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OBJECTIVES:
1. The impact of the greenhouse effect on planet Earth 2. Greenhouse gases and their effects 3. Human activities have contributed to global warming 4. The effects of global warming on people and the land

and the

Greenhouse Effect

What is the Greenhouse effect?

The greenhouse effect is the rise in temperature that the Earth experiences because certain gases in the atmosphere trap heat from the Suns rays.

Have you seen a greenhouse?

Most greenhouses look like small glasshouses.

Green houses are used to grow plants, especially in the winter.

How do greenhouses work?

Greenhouses work by trapping heat from the sun. The glass panels of the greenhouse let in light but keep heat from escaping.

How do greenhouses work?

This causes the greenhouse to heat up much like the inside of a car parked in sunlight, and keeps the plants warm enough to live in the winter.

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The Greenhouse Effect

The Earths atmosphere is all around us. It is the air we breathe. Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere behave much like the glass panes in a greenhouse.

The Greenhouse Effect

Sunshine enters the Earths atmosphere passing through the blanket of greenhouse gases. As it reaches the Earths surface, land, water, and biosphere absorb the sunlights energy! Once absorbed this energy is sent back into the atmosphere.

How do greenhouses work?

Some of the energy passes back into space. Much of it remains trapped in the atmosphere by the greenhouse gases, causing our world to heat up.

The greenhouse effect is important.

Without the greenhouse effect, the Earth would not be warm enough for humans to live. But if the greenhouse effect becomes stronger, it could make the Earth warmer than usual. Even a little warming causes problems for plants and animals.

Greenhouse Effect
Without these gases, heat would escape back into space and Earths average temperature would be about 60 F colder. Because of how they warm our world, these gases are referred to as greenhouse gases.

What are these gases?

The greenhouse gases are:
Water Vapour Carbon dioxide Nitrous Oxide Methane CFCs

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Water Vapour

Water Vapour
Water vapour is the biggest contributor to the natural greenhouse effect Human activities have little impact on the level of water vapour.

There is more water in the atmosphere than carbon dioxide so most of the greenhouse heating of the Earths surface is due to water vapour. The water vapour content in the atmosphere is constant which means it hasnt changed.

Carbon Dioxide
Our atmosphere contains many natural gases other than ozone. One of these natural gases is carbon dioxide. Our atmosphere needs a certain amount of this gas. It is carbon dioxide that helps to keep the Earth warm.

Carbon Dioxide
This gas holds in just enough heat from the sun to keep animals and plants alive. If it held in more heat than it does the climate on Earth would grow too hot for some kinds of life. If it held in less heat, Earths climate would be too cold.

Carbon Dioxide
Carbon Dioxide is probably the most important of the greenhouse gases and is currently responsible for 60 % of the enhanced greenhouse effect Enhanced
Human activities, not natural.

Carbon Dioxide
For the past 100 years, the amount of carbon dioxide in our atmosphere seems to have been increasing. Why is this happening?

Global carbon dioxide emissions

What is it doing to the Earths atmosphere?

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Where do all the carbon dioxide gases come from?

Carbon dioxide Human respiration. Industrialization Burning of fossil fuel to generate electricity Burning of forest (lesser trees) CO2 is now 1/3 more than before Industrial Revolution

Carbon Dioxide
Burning fossil fuels release the carbon dioxide stored millions of years ago. We use fossil fuels to run vehicles (petrol, diesel, and kerosene), heat homes, businesses, and power factories.

Nitrous Oxide
Nitrous oxide makes up an extremely small amount of the atmosphere It is less than one-thousandth as abundant as carbon dioxide. However it is 200 to 300 times more effective in trapping heat than carbon dioxide.

Nitrous Oxide
Nitrous Oxide has one of the longest atmosphere lifetimes of the greenhouse gases, lasting for up to 150 years.

Since the Industrial Revolution, the level of nitrous oxide in the atmosphere has increased by 16%.

Nitrous Oxide
The impact of human activities
Burning fossil fuels and wood Widespread use of fertilizers Sewage treatment plants

Where do all nitrous oxide gases come from?

