta#t t&pes are as fo!!ows)8 i+ /i#ear a#$ Circu!ar DNA 9 /i#ear DNA is associate$ wit( protei#s' T(ese ate or"a#i7e$ i#to a #u ber of c(ro oso es' T(e #uc!ei of eu:ar&otic ce!!s (a1e !i#ear DNA is a c(aracteristic of pro:ar&otic ce!!s, * !i:e bacteria + a#$ of t(e itoc(o#$ria a#$ p!asti$s of eu:ar&otic ce!!s ' circu!ar DNA $oes #ot (a1e protei# co#te#ts, a#$ e%ists as si#"!e c(ro oso e' ii+ trop(ic a#$ -e#etic DNA 9 t(e ci!iates bear two :i#$s of #uc!ei, 1i7 acro#uc!eus a#$ icro#uc!eus' T(e icro#uc!eus is "e#etica!!& fu#ctio#a! u#!i:e acro#uc!eus w(ic( is a 1e"etati1e #uc!eus' T(e DNA prese#t i# acro#uc!eus a#$ icro#uc!eus are :#ow# as trop(ic DNA a#$ "e#etic DNA respecti1e!& * Para eciu (as bot( trop(ic DNA a#$ "e#etic DNA + iii+ Co$i#" a#$ #o# co$i#" DNA 9 t(e DNA a& be fu#ctio#a! or #o#fu#ctio#a!' No# co$i#" DNA is t(e !ar"er part of eu:ar&otic DNA t(at $oes #ot (a1e co$i#" for protei# or RNA ' se1era! base seque#ces repeate$ se1era! ti es are co!!ecti1e!& ca!!e$ repetitious DNA ' so eti es t(ese seque#ces are #ot !ocate$ at a specific site i# $iffere#t i+ /eft (a#$e$ (e!ica! structure' ii+ t(e p(osp(ate bac: bo#e fo!!ows a 7i" 7a" course' iii+ su"er resi$ues (a1e opposite orie#tatio# a#$ repeati#" u#it is a $i#uc!eoti$e' i1+ 24 base pairs i# a co p!ete tur#' Rotatio# per repeati#" u#it is GE 1+ t(e !e#"t( of a co p!ete tur# is @AA 1ii+ t(e wi$t( of (e!i% is 25 A

i#$i1i$ua!s of t(e sa e species a#$ t(ese referre$ to as JOu pi#" "e#esK'

obi!e DNA se" e#ts are

Co$i#" DNA is a s a!! part of DNA w(ic( bears a!! t(e "e#etic i#for atio#' T(ere are two :i#$s of co$i#"' Protei# co$i#") co$i#" for protei#s *e%cept (isto#es + r8 RNA co$i#") co$i#" for r8 RNA FUNCTION OF DNA 2' DNA is a "e#etic ateria! w(ic( carries t(e (ere$itar& i#for atio# a#$ passes it fro o#e "e#eratio# to t(e #e%t "e#eratio# i'e fro t(e pare#ts to &ou#" o#es it (as t(e #ique propert& of rep!icatio#' 4' it (e!p t(e ce!! to ai#tai# "row $i1i$e a#$ $irect t(e s&#t(esis of structura! protei#s' B' it co#tro!s t(e etabo!ic reactio#s of ce!!s b& $irecti#" t(e s&#t(esis of protei#s a#$ e#7& es' @' it pro$uces utatio#s$ue to w(ic( #ew species are for e$ a#$ t(erefore it co#tributes to t(e e1o!utio# of t(e or"a#is ' A' it "i1es rise to RNAs t(rou"( tra#scriptio#' G' it a!so bri#"s about t(e $iffere#tiatio# of t(e ce!!s $uri#" $e1e!op e#t' T(e $iffere#tiatio# of $iffere#t parts of t(e bo$& is $ue to t(e $iffere#tia! fu#ctio#i#" of its specific parts' Co parati1e accou#t of Pro:ar&otic DNA a#$ Eu:ar&otic DNA Pro:ar&otic DNA Eu:ar&otic DNA 2' it is circu!ar i# s(ape' 2' it is !i#ear i# s(ape i# t(e #uc!eus, circu!ar i# itoc(o#$ria a#$ p!astic 4' it is prese#t i# t(e c&top!as ' B' it is !esser i# a ou#t t(a# i# eu:ar&otic ce!!s' @'It ca# co$e o#!& for a few protei#s i'e * B to @,EEE+ A' T(e protei#s associate$ wit( pro:ar&otic DNA are 1er& !itt!e' G' No# fu#ctio#a! DNA is 1er& !itt!e L' #o# co$i#" i#tro#s are #ot prese#t wit(i# t(e co$$i#" re"io#s' 4' it is prese#t i# t(e #uc!eus, itoc(o#$ria a#$ p!asti$s' B' it is ore i# a ou#t t(a# i# pro:ar&otic ce!!s' @' it ca# co$e for ore protei#s'

