05 Alloy Hetero

Semiconductor alloys and heterostructures
Fabrizio Bonani
Dipartimento di Elettronica
Politecnico di Torino
High speed electron devices Semiconductor alloys and heterostructures
Contents
1
Heterostructure denition
2
Semiconductor alloys
The substrate issue
3
Heterostructures
4
Free charge spatial connement
5
Conductive channels and modulation doping
Epitaxial growth of different crystals
The epitaxial growth of crystalline materials with different
lattice constant leads to
interface defects (mist dislocations)
presence of traps for electrons and holes
If the mismatch between the lattice constants is small/null
an (almost) ideal crystal based on two different materials is
obtained heterostructure
since the properties of the two materials are in general
different, it is also called heterojunction
The different electrical and optical properties of the layers
have important consequences
band discontinuities (potential wells, one or many): spatial
connement of free carriers
refractive index discontinuities: spatial connement of
electromagnetic eld (photons)
Strained heterostructures
In presence of a small difference in lattice constants, the
heterostructure is called strained, or pseudomorphic
a > a
L S
a < a
L S
Substrate
Epitaxial layer
Nonepitaxial
growth
Pseudomorphic
layer
Substrate
Epitaxial layer
Pseudomorphic
layer
Nonepitaxial
growth
compressive strain
tensile strain
Contents
1
2
The substrate issue
3
Heterostructures
4
5
Heterostructures are often based on semiconductor alloys,
in order to create materials whose properties are
intermediate with respect to the natural semiconductor
components
for most applications, the main features are lattice constant
and energy bandgap
Alloys are often mixtures of compound semiconductors
such as GaAs, InP, InAs etc.
ternary alloys: realized by two components and three
elements (e.g. AlGaAs, alloy between GaAs and AlAs)
quaternary alloys: realized by four components and
elements (e.g. InGaAsP, alloy among InAs, InP, GaAs and
GaP)
In many cases, the alloy characteristics are well
approximated by a linear combination (or bilinear, for
quaternary alloys) of the initial components values
Alloys: composition rules
Compound semiconductors are made of a metal M and a
nonmetal N
Ternary alloys are made of two compound semiconductors
sharing a metal or a nonmetal
M
(1)
N
M
(2)
N
1x
= M
(1)
x
M
(2)
1x
N e.g.: Al
x
Ga
1x
As
MN
(1)
MN
(2)
1y
= MN
(1)
y
N
(2)
1y
e.g.: GaAs
y
P
1y
Quaternary alloys are made of four compound
semiconductors sharing two metal and two nonmetal
components
M
(1)
N
(1)
M
(1)
N
(2)
M
(2)
N
(1)
M
(2)
N
(2)
1
= M
(1)
+
M
(2)
1
N
(1)
+
N
(2)
1
= M
(1)
M
(2)
1x
N
(1)
y
N
(2)
1y
e.g.: In
x
Ga
1x
As
y
P
1y
Alloys: Vegard law
In many cases (not always!) an alloy property P is the
linear combination (Vegard law) of the components same
property:
P = xP
(1)
+(1 x)P
(2)
(ternary alloy)
P = xP
(1)
+(1 x)P
(2)
+yP
(3)
+(1 y)P
(4)
(quaternary alloy)
Main exceptions are:
in some cases, a quadratic correction to the simple linear
interpolation is required (Abeles law)
for some parameters, a global (i.e., valid for all composition
values) interpolation formula is not available because of
structural discontinuities
e.g.: an alloy may pass from direct to indirect bandgap as a
function of composition
Matched, pseudomorphic and metamorphic layers
Any layer/epitaxial structure must be grown on a crystalline
substrate
with the same (lattice matched layer) or with a slightly
different lattice constant (pseudomorphic layer)
with a different lattice constant. To avoid dislocations, a
buffer layer with graded composition (graded layer) is
placed between the substrate and the top layer
(metamorphic approach)
For non-matched layers, a critical thickness of the epitaxial
layer exists beyond which structural stability is lost
the critical thickness is a decreasing function of the lattice
constant mismatch
Substrate examples
Substrate examples (in cost increasing order) are:
Si: good for SiGe heterostructures and for GaN growth
GaAs: good for high frequency electronic applications
InP: good for high frequency and large power density
electronic applications, and for large wavelength
optoelectronic applications
SiC: good for very large power applications and for GaN
growth
Alloys are often represented on bandgap - lattice constant
graphs
ternary alloys are repreesented by curves (one degree of
freedom: composition x)
quaternary alloys are represented by surfaces (two degrees
of freedom: compositions x and y)
E
g
composition diagram: SiGe and III-V compounds
B
a
n
d
g
a
p
,

