Stories Through the Lens Readings

About Portrait Photography: Development of Portraiture

Since the beginning of time, people have been using portraiture to capture the identity of their subject. Throughout history there are portraits of varying mediums, styles and purposes, revealing the growing relationship between the artist and the model. The functions of these portraits ranges from personal to religious, military, political, funerary, marital or group represenation. Examining the roots of portraiture creates a clear connection between past intentions and present developments. The earliest portraits of Upper and Lower Egypt date back to 3100 B.C., revealing the generalized appearance of deified pharaohs, military leaders, and nobles in plastic materials such as slate or granite. These carved busts most often carried a funerary function, reminding the living of the dead and commemorating the life achievements of the deceased. The simplified representations of this period lack each sitter's individual attributes, instead conveying their severity and authority frozen in time. A more naturalistic and personalized approach to portraiture evolved in the New Kingdom of Egypt during the mid-1300s B.C., characterized by sculptors' close attention to each model's features and flaws.

During the Medieval period, early Christian artists (3rd-7th centuries A.D.) utilized the medium of mosaic to illustrate portraits of the deceased. Using tiny pieces of glass and stone, artists created decorative portraits in the walls of churches and monasteries. While highly detailed in the texture and arrangement of the miniscule building blocks, these representations did not exhibit detailed individual traits of the people they portrayed. Instead, they were highly stylized in the flat, frontal focus and simplified features of the face.

Nofretete, Nues Museum

Portraiture Artists
During the Renaissance period (1400s-1500s), portraiture experienced dramatic transformation and growth. Artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, Botticelli, Raphael, and Titian brought portraiture to new heights with their highly realistic and beautiful renderings of human subjects. Portraits took on a life

of their own, becoming living stories. This shift was the result of the artists' fascination with nature and their appreciation of ancient Greek and Roman art. The complexity of each Renaissance portrait can be seen in the choice of expression, pose, clothing, and background. At that time, small medals with portraits nestled inside of them were highly favored by Italian society, while sculpted busts and full-length portraits also increased in popularity. The relationship between the artist and the sitter became much more intimate. This intimacy can be seen in the amount of detail and attention that the artist paid to the subject and also in the humanity evident in each artwork.

Baroque art of the 17th century took portraiture even further in its study of human expression. Dutch painter Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn closely examined the way the human face functions to

reveal emotion. Rembrandt created numerous self-portraits, each unique in its own way. The artist utilized portraiture as a medium to explore his identity, role, and artistic performance. In each selfportrait he is performing for the audience, trying on a different costume and revealing a different side of his playful and mysterious personality. In Rembrandt's work there is a strong bond between the artist and the viewer, as he invites us to explore his facial expression and body language, telling us secrets about his life. For example, in The Standard-Bearer (1636), the artist is formally posed, holding a standard and dressed in an elaborate costume with fur and stitching.

Rembrandt, along with many other Dutch artists, was a master of group portraits, which were very popular at that time. People of power and fame relied on portraiture to capture and celebrate their

accomplishments and important meetings. What made these group portraits especially modern and complex was the interaction between the characters within them. People were shown conversing, gesturing, and laughing as though the moment was frozen in time. Each painting was equivalent to a camera snapshot. Portraits became symbols of power, as well as documents of marriage, religious celebration, and personal contemplation. Many other styles and approaches to portraiture followed. The Realist style of the mid-19th century portrayed people going about their everyday chores. Paintings began to reveal the reality of the life of the poor, something that was not extensively illustrated in previous periods. At this time, caricature portraits also became prevalent, voicing the views of artists on politics, culture, and society.

In the late 19th century even more intimate approaches to painting developed. Expressive, colorful strokes that captured the sitters' emotions defined the Impressionist style. The gestural quality of

mark-making and the attention to the models' facial expressions showed the close relationships between artists and models.

