Silence in Indonesian Literary Discourse Regarding The Discriminative Case of The Indonesian Chinese

Silence in Indonesian Literary Discourse: The Case of the Indonesian Chinese Author(s): Ariel HERYANTO Source: Sojourn: Journal
of Social Issues in Southeast Asia, Vol. 12, No. 1 (April 1997), pp. 2645 Published by: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies (ISEAS) Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41056953 . Accessed: 23/05/2013 02:48
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SOJOURNVol. 12, No. 1 (1997), pp. 26-45
Silence in Indonesian LiteraryDiscourse: The Case of the Indonesian Chinese

ArielHERYANTO
This paper raises questions about the curious absence of ethnictension involving the Chinese minority as a theme within the Indonesian canon during the seventy-five or moreyears of its history. The literary silence is intriguing convergiventhe salience ofthe topic ineveryday and fictional sations, nationalpolicies, as well as non-fictional writings worksoutside the officially sanctioned sphere.
The national literature ofIndonesia hasbeencuriously silent aboutan in thelife ofitsimmediate audience: theethnic tenimportant aspect sionbetween theChinese the and so-called minority "indigenous" peothis is so has in me recent without me ple.Why years intrigued leading toany I answers. wish to this anddiscuss satisfying explore question why I find itintriguing andimportant. Thispaper willproceed with a brief introduction totheethnic tensionin question. main is to how the My purpose suggest important matter is in theeveryday life ofIndonesians. In thenext I will section, the locus and nature of the silence that surrounds this specify literary tension. ofcomparison, I willpresent ofliterary works Byway examples outside theofficial canonofIndonesia's national literature that depict ethnic tension as a central I wishtosuggest theme. thesignifiFinally, canceofthis silence to understanding Indonesian in literature literary a broader perspective.
Culturalismand Racism in Contemporary Indonesia
Indonesia offers a rare oftheofficial Contemporary example banning ofa majorworldlanguage. Sincetheriseof theNew Orderregime
Silence in Indonesian Literary Discourse: The Case of the Indonesian Chinese
27
in 1966,Chinese theleadership of (Retired Soeharto under General) Indohavebeenofficially andculture proscribed throughout language of case thatI knowofis theexpression nesia.The onlycomparable Franco.1 Fascism ofFrancisco theSpanish Catalan under has in Chinese characters matter Fornearly now, thirty years printed in andnarcotics as pornography, thesamecategory fallen under arms, into the from areprohibited visitors ofitems list theshort bringing this, of were there In late the fourth world's 1960s, reports country. largest, even when found on the Chinese ethnic speaking, spot slapped being were Such in a in Chinese reports insignificant place. public privately, orabout descent ofChinese 5 million citizens when at a time (around to were ofthenation's 2.5 percent pressed systematically population) All their Chineseness. ofpurging as oneofthe names their ways change Chiwith were in Chinese and banned, along newspapers publications andmassorganizations. neseschools half ofat least massacres the1965/66 bansfollowed those In turn, ofhundreds theexileand imprisonment from a million apart people, not did These trial. without ofthousands primarily upheavals political were victims the of substantial a but ethnic the Chinese, portion target in modern bloodiest of the "one The tragedy, ethnic ofthat minority. inthefounembedded remains it is often as deeply designated, history", Indonesians.2 life for ofeveryday dation contemporary ofpoofa longseries was oftheNewOrder The rise regime a result Communist andtheIndonesian thearmy between litical antagonisms Unionand theSoviet outside communist the (PKI), largest party Party itsown the theupper Soonafter hand, China. army propagated winning The its of ofthehistory version alleged ascendancy. military political six when d'taf an "abortive thePKI hadmasterminded that gencoup Rethe that and October of eve the on killed 1965, were erals People's of thebeginning thecoup.Thismarks ofChinahadsupported public as theChinese, ofracism form andgross theextensive against practised orpopulist leftist, communist, wider ofthe poliagainst campaign part cabiits Chinese ethnic no seen has Indonesia Sincethen, tics. among lite.3 ormilitary netministers
28
ArielHERYANTO
no one deniesthatChinese racism, Despitethisapparently gross business with the Whites" circles, Whites, is,Japa(that "honorary along nese seeWallerstein ofthefirst and 1991b,p. 80), members family, themilitary dominate thenational Political economists lite, economy. haveno quarrels with theproposition that theNewOrder government for themajor share which theChinese is,toa large extent, responsible in the for Budiman 1991; (see, play country's economy example, Robison 1986). The government theChinese to the"indigenous" prefers minority in major industrial because theChinese entrepreneurs projects, partly haveat their more efficient networks andexperience. disposal capital, Theseassets thefruits ofa longhistory ofthedivision of are,in turn, labour race in the Dutch colonial ButtheNewOrder by economy. government's for the Chinese has a more foundation. preference important Unlike their the Indonesian Chinese arepeople indigenous counterparts, ofa politically status. pariah no effective tochallenge the virtually Having political representation status and the for the quo regime responsible it, indigenous population often theChinese when their frustration. The target people expressing Soeharto endorses such racism. This is to deflect government popular not so or not from the Western and much, popular anger only, Japanesebourgeoisie as Anderson mentions the (1990, p. 116),butfrom itself. Intimidated racist this government bycontinuing hostility, largestethnic has little choicebutto seekprotection from the minority Thus the vicious circle is government. perpetrated. To keepthesystem thegovernment the self-reproducing, provides for the Chinese in for necessary security protection minority,exchange therevenue to from thisminority. accruing thestate Paradoxically, officials must demonstrate to the some government occasionally public measures theChinese communities in general racist-sounding against and their economic dominance in particular. Thisis to sustain legitiand credibility theindigenous One can argue macy among majority. that theNew Order's racism is more formal andinstrumental than an of hatred ofa particular race. itis no less expression genuine However, real andconsequential than other forms ofracism. Itcomes closetothe