Nitrous Oxide Vehicle exhaust Nitrogen based fertilisers

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Methane
The importance of methane in the greenhouse effect is its warming effect. It occurs in lower concentrations than carbon dioxide but it produces 21 times as much warming as carbon dioxide.

Methane
Methane accounts for 20%of the enhanced greenhouse effect. It remains in the atmosphere for 10-12 years. (Less than other greenhouse gases)

Methane
Human Activities
An increase in livestock farming and rice growing has led to an increase in atmospheric methane. Other sources are the extraction of fossil fuels, landfill sites and the burning of biomass. Methane concentration in the atmosphere has more than doubled during the last 200 yr. Some of this methane is produced by ricefields

Where do all the methane gases come from?

Methane Produced by bacteria living in swampy areas. Wet rice cultivation Waste in landfills Rearing of livestock When cows belch (burp) Each molecule can trap 20 times as much heat as a CO2 molecule.

Where do all the CFCs come from?

Global Warming
The average global temperature has increased by almost 1 F over the past century.

CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbons) Aerosol sprays Making foam packaging Coolants in fridge and air cons Cleaning solvents Each CFC molecule can trap as much heat as 100 000 CO2 molecule. Can remain in the atmosphere for a long time (up to 20 000 years)

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Global Warming
Even a small increase in temperature over a long time can change the climate. When the climate changes, there may be big changes in the things that people depend on.

Global Warming
These things include the level of the oceans and the places where we plant crops. They also include the air we breathe and the water we drink.

Global Warming
Days and nights would be more comfortable and people in the area may be able to grow different and better crops than they could before.

Global Warming
Changes in some places will not be good at all.
Human Health Ecological Systems (Plants and animals) Sea Level Rise Crops and Food Supply

Human Health
Heat stress and other heat related health problems are caused directly by very warm temperatures and high humidity.

Ecological Systems
Plants and animals
Climate change may alter the worlds habitats. All living things are included in and rely on these places. Most past climate changes occurred slowly, allowing plants and animals to adapt to the new environment or move someplace else. Plants and animals may not be able to react quickly enough to survive if future climate changes occur as rapidly.

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Sea Level Rise

Global Warming may make the sea level become higher. Why? Warmer weather makes glaciers melt. Melting glaciers add more water to the ocean. Warmer weather also makes water expand. When water expands in the ocean, it takes up more space and the level of the sea rises.

Rising Sea Levels

When earths temperature rises, sea level is likely to rise too: Higher temperature sea water to expand in volume Ice caps at poles to melt

Sea Level Rise

Sea level may rise between several inches and as much as 3 feet during the next century. Coastal flooding could cause saltwater to flow into areas where salt is harmful, threatening plants and animals in those areas. Oceanfront property would be affected by flooding. Coastal flooding may also reduce the quality of drinking water in coastal areas.

Crops and Food Supply

Global warming may make the Earth warmer in cold places. People living in these areas may have the chance to grow crops in new areas. But global warming might bring droughts to other places where we grow crops.

What Might Happen?

This warming trend is expected to bring droughts and flooding of low lying coastal areas as the polar ice caps melt and raise sea level.

Climatic Change
Global warming will lead to an increase in the evaporation of water more water vapour. With more water vapour, more rain fall is expected. But it is not evenly distributed: Dry areas severe drought condition, water shortage and heat waves occurs Wet areas floods (landslides)

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Climatic Change
Other problems may arise: Destroy food crop rice, wheat and corn Affect animals need to migrate Encourage growth of weed and pests may lead to diseases like dengue fever, cholera which are deadly.

What can we do about it?

There are many little things that we can do to make a difference to reduce the amount of greenhouse gases that we put into the atmosphere. Many greenhouse gases come from things we do every day. Driving a car or using electricity is not wrong. We just have to be smart
Eg. Try carpooling

Ways you can help make our planet better.

Read Learning about the environment is very important. Save Electricity Whenever we use electricity, we help put greenhouse gases into the air.
Turn off lights, the television and the computer.

Ways you can help make our planet better.

Bike, Bus and WalkYou can saves energy by sometimes taking the bus, riding a bike or walking.