Silhouette & Miniature Portraits

Up until the 18th century, a portrait was regarded as a highly valued commodity that only wealthy people could afford to purchase. Portraiture was a subjective form of art making, where the product did not necessarily resemble its original. However, during the 18th century, less expensive options to traditional portraiture became more widely available to the public. The first of these options was the miniature portrait. These tiny representations were first painted on vellum with watercolors and later evolved into more permanent works painted with enamel on ivory. Due to their relative inexpensiveness, middle class people could commission a miniature of themselves or their loved ones to carry in their pockets as keepsakes. Miniature portraits had several functions, including supporting romantic relationships when given as love tokens between lovers separated by distance. A betrothed couple could send one another their portraits prior to meeting at the wedding. An even more affordable development in portraiture was the silhouette, which involved tracing one's profile. This technique took its name after tienne de Silhouette (1709-67), a French finance minister

who worked for Louis XV. During his tenure, he was despised by the French working class people for his merciless tax policies. He was more interested in his hobby of cutting out paper profiles of the elite than he was in the well-being of the French people. Though he was not the first artist to create this type of portraiture, his high-profile reputation contributed to its nomenclature. Silhouette portraits were crafted by projecting bright light behind a sheet of white paper and carefully tracing the shadow cast by the sitter. The final outline was then minimized, cut out of black paper, and pasted onto a small card. Successful depiction of the model depended on the skill of the craftsman.

Photography: A New Means of Portraiture

In the 1800s, the invention of photography brought dramatic transformation to the world of portraiture, opening doors to many inexpensive possibilities of recording one's natural appearance and leaving miniature portrait painters out of jobs. The basic idea behind the process photography was to produce a chemical reaction by combining light with a highly sensitized surface. Early techniques such as the daguerreotype and the calotype relied on a number of factors in order to produce an effective image. Chemical solvents, bulky cameras, and most importantly patience, played a large role in photography. Weather was also one of the elements that controlled each photo shoot since most studios were located on rooftops of buildings. Along with these early challenges, cameras were only sensitive to certain colors. In addition, hidden metal devices, such as clamps,

were used to keep the sitter's head in place. Facial expressions had to remain perfectly still while the picture was being taken, which could last as long as eight minutes. Another problem that early photographers often encountered was eye blinking. To solve that inconvenience, in some portraits people were posed with their sides or back to the camera in order to conceal their eyes. A few zealous photographers were willing to take extreme measures, such as using opium gas to relax their models to ensure a successful portrait.

Despite these difficulties, portrait photography met the needs of many, providing a completely lifelike resemblance and carrying out a range of useful functions. With the rise of the Industrial Revolution in the beginning of the 19th century, occupational photographers educated the public about the new

advancements in technology. Closely observe this daguerreotype, Women with Choir Books. The two young women are blankly staring at the camera while holding their choir books. The photographer did not focus on their personalities, but emphasized their profession or hobby. Their personalities are somewhat conveyed through their patterned clothing. The dramatic backdrop of the countryside creates the illusion of the two women being photographed outdoors. Similar to Renaissance paintings, portraits of important political officials commemorated their accomplishments. Portraits for personal use consisted not only of images of the living but also of the dead, called postmortems. It was common to photograph family members right after death, dressing them in their best clothes and posing them in front of the camera in order to capture their lifelike appearance. This was done so living family members would have a reminder of their loved ones accomplishments in life.

Styles of Portrait Photography

With the growing popularity of portrait photography, the invention of new techniques, and the improvement of old tricks of the trade, photographers became more and more competitive in the business. For the most part, their products were not based on quality, but quantity. Racing to create as many portraits as possible in order to profit financially, photographers failed to pay attention to their models' individual characteristics. Most portraits looked alike due to dreary backdrops of familiar furniture pieces, velvet curtains, and faux architectural details. Even occupational portraits were anonymous in their presentation; the backgrounds set up was nothing more than promotional props.