29
in thesense of"hyperreal", status Baudrillard ofsimulacra Jean speaks (1988,pp. 166-84). incontemporary InTheroot ofracism the Chinese minority against Thisisprecisely what the official discourse ispolitico-economic. donesia have officials to admit. doesnotsee,or refuses Instead, government the"Chinese that themselves andthepopulation problem" persuaded In thedominant dismatter. a cultural ifnotexclusively, is essentially, sentiments for the areblamed communities theChinese course, popular includes Their riots. in out that break them alleged guilt periodic against econominotonly ofthepopulation, therest from so "different" being so "un-Indonesian". butalsobiologically. andculturally, Theyare cally arecomparaIndonesians Chinese of the The standard stereotypes in themodern orthe"bourgeoisie" in Europe oftheJews bleto those include these In Wallerstein sciences social terms, 1991). positive (see This andefficient. skilled, reliable, rational, industrious, thrifty, being of the the of reverse isthe lazy, descriptions "indigenous": stereotypical ethhedonistic. However, unskilled, irrational, contemporary corrupt, terms: in identified aremore nicChinese unpatrinegative frequently and, materialistic, selfish, otic, philistine, opportunistic, cunning, stingy, ofall,"communist". worst aboutthese unusual is nothing there As stereotypical prejudices, unfind that suchprejudices is thefact Whatis unusual descriptions. Since1966,theethnic discourse. official inmajor restrained expression inpublic havenotbeena speaking Chinese space.Sympathetic subject from individual almost but of them defences always occasionally emerge, is considered voice.Thisethnic whohavea legitimate outsiders group of"corneed in it is and the for a "problem" nation, to be essentially rection". as a cultural isseenprimarily the"Chinese Because probproblem" and formal the which ties, logiapparently lem, kinship through spreads the late In the marital. and 1960s, cultural isalsoprimarily calsolution "assimilation" launcheda nation-wide militarist progovernment be to what with met It spontaneous (Pembauran). appeared gramme ofpolitical climate the overall in the from population general support that demand is the official this of core The programme acquiescence.
30
ArielHERYANTO
theethnic Chinese The standard recommendaethnicity. up their give tion isthat "assimilate" in should with the locals cultural and,idethey inmarital terms. Thisis therationale for thechanging ofpersonal ally, names andthenames ofshops andcompanies; theclosing downofthe Chinese and the eradication of Chinese both schools; press languages, andprinted thepublic celebration oftheChinese Lunar form; spoken New Year;and,in Central the series of restrictions on Java, popular Chinese Mandarin in karaoke entertainment exercise, physical songs and thesaleofChinese cakestraditionally consumed for the centres, NewYearcelebration.4 The construction of"indigenous" andits"others" case,the (inthis "Chinese inthis dates back to Indonesians") society eighteenth-century Dutchcolonialism in thearchipelago, which intensified thespread of and in the Indies.5 The ethnic construction is not modernity capitalism oftheNew Order's In thisregard I find exclusively JoelS. making. Kahn's observation about thelink between culturalism andracism very instructive: "a newkind ofracism inwhich infact culture andnotphysifeatures thebasis for discrimination anddomination" ological provides (1989,p. 20). Because the Chinese a crucial pariah ethnicity represents component intheformation andreproduction ofNewOrder wecanbe Indonesia, assured that thestate-sponsored Pembauran will never come programme closeto itsstated theethnic Chinese aim,thatis,dissolving through cultural and biological assimilation. better illus"voluntary" Nothing trates theinternal contradiction oftheofficial than programme the control measures. Whilethegovernment degovernment's population mands that theethnic Chinese mixwiththelocalsand giveup their mostgovernmental bureaucracies Chineseness, continue to segregate Chinese citizens andprocess their documents These dislegal separately. can in theadministration ofidentity criminatory procedures be found and certificates.6 cards, passports, marriage has often beenapplauded.However, suchinterInter-marriage will neither the status of a Chinese nor marriage change groom, hischildren. No matter howdeeply these males willstill be they "go native",
31
in thegovernment's as "Chinese" considered population registration. on theethnicity ofone'sfaonetakes thepatriarchal system, Following with is as as much ther. culturalism, Sexism, deeply implicated racism.
Silence The National Literary
in thelives ofthegendiscrimination ofracial Giventhesignificance the and eralpopulation, Pembauran, promoting campaign ideological in a central issueoccupies theracial that itis understandable position the Indonesian is that It striking ofthegeneral theminds population. itslong aboutthematter, silent is almost canon given totally literary Furtherand "didacticism".7 "social ofliterary tradition engagement" comintheliterary has silence this more, unquestioned virtually passed reand history in literary Thereis a silence criticism, theory, munity. canon.8 national in the silence thematic the literary garding Arethere cometo mind. ofquestions A series anylegalorpolitical as official as overt not be These involved? constraints censorship. may to literature Indonesian we should ask one expect Conversely, may why absence thematic is this How significant sucha theme. address anyway? ofindividual on thepart writers, or denial avoidance Is ita deliberate lackof innocent andpurely ofcollective ofan expression oris itmore be aesthetic Butcanthere authors? matter inthesubject interest among of remainder The innocent? is ideologically interest (orlackofit) that issues.9 these willexplore this paper here. raised to thequestions However, answers I haveno satisfying consome make will discussion the that tohope I havereason ensuing with I willbegin inthefield. ofnewinsights tothepursuance tribution ethnic with on ofexternal thequestion dealing proscription writing are there is that theanswer In short, literature. in thenational themes the for restrictions ornon-literary no external pheresponsible directly nomenon. theNewOrder ofitsofficial In terms government pronouncements, One fairly of in matters tobe rather hasbeenseen censorship. repressive to any limits certain Indonesia New Order in restriction minor puts suku for abbreviation theofficial ofSARA, discussion (ethnicity), public