Ways you can help make our planet better.

Recycle When you recycle, you send less trash to the landfill and you help save natural resources like trees and elements such as aluminum.

Ways you can help make our planet better.

When You Buy, Buy Cool Stuff
Buy Products that dont use as much energy Buy recyclable products instead of non-recyclable ones.

Recycle cans, bottles, plastic bags and newspapers.

Solar Energy can be used to heat homes, buildings, water and to make electricity.

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Ways you can help make our planet better. Cars cause pollution and release a lot of greenhouse gases into the air.
Some cars are better for the environment They travel longer on a smaller amount of fuel. They dont pollute as much. Using these cars can help reduce can help reduce the amount of greenhouse gases in the air.

What else can we do?

To reduce the emission of greenhouse gases International efforts: Kyoto treaty (1997) was started to reduce emission of greenhouse gases by 5% of 1990s levels by 2012.

Worlds major polluters

Summary / Conclusion
Environmental Crisis will affect us: Health Air pollution asthma or other respiratory problems Water pollution poison our food source e.g fish Destruction of forest lost of possible medical solutions Property Floods property lost Pollution destroy streets and beaches Soil erosion desertification, lost of farm lands

Summary / Conclusion
Environmental Crisis will affect us: Economic Costs Lost in terms of monetary values, industry and businesses. Money need to be spent to restore the original Public Health Services need to be provided by the government.

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1. Natural Resources Renewable and Nonrenewable Resources

Environment and Ecology Standards 4.2 A All of the Earths organisms, air, water, and soil, as well as materials such as oil, coal, and ore that are removed from the ground. Separated into two broad categories:

Renewable resources Nonrenewable resources

2. Renewable Resources
Are any resource that cycles or can be replaced within a human life span. Examples include: water, crops, wind, soil, sunlight, animals, etc

a. Food and fiber

are renewable agricultural resources that can be harvested or raised indefinitely unless their use exceeds the rate they can be replaced.

b. Soil a mixture of

living organisms and dirt. Even though it initially takes thousands of years to form, the rate at which soil can regenerate depends on the climate of an area.

c. Wind caused by

the uneven heating of the Earth. Not only renewable but inexhaustible.

e. Water constantly

renewed/replenished by the water cycle.

f. Biomass fuels are g. Geothermal energy

organic matter (wood, plants, animal residues, etc) that contain stored solar energy. the heat generated deep within the Earth.

d. Sun light from the sun supports all the life on Earth as we know it. Also considered inexhaustible. (at least for the next 5 billion years)

However, fresh water resources are somewhat limited. The use and quality of water must be carefully monitored to ensure future use.

Used to supply energy to 15% of the worlds supply.

Fueled by the decay of radioactive elements. Used to heat water.

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3. Nonrenewable Resources
Any resource that cannot be replaced during the time of a human life span. Took millions of years to form and exist in fixed amounts in the Earth. They need to be conserved before they become depleted.

a. Ores mineral

deposits from which valuable metals and nonmetals can be recovered for profit.

Nonmetallic ores include: salt, sand, gravel, clay, diamonds, gemstones, etc.. The major nonmetallic ores mined are coal, limestone, granite, slate, sand, and gravel.

b. Fossil Fuels
Are nonrenewable because they take millions of years to form. In developing countries, the fossil fuels are fossilized wood, charcoal, and peat. In developed countries, the fossil fuels are mainly coal, natural gas, and oil.

Metallic ores include: gold, silver, copper, aluminum, zinc, etc

i. Coal the remains

of wetland plants that have been compressed over millions of years.

Lignite (brown coal) about 70% carbon. Bituminous (soft coal) about 85% carbon. Anthracite (hard coal) greatly than 90% carbon. This is the cleanest burning and least abundant.

ii. Petroleum and Natural Gas are the remains of mainly marine organisms. Typically found in underground formations called traps with the natural gas trapped on top and oil on the bottom.

Different types Peat about 50% carbon. The rest is water and contaminants.

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4. Global Energy Use and Production.

Energy consumption increased by 50% from 1973-1993. Expected to continue to increase in the future mainly in developing or third world countries.