e
V
GaSb
Ge
Si
InSb
CdTe
HgTe
5.2 5.4 5.6 5.8 6.0 6.2 6.4 6.6
Lattice constant,
AlAs
Al In As
0.48 0.52
GaP
GaAs
InP
InAs
Direct bandgap
Indirect bandgap
2.8
2.4
2.0
1.6
1.2
0.8
0.4
0.0
W
a
v
e
l
e
n
g
t
h
,

m
m
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.2
1.5
2.0
3.0
5.0
10.
Ga In As
0.47 0.53
E
g
composition diagram: GaN
4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5 5.2 5.4 5.6 5.8 6 6.2
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
1.0
2.0
5.0
AlN
GaN
InN
AlP
GaP
AlAs
GaAs
InP
InAs
UV
IR
Visible
Direct bandgap
Indirect bandgap
AlGaN
InGaN
Lattice constant,
B
a
n
d
g
a
p
,

e
V
W
a
v
e
l
e
n
g
t
h
,

m
m
Contents
1
2
The substrate issue
3
Heterostructures
4
5
Afnity rule
The behaviour of a
heterostructure depends
on the band structure
difference between the
materials
We dene
the afnity difference
=
B
A
the bandgap difference
E
g
= E
gB
E
gA
E
gA
E
gB
qc
A
|DE |
c
|DE |
v
E
c
E
v
U
0
qc
B
Material A Material B
In the ideal structure, we can evaluate the conduction and
valence band discontinuities according to the afnity rule
E
c
= E
cB
E
cA
= (E
cB
U
0
) (E
cA
U
0
)
= q
B
+q
A
= q
E
v
= E
vB
E
vA
= (E
cB
E
gB
) (E
cA
E
gA
) = q E
g
Heterostructure types
E
gA
E
gB
DE >0
c
E
c
E
v
DE <0
v
E
gA
E
gB
E
c
E
v
E
gA
E
gB
DE =0
c
E
c
E
v
E
gA
E
gB
E
c
E
v
Type I Type II
Type IIa
Type III
DE <0
v
DE <0
c
DE <0
v
DE <0
v
DE <0
c
Heterojunction band diagram
Reaching thermal equilibrium in a heterojunction implies a
net electron movement for the material with larger (when
isolated) Fermi energy towards the material with lower
(when isolated) Fermi level
the same phenomenon can be interpreted in terms of a net
ux of holes moving in the opposite direction
such a movement doesnt take place if the two materials
have the same workfunction
Mobile charge transfer creates not neutral regions, and
therefore a not at band diagram
if majority carriers are moved, the not neutral region has
dimension of the order of the Debye length
if minority carriers are moved, normally depleted regions
are formed
the built-in potential qV
bi
= q
SB
q
SA
drops on the not
neutral region (V
bi
is normally given in absolute value)
Heterojunction between intrinsic materials
U
0
E
FB
E
FA
el
E
vB
E
cB
E
vA
E
cA
U
0
E
F
E
v
E
c
Type I
U
0
E
FB
E
FA
E
vB
E
cB
E
vA
E
cA
U
0
E
F
E
v
E
c
Type II
lac
D
= qDc +
g
2
E
qV
bi
el
lac
nn heterojunction
U
0
E
F
E
v
E
c
Type I
U
0
E
F
E
v
E
c
Type II
U
0
E
FB
E
FA
E
vB
E
cB
E
vA
E
cA
U
0
E
vB
E
cB
E
FB
E
FA
E
vA
E
cA
= qDc + qV
bi
log
N N
cB DA
k T
B
N N
cA DB
pp heterojunction
Type I Type II
U
0
E
v
E
c
U
0
E
vB
E
cB
U
0
E
v
E
c
U
0
E
vB
E
cB
E
vA
E
cA
E
vA
E
cA
E
FB
E
FA
E
FB
E
FA
D = qDc +
g
E
qV
bi
log
N N
vB AA
k T
B
N N
vA AB
+
E
F
E
F
Type I pn heterojunction
Type I Type I
n p p n
U
0
E
vB
E
cB
E
vA
E
cA
E
FB
E
FA
U
0
E
vB
E
cB
E
vA
E
cA
E
FB
E
FA
U
0
E
v
E
c
U
0
E
v
E
c
E
F
E
F
= qDc -
gA
E
qV
bi
log
N N
cB vA
k T
B
N N
AA DB
+
Contents
1
2
The substrate issue
3
Heterostructures
4
5
Potential energy wells
Heterojunctions among materials with different bandgap
allow to realize potential energy wells in the conduction
and/or valence bands
if the potential well is narrow enough, quantized energy
levels may take place
within the effective mass approximation, such quantum
structures can be studied using point mass quantum
mechanics
the lattice effect is included in the effective mass
Quantum structures
in 3D space, several degrees on connement are possible
to limit the free carrier motion in a potential well:
1D connement (quantum well): if the well takes place in
one spatial direction only. Carriers may move in the two
other directions (two-dimensional gas)
2D connement (quantum wire): if the well takes place in
two spatial directions. Carriers may move in the third
direction
3D connement (quantum dot): if the well takes place in
three spatial directions. Carriers cannot move
Quantum well and quantum wire
7(N, O)
N
O
L
O
L
7(N, O)
N
O
L
Quantum wel l Quantum wi re