32
ArielHERYANTO
ras(race), Noneand antar-golongan (social groups). agama(religion), this is far from total of on those discourse theless, censorship any specimatters. it fied of discussion Rather, anyopen subject simply proscribes theissues from a critical that In official perspective challenges policies. itisintheinterest ofthegovernment tocontinue toreproduce the fact, Chinese which a wideandsustained discusethnicity, pariah requires sionofthe"Chinese within the culturalist o problem" parametersPernbauran. Threeother factors maketheabsence ofthetheme in thenational literature more innon-fiction theissue hasgenFirst, puzzling. writing, erated voluminous debates a seeOetomo1989). (for review, published Indonesian commentators arenotalways infavour ofgovernment policies.The sameissue a prominent ofgovoccupies placein therhetoric ernment andprivate rumour. Thedichotoofficials, journalistic reports, mousethniccategories ofpribumi and non-pribumi (indigenous) in effect to ethnic Chinese (non-indigenous; exclusively referring regardlessofcitizenship) havebecome an idiomatic exThus, commonplace. for "all sorts of is "men and and women, pression saying people" young andnon-pribumi alike. . .". old,pribumi evenifthere wereofficial restrictions on writing on the Secondly, in would not be to silence authors. The works, subject literary they likely could well be true. itshistory, writers ofIndonecontrary Throughout sianliterature have the Romantic ofasocial, proudly adopted self-image or individuals. In sucha climate, overt anarchic, rebellious restrictions ofparticular themes not these stimulate, literary may discourage, authors towrite aboutthose themes. Tabooson discussing corvery sexuality, of the state or of lite, have violence, ruption political aspects religions, notprevented Indonesian authors from on those and themes, writing retaliation from the state or the occasionally provoking general public. The aftermath ofthe1965-66massacres is certainly a much more sensitive issue than that oftheethnic Chinese. the number Nonetheless, ofpostoffiction 1979 works withthissubject is impressive dealing has a series ofsemi(Foulcher 1990).SenoGumira Ajidarma published historical short in stories Kompas andwidely cir(themost prestigious culated conservative in the Indonesian soldiers' daily country), depicting
Discourse: The Case of the Indonesian Chinese Silence in Indonesian Literary
33
in EastTimor. It ishard toimagine violence Indonesian nonpolitical the terror even half fictional as publications presenting appalling graphiin short stories.10 as it is these cally portrayed in Indonesia aresilent notall literary traditions aboutthe Thirdly, The silence that we have oftheethnic Chinese and Pembauran. issues canonofIndoneto the"official" beendiscussing exclusively belongs I this theconTo elaborate must literature. sia'snational point, explain canon. literary ceptofthe"official" "vernacular values" observation about Ivan Illich's (1982), Extending in can be modern societies activities that I wouldargue today literary within each a into a few structural divided position categories, occupying IndoI havedivided Forexample, ofpower. a hierarchy contemporary are into five nesian literatures 1988).They (a) (seeHeryanto categories andsubordinated the theofficial canon;(b) thebanned; (c) disparaged as cheapand "popular" (that (d) the"regional" readings); (designated and in vernacular written are because is,"non-national", languages); they Within this non-fiction). (for (e) thenon-literary synchronie example, values has and exists one onlyin strucparticular taxonomy, category individual time. ina given with its"others" relation tural time, Through in Some the shift: can values works andtheir hierarchy. shift: positions to remain tends itself butthehierarchy thanothers, moredrastically durable. relatively intheofficial hasitsorigins canon national Indonesia's sponliterary the was initiated that "native" in fiction of by languages sorship original from "Bureauof PopularLiterature" Dutch colonialgovernment's and approved ofa state-sponsored thebeginning 1918.This marked Successive literature". Indonesian "modern (parliamentary, regimes havesancinindependent Indonesia NewOrder) GuidedDemocracy, them chosen and and works thecanonized tioned financially politically, andinnational inschools, literature" Indonesian "modern torepresent andinhistorical ofauthors, ternational Onlyworks writings. meetings oflibrarsection in the"literature" aretobe found this under category the In this literature, iesandbookstores. perennial seventy-five-year-old is invisible.11 Chinese to theethnic related tension mustbe mentioned. to the above observation One exception
34
ArielHERYANTO
entitled S. Hartowardojo's 1971 novel, (An Orang Buangan Harijadi a the where the ethnic case issue Outcast), presents only occupies sigin The novel won nificant the narrative. a position prestigious regional in 1967(itwasoriginally entitled literary competition Munafik (Hypoa Pustaka the novel Published crite). by major Jaya, publisher, quickly found itself on theofficial listfor courses. literature university reading The title refers notto a Chinese butto a Indonesian, Orang Buangan maleprotagonist named Tantri whois in lovewith HiangNio, a Chineseschoolmate. Neither their lovestory, northeethnic intension constitutes thecentral theme ofthenarrative. volved, Understandably, discussions ofOrang make no comment on itsreference tothe Buangan racial andthegeneral discussions ofethnic Chinese do notretension, fer to this novel. fiction from theofficial canonpresents Yet,no other this racial issueto theextent that this novel does.
Voices Outside the National Canon