5. Alternative Energy Resources.

Remember that using more fossil fuels accelerates the global warming trend due to more greenhouse emissions and pollution. What other effects will a growth in global energy use produce?

a. These are energy resources that are

more renewable or more environmentally friendly in comparison to fossil fuels.

b. Currently include the following: solar,

wind, geothermal, hydropower, nuclear, and biomass.

i. Solar energy can

be used to heat buildings and water and provide electricity

Solar cells can collect and convert the suns energy into electricity for residential use.

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ii. Wind turns giant wind turbines that produce electricity.

iii. Hydropower the energy of water stored behind dams can be turned into electricity.

iv. Nuclear Power uses the process of fission

to release energy to make electricity.

Availability of Resources
Environment and Ecology Standards 4.2.B

Almost every resource needs to be removed from the Earth and processed in some way before it can be used. What ultimately determines the availability of resources are the costs involved in removing/extracting it from the Earth and the costs involved in processing/refining them into products.

1. Removing/Extracting
Earths Resources
Over time, technology has increased the efficiency of obtaining our natural resources. A. Farming practices changed from many human/animal labor to increased use of farm machinery.

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SOLAR CELL

The

devices used in photovoltaic conversion are called solar cell. Photovoltaic conversion sunlight is directly converted to electricity When solar radiation falls on these devices ,it is converted directly into dc electricity.

Silicon

is the material used for making most cells Single crystal silicon cells are thin wafers about 300 m in thickness sliced from p type doped silicon A shallow junction is formed at one end by diffusion of n type impurity. Metal electrodes made from a Ti-Ag solder are attached to front and back side of the cell

On

the front side the electrode is in the form of metal grid with fingers which permit the sunlight to go through The back side the electrode completely covers the surface An anti reflection coating of SiO,having a thickness of about ,.1 m and a thin transparent encapsulating sheet are also put on the top surface.

Cell

vlotage .5-1V density 20-40 mA/cm2 To obtain higher voltages and currents individual cells are fixed side by side on a suitable back up board and connected in series and parallel to form a module No of modules are inter connected to form an array
Current

Solar

cells are available in circular or rectangular shape Silicon solar cells are also available from poly crystalline silicon and amorphous silicon

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Two

important steps of pairs of Positive and negative charges(called electron hole pairs) in the solar cell by absorbed solar radiation. 2.Separation of positive and negative charges by a potential gradient within the cell E=hc/ Where h=planks constant=6.62x10-27 erg-s
1.Creation

C=velocity of light=3x108 m/s = wave length in m So E=1.24/ eV

The only materials suitable for absorbing the energy of the photons of sunlight are semiconductor like silicon, cadmium sulphide, gallium arsenide,etc. In a semiconductor, the electrons occupy one of two energy bands-the valence band and the conduction band. The valence band has electrons at a lower energy level and is fully occupied, while the conduction band has electrons at a higher energy level and is not fully occupied.

The difference between the energy level of the electrons in the two bands is called the band gap energy Eg. Photons of sunlight having energy E greater than the band gap energy Eg are absorbed in the cell material and excite some of the electrons These electrons jump across the band gap from valence band to conduction band leaving behind holes in the valence band. Thus electron hole pairs are created The electrons in the conduction band and the holes in the valence band are mobile. They can be separated and made to flow through an external circuit if a potential gradient exists within the cell

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intercept of the curve is Voc Y intercept of the curve is Isc The maximum useful power corresponds to the point which yields the rectangle with largest area The voltage yielding maximum power Vm The current yielding maximum power Im Fill factor =VmIm/IscVoc Conversion efficiency=VmIm /ItAc =FFxVocIsc /ItAc It =Incident solar flux Ac =area of cell

It

depends on climatic conditions where system is placed Appropriate spatial placement of modules The availability of a concentrator/solar tracking mechanism in the system.The tracking solar modules collect higher solar energy than those of fixed solar modules Efficiencies from a few percent up to 20-30%
MWp

of a photo voltaic device is the nominal output of a solar panel measured as maximum power output under standard test conditions (STC) in a laboratory with light intensity 1000W/m 2