A' Nuc!ear DNA is associate$ wit( protei#s but #ot t(e e%tra#uc!ear DNA G' ost of t(e part of DNA is #o# fu#ctio#a!' L' #o# co$i#" i#tro#s are perse#t wit(i# t(e co$i#" re"io#s'

FORGET ME NOT DNA it is t(e !ar"est bio o!ecu!e' It for s about 3P #uc!ear ateria!' It is #e"ati1e!& c(ar"e$' It is a $e%tro rotator& c(e ica!' Its o!ecu!ar wei"(t is arou#$ G82EE i!!io#' It absorbs !i"(t of 4GE # Two t&pes of protei#s 1i7 9 #uc!eoprota ise a#$ #uc!eo(isto#es a& be associate$ wit( DNA o# a;or "roo1e Nuc!eoprota i#es are !ow o!ecu!ar wt protei#s *about @EE $a!to#s + a#$ ost of prota i#es are a$e of ar"i#i#e a i#o aci$ e'" sper ato7oa of so e fis(es' T(e& are bou#$ t(rou"( sa!t !i#:a"e Nuc!eo(isto#es are (i"( o!ecu!ar wei"(t protei#s * 2EEEE8 25EEE $a!to#s +' T(ese are ost!& co pose$ of ar"i#i#e, !&si#e a#$ (isti$i#e' T(e are associate$ b& DNA t(orou"( io#ic bo#$s a#$ occur i# t(e #uc!ei of ost or"a#is s' T(e o!ecu!ar wt of #ati1e $s DNA *$oub!e stra#$e$ DNA 1iruses is appro%i ate!& 2 i!!io#, i# bacteria 84 i!!io#' DNA $e#atures w(e# t(ere is e%tre e p6 , (eat, $ecrease i# $ie!ectric co#sta#t a#$ e%posure to c(e ica!s !i:e urea a#$ a i$es a i$es ect DNA s(ows fo!!owi#" features o# $e#aturatio# ) $ecrease i# 1iscosit&, i#crease i# !i"(t absorptio#, #e"ati1e optica! rotatio#, a#$ i#crease i# buo&a#t $e#sit& ect' Duri#" $e#aturatio# #o co1a!e#t bo#$s are bro:e#, but u#coi!i#" of two stra#$s occur' T(e i#crease of !i"(t absorptio# $uri#" $e#aturatio# * e!ti#"+ is a!so :#ow# is (&perc(ro ic effect ' t(e i#crease of !i"(t absorptio# a& be upto @EP ore t(a# #ati1e $s DNA' T(is i#crease i# !i"(t absorptio# is $irect!& proportio#a! to #u ber of AH T base pairs prese#t' T(e t(er a! $e#aturatio# of DNA is ca!!e$ J .e!ti#"t poi#t is $irect!& re!ate$ wit( -HC pairi#"' T(e (i"(er a ou#t -HC Pairi#", t(e ore stab!e DNA -e#era!!&, DNA is a piece of c(ro oso e (a1i#" 4E EEEbase pairs' -e#e is a s a!! se" e#t of DNA wit( appro%i ate!& 2AEE base pairs'

 T(e ratio of DNA )RNA i# pro:ar&otes a#$ eu:ar&otes are 2)4 a#$ 2) 2 respecti1e!&' Ratio of DNA ) 6isto#e is 2) 2 i# eu:ar&otes' Pro:ar&otes $o#It (a1e #uc!ear protei#' T(e protei# part of DNA i# c(ro oso es a& be re o1e$ b& certai# c(e ica!s !i:e CsCI * caesiu c(!ori$e+ Si#"!e stra#$e$ DNA e%ist i# co!ip(a"e M2L@