in various outside theofficial canongive Literary writings categories much more attention totheChinese-indigenous tensions. The followtobe a comprehensive It issimply intended to ingisnotmeant survey. indicate that thethematic inthenational silence canon isunique tothat ofliterary particular category production. The famous ofPramoedya Ananta Toer {fiumi Manusia, tetralogy AnakSemua and Rumah a relaKaca)presents Bangsa, Jejak Langkah, semi-historical account oftheearly construction ofratively generous cialtension inthis and the of More society significanceinter-marriage. the the official includimportantly, tetralogy radically challenges history, that of the Chinese of and the birth of Indonesian naing community tionhood. Thismust be part ofthereason thetetralogy fell under why thecategory of bannedliterature soon after itspublication in the 1980s.12 The theme oftheIndonesian Chinese alsoappears in several examof fiction where thenational Indoples "popular" (standard language serves as the medium ofnarration. Theshort "Babah Liem" nesian) story Sk (1985) presents a mixture ofracial andeconomic tenbyPatmono
35
thepoor"indigenous" and rich"non-indigenous". sionbetween The from theestablishment ofa bigfactory in a village, develops problem commodification of life. Babah Liem andthesubsequently rapid village seems to haveno inhabitants ownsthefactory andthevillage ofChithe official nese descent.Insteadof propagating propagandafor theplight ofthe"indigenous" this fiction Pembauran, simply presents Its isa little with no direct pesmoralizing message. ending population with economic dominance anditscollaboration about Chinese simistic inthe"enterLikemost short stories bureaucrats. published indigenous "Babah ofIndonesian editions tainment" dailies, pagesoftheSunday thelitoutside as "popular" Liem"is boundto be designated reading, as such. canon erary Indah" "Di SuatuHariyang entitled short Another story, "popular" Here a similar theme. Marselli a Beautiful (1986),presents (On Day) by areunclear, andethnicity whose ananonymous wefind narrator, gender In no Poen. Tan Sie named of a Chinese life the protagonist recounting in Indothat exists tension theracial address short story waydoesthis the comment about no makes but mentions Thenarrator nesia. protagoThe in the characters other of the nor do nist's story. story any ethnicity, in orunimportant non-existent is either tension takes placeas ifracial Indonesian society. in alsofinds theme thePembauran with fiction expression Popular on 12 May featured film Putr the for film andtelevision: Giok, example, nettelevision thesoleand government-owned 1985 on TVRI, then Pembauran for the blatant film is This work. programme, propaganda Giok and familiar the all (a Chiprejudices. stereotypes manipulating Giok's and Herman with in love is nesewoman) man) (an indigenous to break tries a rich businessman, relationship, father, up their cruelly thestory be As he is eventually before "enlightened". might expected, case weseean extremely A decade hasa happy later, interesting ending. as a minor a A character, of in theportrayal Hong, fairly sympathetic series televised in thehighly in Indonesia, life ofordinary popular part ". Sekolahan "Si DoelAnak di itsownfilm, On 1 May 1988,TVRI broadcast "Wajah-wajah " Chinese a film allows This a behind Pantulan(Faces Balik Reflection).
36
ArielHERYANTO
Kho Boen,aliasPujo Semedi, to be a hero anda poIndonesian male, "Di SuatuHariyanglndah''thestory liceofficer. LikeMarselli's cenaround andprofessional between the tres personal friendship co-operation maleChinese andhisindigenous co-workers. protagonist The theme oftheproblematic ethnic inIndonesia Chinese hasbeen a favourite infictional works written in thevernacular I can languages. mention a few from two traditions of such only briefly examples major literature: in modern those written andthevernacular Javanese Malay as "bazaar" and "low" consid(officially designated Malay).Butbefore individual from these twoliterary I want to traditions, ering examples that each of these traditions is older and than, byfar emphasize supein terms ofquantity ofworks, andreadership, to theofrior, authors, "national" canon.The systematic denialof ficially designated literary their nottospeak oftheir hasan element ofoverkill.13 existence, merits, Chinese Indonesians asprotagonists featured inmodern ficJavanese tion as early as 1923in R. Suyitna Tan Lun Tik Ian Tan Martaatmaja's Lun Cong is taken from (Tan LunTik andTan Lun Cong).Thistitle thenames of"twosonsofa singkeh Chinese his wife by Javanese who remain behind whentheir father returns to China"(Ras 1979,p. 11). The problematic of ethnic Chinese to theindigenous Inrelationship didnotappear inmodern fiction donesians, however, until the Javanese of Tunggak-Tunggak a novel in 1977.Both publication Jati, byEsmiet Ras(ibid., and Hutomo noted the fact that 26-27) (1978) pp. Tunggakintroduced a new theme intomodern fiction. Jati Tunggak Javanese this novel is still under the shadow of the official Ideologically, propagandaofPembauran. In themid-1980s I found three works offiction on thesametheme inthe Two ofthem areshort stories: "Lien Javanese magazine/^ Baya. Nio Atimu Putih"(Lien Nio, You Have a WhiteHeart)byRetno Yudhawati Moerlan (1984) and"Pembauran" (Assimilation) byPierre is a serialized novelette "Tembok" (1985). The other (Wall)byDyah Kushar discussed theideological ofthese (1984-85).I have significance three works offiction elsewhere the 1988),particularly sub(Heryanto versive in Moerlan's "Pembauran" totheofficial challenge propaganda fortheChinese assimilation. HereI only wishto add that Moerlan's
37