Density of states in a quantum well
In a conned structure, the density of available states is
different than in free space
For a quantum well whose allowed energy states are E
l
one nds
g
2D
(E) =
l
4m
h
2
u(EE
l
) per unit area and unit energy
where u() is the step function (0 if < 0, 1 if > 0)
For electrons in thermal equilibrium, the electron density
per unit area occupying the various levels is
n
s
=
+
E
c
g
2D
(E)f (E) dE
=
4m
k
B
T
h
2
l
log
1 +exp
E
F
E
l
k
B
T

Comparison with the 3D density of states
E-E
c
E
1
E
2
E
3
E
4
g
2D
dg
3D
d: well thickness
Superlattice
The presence of several coupled quantum wells results
into an increased number of allowed energy states
An innite (periodic) number of coupled quantum wells
introduces into the conduction and valence bands a
subband structure
Such an articial structure is called superlattice
Superlattice: band structure
=
)
-
C
-
C
-
?
-
L
Contents
1
2
The substrate issue
3
Heterostructures
4
5
MOdulation doping heterostructure
Carriers spatial connement properties in the direction
orthogonal to the growth axis allow to exploit a
two-dimensional carrier gas as an FET conductive channel
To improve free carrier mobility, modulation doping is used
only the large bandgap layer(s) is(are) doped
the channel takes place in the low bandgap material, which
is intrinsic thus with less scattering events for free carriers
(larger mobility)
at thermal equilibrium, free charges (electrons) provided by
dopants populate the potential well at lower energy,
creating a spatially conned two-dimensional gas
Actually, the real advantage is not strictly related to the
mobility improvement (important at low temperature only).
Rather, free carriers are much better conned into the
channel
Single and double heterostructure channels
U
0
E
F
E
v
E
c
E
D
E
1
qc
DE
c
E
0
qN
D
x
+
-
donor fixed charge
2D electron gas
qN
D
x
donor fixed charge
2D electron gas
+
U
0
E
F
E
v
E
c
E
D
E
1
E
0
Single heterostructure Double heterostructure

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Semiconductor alloys and heterostructures

Quantum wel l Quantum wi re

High speed electron devices Semiconductor alloys and heterostructures

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