Despite these drawbacks, there were some fascinating individuals who constantly challenged the photography medium at the time, paying close attention to the mood and emotions of their models. In a way they were similar to painters in their approach. They listened closely to their clients, provided flattering lighting, and used various closeups of the face to truly express models personalities. Alfred Stieglitz (1864-1946) was the leader of this movement, which became known as

Pictorialism, due to its artistic qualities. Pictorialists recognized photography as a form of art and therefore applied various painterly techniques to alter their photographs in order to make them resemble paintings. These additive revisions allowed Pictorialists to have more control over their images and ensure carefully rendered artworks that differed from the regular snapshots of the day. In many ways, Pictorialist images resembled Impressionist artworks in their soft strokes and blurry edges. In the beginning of the 1900s, Stieglitz and many of his followers abandoned the styles of pictorialism, focusing their attention on straight photography, a style that emphasized the crucial importance of truthful or unaltered photographs. These images were completely untouched, presenting the natural appearance of an image. Straight photographers explored the essence of their subject, paying attention to their mood and facial expression. Straight photography took many paths, one of which resulted in documentary photography, a straight style that examined historical or authentic events in life. These images served as proofs or documents of the way people lived and how their surroundings impacted them. One of the best known documentary photographers was Dorothea Lange, who traveled to many parts of America to capture the hardships of the Great Depression, World War II internment camps, and other horrific events in history.

Other styles of photography continued to develop, such as photojournalism, fashion, and advertising. Many artists crossed these boundaries, combining them in unique ways and shattering the stereotypes of what photography means or represents. One such artist was Diane Arbus, who photographed outcasts of society by getting to know her models and using a specific, personal style. Viewing portraiture that spans a long period of time allows us to better understand and appreciate the relationship between the photographer and the model. While this connection was tenuous during the invention of photography, with time it became more intense and meaningful. As previously mentioned, many photographers began viewing their work as art, which they refined and cultivated. This growing passion for photography and understanding people reflects the work of pictorialists, but especially straight photographers who wanted to tell the truth about the people they captured on film.

The Role of Value & Te ture

Similar evolution and transformation can be seen in the range of values and textures used in portrait photography. While early works contained a limited range of value due to the poorly developed techniques, photographers discovered new and innovative methods over time that allowed them to pay particular attention to shadow and light and use these components to their advantage, creating certain types of moods and reactions. For instance, pictorialists manipulated their images to achieve an effect of simplicity by combining large dark areas with bright details. Shading around figures also

added to their goal of making photographs resemble paintings or drawings. Furthermore, shading contributed to the romantic and poetic quality of their portraits. Straight photographers focused much more on the sharp and natural aspects of life, attempting to portray exactly what was before them. This approach to life and their models is prevalent in each of their works where a variety of values and textures describe the sitter. It is crucial to remember that despite similarities in style, every artist possesses his or her own approach to portrait photography, choosing to shoot pictures during different times of day and using various frames, angles, and environments. Regardless of subject matter, every portrait reflects the ideas and feelings of its author.

!mpa"t of Portrait Photography: Portrait Photography To#ay

Portraiture has come a long way from the time when heavy cameras, awkward contraptions, and messy chemicals were essential to create a successful photograph. It is amazing how much portrait photography has evolved aesthetically and conceptually. Today, photography has many functions and outlets, but now anyone and everyone can be a photographer. Similar to our forefathers, we chronicle and examine our lives through photography, observing those who are close to us. However, before making our own artwork, it is crucial to understand and appreciate the work of artists who have made a difference in the world of portrait photography. Even today, Stieglitz, Lange, DeCarava, and Arbus inspire contemporary artists with their bold, innovative, and keen observations of people. The relationship between them and the individuals they photographed remains alive in each picture. Just from glancing at their portraits we feel like voyeurs spying on a private spectacle. Among the many artists who have followed in the footsteps of documentary photographers like Dorothea Lange is Sebastiao Salgado, a Brazilian photojournalist, Salgado has dedicated himself to documenting the lives of people all over the world, including the victims of war, hunger, famine, draught, poverty, and violence. As a special representative of UNICEF, Salgado's goal is to inform and educate the public about what is often unseen and unnoticed, opening our eyes to reality and calling for change in humanity. Among many powerful photo essays, Salgado explores the lives of people affected by the drought of Northern Africa, the world's manual work laborers, and homeless children and families. Salgado explains, "My hope is that, as individuals, as groups, as societies, we can pause and reflect on the human condition at the turn of the millennium. In its rawest form, individualism remains a prescription for catastrophe. We have to create a new regimen of coexistence."