initspower to"defamiliarize" isextraordinary, "Pembauran" particularly of Formalists the called as the Russian 1920s it)contem(orostranenie, and in its"deconstructive" and literary conventions, porary linguistic on authority, andsexuality. wisdom theofficial twists ethnicity, against in Infiction of Thisis oneofthemost pieces contemporary powerful ofits a separate discussion It clearly deserves I havefound. that donesia ownmerits. of ofthetheme be madeon thepersistence mention must Finally, in the in fiction written the Sino-Indonesian of theambiguous position authors. Indonesian or"bazaar") ("low" byChinese Malay lingua-franca Inand Chinese between andmarital Romantic indigenous relationships Sino-Indonesian inoneofthefirst donesians original already appeared ofthis novels OeySe(l903)byThioTjienBoen(1885-1940).Students themes similar that dealwith works other havereported literature (Nio 1962, pp. 82-96; Hutomo 1978; Sumardjo1983, p. 331; Salmon 1987). on sucha theme, write authors these that to be expected It is only as a minorcollective and existence their affects it since directly identity of number thelargest offers tradition The Sino-Indonesian literary ity. no of theme. this themes, with offiction works Incidentally, regardless Sino-Indonesian matched have in this traditions other country literary Undersevere audiences. and ofworks, in number literature authors, since the successive from occupation Japanese regimes pressure political fizzled out(Nio 1962,pp. literature in 1942,Sino-Indonesian gradually 1983,pp. 334-35). Soonafter 156-59;Kwee1982,p. 212; Sumardjo andauofperanakan "hundreds ofthe thearrival journalists Japanese, arrested" were thors (Kwee1982,p. 212).
Discursive Practice?
hasconsistIndonesians ofChinese theissue that shows The foregoing includthis toIndonesian interest beenofcentral century, people ently few The alike. and non-fiction of fiction and audiences ingauthors an areaofcritiinvite mentioned I have that offiction strongly examples litbetween theinter-relationship concern as they calanalysis, especially
38
ArielHERYANTO
andsexism.14 Butsuchdiscussion toanracism, eraiy politics, belongs other ofthose works meno further essay. Mypreliminary analysis gives toourprimary clues concern the thematic silence here, namely, pertainnational literature. ingto Indonesian Thatsilence is intriguing inthelight ofthree facts. there have First, beenno external restrictions on sucha theme in is,non-literary) (that theofficial canon. this absence has been left Second, overlooked, largely or taken for This is not a case of active unquestioned, granted. rejection ordenial ofparticular events orstatements. the national canon Third, constitutes themost dominant thebest scholworks, literary enjoying studies and and thusmostsusceptible to close criticism, arly literary scrutiny. It is tempting to speculate that thetheme in question is simply inor undesirable for authors of the national litervisible, unrecognizable, canon.Butwhy? Sincetheabsence is apparently andithas unseen, ary a long, the reasons for this indifference oravoiduninterrupted history, ancecannot rest with individual I find authors. itdifficult to resist the of in with this appeal post-structuralist arguments dealing problem. Havesome sort ofimpersonal structures ofsemiotic (Pierre dispositions Bourdieu's or Michel Foucault's "discursive "habitus", been practice") for it?15 responsible As I stated from theoutset, I do nothaveanydefinite answer. ButI am inclined to explore thematter in thelight ofdiscourse arguments. I believe offer some even ifprovisional andpartial, tenable, answers. they the I wish to consider is that Indonesia's naCrudely put, hypothesis tional canon andis simultaneously constitutes, constituted literary by, a setofdiscursive that do not allow authors (aswellas critics, practices andstudents) toseethedesirability audiences, orpossibility ofwriting on particular themes within itsgiven orfamiliar framework. A separate observation belowwillhelpsubstantiate this empirical theoretical The theme of Chinese Indonesians and their proposition. troubled is also absent in theofficial canonofIndonesia's positions drama (seealsoHeryanto 1988,pp. 200-1). An important incident took in when the BAKOM PKB {Badan Komunikasi place 1980, Jakarta Kesatuan "Consultative for the InternalizaPenghayatan Bangsa, Body
39
with helda national tionofNational Unity") competition playwriting communities. ofChineseIndonesian a given theme: thePembauran in and it has no prestige This bodyis notan arts-affiliated institute, more entries than attracted The competition, artistic circles. however, the More other recorded among encompetitions.16 importantly, any suchas PutuWijaya most acclaimed were Indonesia's tries playwrights andSainiK.M. individuals certain circumstances that under indicates The incident traand dramatic national of the the to literary community belonging on the in writing fiction andconfidence interest showa strong dition Indonesia. in to theChinese related minority contemporary problems ofthe thehistory doesnotfind This interest throughout expression no demarThere is tradition. national official clearly literary/dramatic exclusive certain with canon ofthenational catedcommunity literary fair to arguethatthe It is, therefore, or preference. silence thematic nor notitsindividual official liesin this authors, tradition, "mystery" orthemarstate letalonetherepressive inquestion, theme thepopular suchliterary ketfor production. the that I am notarguing that to stress at this It is important stage in the found have been should be or should Chinese ofethnic theme reasons areno "natural" There canon. ofIndonesia's works why literary or avoidits absence for reasons "natural" arethere Butneither itshould. tradition In an extended ancefor necessarily literary every period. fact, does(Macherey utterance 1978, ofsilences, hasa series justlikeevery cansilence each of and nature the But given significance pp. 85-89). determined. notbe universally in certain aredominant themes to askwhycertain is It important inothers butabsent atcertain domains orliterary times, belonggenres have issues certain that clear also It is time. and the same to society ing of Indonethewhole for critical years seventy-five questioning escaped national sia's history. literary tothestudy related issues broader alsotoraise serve Thesequestions aredominant which themes other Arethere in Indonesia. ofliterature inthenational butabsent inthis traditions various inthe society, literary thediswithin notexpressible orrather Arethey canon? unsaid, simply
40
ArielHERYANTO
ofthis course canon? How important is theethnic literary particular inother Chinese theme in vernacular the Indonesian languages polyglot in areas where ethnic Chinese constitute a sig(especially archipelago nificant or economic How dominance)?17 doesthe population group caseinIndonesia with the initsneighbouring situation nationcompare states?18 All ofthese aresubjects for sustained and serious questions study. in thestudy ofliterature in IndoneTheynotonly openup problems sia. The question ofsilences within and traditions, particular literary their relation to structures ofhegemony touches on traditions, among issues ofimportance for thestudy ofliterature and literary in politics general.
NOTES
The writer is indebted to separate butequally and correspondinspiring dialogues ence with Charles A. Keith Arief Jakob Foulcher, Budiman, Sumardjo, Coppel, Myra Leo Suryadinata, andWeeWan-Ling. Sidharta, The final ofthis rewriting piecehas also benefited from comments and suggestions from one of thereviewers of SONone of the above is for in JOURN. The responsible anyshortcomings theessay. writer is also grateful to acknowledge thatthispieceoriginally out ofa sumgrew mer institute Committee on Southeast AsiaoftheSocialSciJoint bythe organized enceResearch the American Council ofLearned Council, andtheCenter Societies, for SouthandSoutheast AsianStudies oftheUniversity ofMichigan in 1992.The summer institute wasfunded Endowment for theHumanities and bytheNational theFordFoundation. 1. "From1939 to 1945,'booksin Catalan wereremoved from bookstores andlibraries andmany ofthem were burned' .... Anypublic useofCatalan wasproitwasnotpermitted in anyform in publicor private scribed; schools." (Laitin 1989,p. 302) The more common world-wide arenon-or semi-official discrimipractices nation invarying theuseofparticular andofficial bans degrees against languages, on theuseofparticular in certain orspecific domains, occasions, languages puron 7 July theuseofEnglish 1993,thegovernment banned poses.Forexample, in all forms ofadvertisements and company boards in thecosmopolitan of city to 2 July (seeJakarta-Jakarta, 364, 26 June Jakarta 1993,p. 79). 2. There is nowvoluminous literature on thesubject, andyet several key questions
41
see a recenteditedvolume For a quick view of the matter, are stillunanswered. by RobertCribb (1990). of the revolutionary, 3. Ministersof Chinese descent were a regularfeature parand Guided Democracyperiods"(Anderson1990, p. 115). One must liamentary, "Chinese" top business thatChinesenessand officially add, however, designated in public culturesince 1990 forcurious highprofile figures gain an increasingly reasonsbeyondthescope of thispresent analysis(formoredetails,see Heryanto, in first issuedon 13 Septemthe This is most visible Sinary weekly forthcoming). ber 1993. restrictions 4. For moredetailsof thevariouscurrent againstthe Chinese Indonesians,see Suryadinata (1985, 1990), TAPOL Report (1993), Subiamo (1993), Indrakusuma(1993), and McBeth and Hiebert (1996). ofethnicities construction oftheearly 5. See Kemasang(1985) foran excellent study racismagainsttheethnicChinese in the Dutch East Indies. and state-sponsored demand thateveryIndonesian citizenmust always 6. Contemporary regulations card. a valid Only citizens with Chinese descent get a special identity carry with"0". In August1990 thediscrimion their number cards,beginning identity nationwas supposed to be abolishedin some of the big cities(Kompas,19 July 31 July1990, p. 2 and 18 August1990, p. 6). In some 1990, p. 7; SuaraMerdeka, to distinguish accountnumbers banksdesignate evenprivate cities, discriminating 24 Pikiran rest the from withChinesedescent clients (see Rakyat, June1985, and is based on a quota sysuniversities to SinarHarapan, 24 July1985). Admission of idena new introduced tem. In 1995 the government system computerized same At the Chinese. for ethnic on thecards cards, tity wipingout specialmarkers a claimed thatit would keep separatefiling the government systime,however, tem on thisethnicgroup in the data base {Kompas,23 August 1995, p. 8). 7. One minorexceptionwill be discussedbelow. 8. 1 have foundone otheroccasionwhen such a questionwas raised,and even men it was only in passing.See Suripan Sadi Hutomo's (1978) reviewof a Javanese novel TunggakJatiby Esmiet ( 1977) . Tunggak raisedsome or theseissueselsewhere 9. 1 have previously ^Heryantoiyoot?). 10. In 1992 Ajidarmaand his two colleagueslost theirjobs as editorstor the news They were held responsibleforthe publicationof a magazineJakarta-Jakarta. of the Dili massacrein November 1991. witheyewitnesses seriesof interviews to demonstrate lite.In an attempt The publicationangeredtheJakarta military dismissedthe administration the that to the be, top magazine's powers loyalty or protest. threeeditors.The incidentdid not createany public controversy betweennativeIndonesians (usuallymales) and Europeans and 11. Inter-marriage of canon. In thewritings Eurasians(females)is a common themein thisofficial and males Dutch between Dutch and Chinese authors, inter-marriage peranakan
42
ArielHERYANTO
of "Dutchtheme is a dominant females native (seeToer 1982). In herstudy notes Sidharta Chinese in Pre-War Peranakan Relations Chinese Novels", Myra more novelists Chinese that male)wrote (whoaremainly favourably peranakan thanDutchwomen(1990,p. 14). rather with aboutmarriages indigenous ofthetwovolumes and bestreviews one oftheearliest 12. See Foulcher (1981) for di IndobookHoakiao Ananta Toer'snon-fictional ofthetetralogy. Pramoedya in 1961bythePEPERTI inIndonesia) wasalsobanned Chinese nesia (Overseas WarAuthority"). "Supreme Perang Tertinggiy (Penguasa literaormodern or the denial and/or 13. rora critical Javanese analysis repression nationals and their non-Indonesian counterboth Indonesian ture scholars, by Salmon(1981) for theclasseeGeorge alike, Quinn(1983). See Claudine parts in Malay. sictext oftherediscovery ofSino-Indonesian literature inthenational 14. Indonesian andcritics ofliterature authors, publishers, language, arepredominantly as wellas in thevernacular male.Mostoftheworks featuran inter-ethnic love have a male I-narrator whose identical is story ing ethnicity to that oftheauthor. In New OrderIndonesia, withthecoercive implementationofthePembauran Chinese Indonesians whowrite fiction are programme, in a and themes women, predominantly style, writing language, indistinguishablefrom those oftheir indigenous counterparts. defines habitus as "systems ofdurable, struc15. Bourdieu transposable dispositions, tured structures to function as structuring that structures, is,as prinpredisposed and structuring ofpractices and representations which ciplesofthegeneration canbe objectively and"regular" in any without theprod"regulated" waybeing uctofobedience to rules, to their objectively adapted goalswithout presupposat endsoran express oftheoperations inga conscious aiming mastery necessary to attain them orchestrated without and,beingall this, collectively beingthe oftheorchestrating action ofa conductor" ',p. 72). (1977 product Foucault defines "discursive as "a bodyofanonymous, historical practice" in thetime determined andspacethat havedefined a given rules, always period, andfor a given orlinguistic theconditions social, economic, area, geographical, ofoperation oftheenunciative function" (1972,p. 117). 16.The number ofentries wasninety, ortwice theaverage number ofentries for the annual heldbythe ArtCouncilin theimmediJakarta playwriting competition andsucceeding ately years. preceding ofa pieceofwriting in Sundanese 17. Foran example aboutsuchinter-ethnic roseeSumardjo ofa Banjar folktale about Chinese mance, (1986).Anexample kings canbe found inArtha (1976). 18. Hutomo several works ofthe1950sand1960s (1978) discusses Malaysian literary that therelations between ethnic Chinese andtheMalays as main themes. present