Each photograph that Salgado creates initiates a physical reaction, because it is impossible to remain unchanged after witnessing heartbreaking stories of injustice and struggle, as well as those of strength and hope. The following portrait of a young girl from Mopeia is part of Children Today: Men & Women of the New Century, a chapter of Salgado's book Migrations: Humanity in Transition. In this touching portrait, Salgado documents the lives of children who have been separated from their parents, taking shelter in refugee camps. From observing this photograph and many others one can see the trust and understanding between the children and Salgado. This child is not frightened, but boldly looks at the camera. Salgado continues to travel and bring attention to injustice in the world, calling for understanding, participation, and change. Another contemporary artist who has challenged the concept of portrait photography is Cindy Sherman. While her work is completely different from Salgado's, it also serves as an observation of our society as a whole and its progression throughout time. An American photographer and filmmaker, Sherman uses herself as the subject of her work to explore and analyze the stereotypes of femininity and art of the past and present. Similar to Rembrandt's self-portraits where he concealed his identity in different costumes, Sherman adopts the persona of fictional characters. However, unlike Rembrandt's paintings, Sherman's images are not self-portraits because she chooses to represent symbolic personages, not actual individuals. Female stereotypes such as the housewife, the prostitute, the actress, the librarian, and others are examined through photography exposed and mocking the present conventions and superficiality. The artist uses herself to examine the role of women throughout time. In each photograph or film still, Sherman metamorphoses into a different character using bright lighting, wigs, costumes, prosthetics, and unusual back drops. She also leaves them untitled or numbers them to emphasize their anonymity. Her work can be viewed as performance art, since in each film still she acts out a story, role playing and performing for the audience. For instance, in Untitled Film Still #13, Sherman portrays a sexy librarian, contradicting her conservative outfit with a seductive pose. There is something appealing, but at the same time disturbing, in Sherman's work which is reminiscent of Arbus's photography in its awkward poses and strange compositions. As in Arbus's images, the "otherness" is also investigated and present in Sherman's film stills. Sherman demonstrates her relationship to the subject matter, rejecting beauty and embracing female strength and power. Her work demonstrates her relationship to the ideas represented, but also to us as the viewers. We are lured into her secret world of stories and visceral imagination. There are many other photographers that continue to explore the meaning of portrait photography, looking back on the people who were the first to do so as sources of empowerment and inspiration. The power of portraiture continues to grow, becoming an essential vehicle for communication. Through facial expressions and body language we are able to converse with one another, regardless of our culture, language, or location. Today, portrait photography is present everywhere. Television, magazines, and other forms of advertisement are just a few outlets for portraiture, but the communication possibilities continue to grow. Interacting with one another using computer and phone cameras has become the new way of bringing emotions to life. Regardless of the source, it is

important to remember the roots of portraiture and appreciate the work of those who selflessly sacrificed their lives so that the stories of others could be shared.

!nfluential Portrait Photographers

While the portrait photography of Alfred Stieglitz, Dorothea Lange, Roy DeCarava and Diane Arbus addresses diverse subject matter and meets different goals, the emotional state of the models truly stands out in each, reflecting their relationships to the photographers. The work of these artists demonstrates that portraiture can be approached in multiple ways. Stieglitz, Lange, DeCarava and Arbus have truly challenged established ideas of portrait photography, dedicating their lives to exploring its potential and inscribing into it new meaning and function.