43
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Benedict. andPower. Ithaca:Cornell 1990. Anderson, Press, University Language In Artum. Cina". danAirmata. 1976. Artha, "Raja Banjarmasin, Mangsa . In Jean and Simulations Baudrillard: Selected WritBaudrillard, Jean. Simulacra Mark Poster. edited 1988. Press, Polity by Cambridge: ings, Nice. CamPierre. Outline translated Bourdieu, byRichard ofa Theory ofPractice, 1977. Press, University bridge: Cambridge PadidanKapas,1991. Arief. danPembangunan. Budiman, Jakarta: Yayasan Negara The Indonesian ed. 1965-1966.Clayton: CSEAS, Monash Cribb,Robert, Killings 1990. University, Esmiet.Tunggak-Tunggak 1977. Jakarta: Jati. Pustakajaya, Smith. translated Michel.The Foucault, byA.M. Sheridan of Knowledge, Archaeology Tavistock London: 1972. Publications, Ananta Toer Manusia andAnakSemuaBangsa: Keith. "Bumi Foulcher, Pramoedya the1980s".Indonesial(1981): 1-15. Enters of1965". Literature andtheEvents Recent Indonesian History: "Making Robert edited 101-19. In TheIndonesian Cribb, Clayton: pp. by Killings, 1990. CSEAS, MonashUniversity, Indonesia kesusasteraan Politik "Masihkah Ariel. politik jadi Panglima? Heryanto, Prisma mutakhir". 17,no. 8 (1988): 3-16. "Pembauran dalamFiksi Jawa(sebuah kajianawal)".In Bahasa,Sastra, etal.,pp. 190-204.Yogyakarta: edited danBudayajawa, byDirgoSabariyanto BalaiPenelitian Bahasa,1988. in PublicCulture". Indonesian Chinese and Erasure: "Ethnic Identities ina Postcolonial Asian Identities East South andEthnicity: Nationalism In Beyond AsianStudies, of Southeast Institute Kahn. S. edited byJoel Singapore: Age, forthcoming. dan dalamSastraIndonesia dan Non-pribumi Sadi. "Pribumi Hutomo,Suripan 10. March Daerah".Surabaya 27 1978,p. Post, NewYork:Pantheon Ivan.Gender. Books,1982. Illich, Kue Ranjang. urya, 25 JanuImlek dan Indrakusuma, Menjual Larangan Danny. ary1993. 9, no. I Demiseor Resurrection? Kahn,JoelS. "Culture: Anthropology Critique (1989): 5-25. in a Domestic foreclosed A.K.I . How DutchColonialism oourgeois Kemasang, 1 no. 57Massacres Review*), Chinese The (1985): 1740 Reappraised". Java: 80. a Baya,31 in thirteen novelette Kushar, (serialized Jay episodes). Dyah."Tembok" March 24 to 1985. December 1984
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B. "Chinese in Indonesia ofthePeranakan Chinese Kwee, John MalayLiterature inAsiaand 1880-1941". In 30thInternational Congress ofHumanSciences North Asia 1, edited 1976; Southeast byG. de la Luna,pp. 207-16. Africa, MexicoCity:El Colegiode Mexico,1982. Laitin,David D. "Linguistic Revival: Politics in Catalonia". andCulture for Society andHistory ' (1989): 297-317. Comparative Study ofSociety A Theory Pierre. Production. London:Routledge and Kegan Macherey, ofLiterary Paul,1978. Marselli. "Di SuatuHariyang Indah".Kompas, 14 December 1986,p. 10. andMurrray Hiebert.TryNextDoor . FarEastern Economic McBeth, Review, John 7 March1996,p. 17. Pierre.Pembauran . ayaBaya, 24 February Moerlan, 1985. Nio JoeLan. Sastera 1962. Jakarta: Indonesia-Tionghoa. Gunung Agung, Dede. Studies on theEthnic in Indonesia: Chinese The State ofthe Art. Oetomo, In The Ethnic Chinese inthe ASEANStates: edited byLeo Bibliographical Essays, Institute of Southeast Asian 1989. Studies, Suryadinata. Singapore: Sk. "BabahLiem".SinarHarapan, 4 August Patmono, 1985,p. 9. "TheCaseoftheInvisible Literature: andConPower, Quinn,George. Scholarship, Indonesia5 1-36. Javanese (1983): temporary Writing". InJavanese Literature since Ras,JJ.'Introduction". edited Ras. Independence, byJ.J. The Hague:Martinus 1979. Nijhoff, Richard. Indonesia: TheRiseofCapital. Allenand Unwin, Robison, 1986. Sydney: Claudine. Literature in the Salmon, A Provisional Malay by Chinese ofIndonesia: Annotated Paris: 1981. Bibliography. Archipel, _ Pribumi Indonesia di Mata Penulis Turunan Cina (1920"Masyarakat 1941)".Kritisl,no. 1 (1987): 21-43. "Dutch-Chinese Relations in Pre-War Sidharta, Peranakan Chinese Novels". Myra. to thesymposium on "TheRoleoftheIndoneUnpublished paper presented sianChinese in Shaping Modern Indonesian Life". Ithaca: Cornell University, 1990. "TahunBaruImlek: BolehatauTidak?". Subianto, 344 (30 Benny. Jakarta-Jakarta 1993): 24-25. January-5 February Indonesia". Horison Jakob.Sastra 18,no.7 (1983):325Sumardjo, Melayu-Rendah 36. "CintaGadis Shanghai dan PemudaCilacap".Pikiran 5 June Rakyat, 1986. Leo. "Government Policies towards theEthnic A CompariChinese: Suryadinata, sonbetween Indonesia andMalaysia". Southeast AsiaJournal ofSocialScience 13,no. 2 (1985): 15-28. The Chinesein Indonesia:Government Policiesand ChineseRe-
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tothesymposium on "TheRoleofthe Unpublished paper presented sponses". inShaping Modern Indonesian Chinese Indonesian Cornell Life", University, 1990. Ithaca, Chinese A Report. TAPOL. "Discrimination Indonesia's Surrey, Minority". against 1993. HastaMitra, Doeloe. ed. Tempo 1982. Toer,Pramoedya, Jakarta: In Race, Naas Concept and Reality". "The Bourgeois(ie) Immanuel. Wallerstein, Balibar andImmanuel edited Wallerstein, tion, Class, pp. 135-52. byEtienne London: Verso,1991a. In ofPeoplehood: "The Construction Nationalism, Racism, Ethnicity". Immanuel Balibar and Etienne edited Wallerstein, Nation, Race, Class, pp. by 71-85. London: Verso,1991b. Putih". 1984. Remo."LienNio Atimu Yudhawati, Jaya Baya,11 November
ArielHeryantois Lecturerin the Southeast Asian Studies Programme,National University of Singapore.

Silence in Indonesian Literary Discourse Regarding The Discriminative Case of The Indonesian Chinese

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Silence in Indonesian Literary Discourse Regarding The Discriminative Case of The Indonesian Chinese

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Silence in Indonesian Literary Discourse: The Case of the Indonesian Chinese Author(s): Ariel HERYANTO Source: Sojourn: Journal

SOJOURNVol. 12, No. 1 (1997), pp. 26-45

Silence in Indonesian LiteraryDiscourse: The Case of the Indonesian Chinese

Silence in Indonesian Literary Discourse: The Case of the Indonesian Chinese

Silence in Indonesian Literary Discourse: The Case of the Indonesian Chinese

Silence in Indonesian Literary Discourse: The Case of the Indonesian Chinese

Discourse: The Case of the Indonesian Chinese Silence in Indonesian Literary

Discourse: The Case of the Indonesian Chinese Silence in Indonesian Literary

Discourse: The Case of the Indonesian Chinese Silence in Indonesian Literary

Discourse: The Case of the Indonesian Chinese Silence in Indonesian Literary

Discourse: The Case of the Indonesian Chinese Silence in Indonesian Literary

Discourse: The Case of the Indonesian Chinese Silence in Indonesian Literary

Discourse: The Case of the Indonesian Chinese Silence in Indonesian Literary

ArielHeryantois Lecturerin the Southeast Asian Studies Programme,National University of Singapore.

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