Solar cells can be electrically connected in series (voltages add) or in parallel (currents add) to give any desired voltage and current (or power) output since P = I x V. Photovoltaic cells are typically sold in modules (or panels) of 12 volts with power outputs of 50 to 100+ watts. These are then combined into arrays to give the desired power or watts.

inverter Dc dc Ac ac Load l control switches To ac loads

Pv array

Grid

They

Photo voltaic array Inverter/Converter Appropriate switches and circuit breakers Load

have no moving parts little maintenance Work quite satisfactorily with beam or diffuse radiations They are readily adapted for varying requirements No noise Lifetimes of 20-30 years or more
Require

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Cell

efficiency depends on Natural climatic conditions where it is used Optimal matching of the system with load High cost

Pumping

water for irrigation and drinking for remote villages for providing street lighting and other community services Telecommunication for the post and telegraph and railway communication network Grid connected application Corrosion protection such as cathodic protection for bridges,pipe line protection Satelite communication
Electrification

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PhysicsofPhotovoltaicGeneration

PhotovoltaicSystem

ntype semiconductor +++++++++++++++ DepletionZone ptype semiconductor

Typicaloutputofamodule(~30cells)is15V,with1.5Acurrent

PVTechnologyClassification
SiliconCrystallineTechnologyThinFilmTechnology MonoCrystallinePVCellsAmorphousSiliconPVCells MultiCrystallinePVCellsPolyCrystallinePVCells (NonSiliconbased)

SiliconCrystallineTechnology
Currentlymakesup86%ofPVmarket Verystablewithmoduleefficiencies1016% MultiCrystallinePVCells MonocrystallinePVCells Castefromingotofmelted Madeusingsawcutfromsingle andrecrystallisedsilicon cylindricalcrystalofSi
Operatingefficiencyupto15% Cellefficiency~12% Accountsfor90%of

crystallineSimarket

MonocrystallinePVCells
Pros
Efficient flat solar panels due to their ability to convert highest amount of solar energy into electricity Long life and durability Not hazardous to environment

ThinFilmTechnology

Cons
More expensive

Silicondepositedinacontinuousonabasematerialsuchasglass, metalorpolymers Thinfilmcrystallinesolarcellconsistsoflayersabout10mthick comparedwith200300mlayersforcrystallinesiliconcells PROS Lowcostsubstrateand fabricationprocess CONS Notverystable

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AmorphousSiliconPVCells
Themostadvancedofthinfilmtechnologies Operatingefficiency~6% Makesupabout13%ofPVmarket

PolyCrystallinePVCells
NonSiliconBasedTechnology CopperIndiumDiselinide
CISwithbandgap1eV,high absorptioncoefficient105cm1 Highefficiencylevels

PROS Maturemanufacturing technologiesavailable CONS Initial2040%lossin efficiency

PROS 18%laboratoryefficiency >11%moduleefficiency CONS Immaturemanufacturing process Slowvacuumprocess

PolyCrystallinePVCells
NonSiliconBasedTechnology CadmiumTelluride(CdTe) lCdTeexhibitsdirectbandgapof 1.4eVandhighabsorption coefficient PROS 16%laboratoryefficiency 69%moduleefficiency CONS Immaturemanufacturingprocess

SemiconductorMaterialEfficiencies

EmergingTechnologies
UltraThinWaferSolarCells Thickness~45m CellEfficiencyashighas 20.3%

Applications@PV
WaterPumping:PVpoweredpumpingsystemsareexcellent ,simple,reliablelife20yrs CommercialLighting:PVpoweredlightingsystemsarereliable andlowcostalternative.Security,billboardsign,area,andoutdoor lightingareallviableapplicationsforPV Consumerelectronics:Solarpoweredwatches,calculators,and camerasarealleverydayapplicationsforPVtechnologies. Telecommunications ResidentialPower:Aresidencelocatedmorethanamilefromthe electricgridcaninstallaPVsystemmoreinexpensivelythan extendingtheelectricgrid (Over500,000homesworldwideusePVpowerastheironlysource ofelectricity)

AntiReflectionCoating
Lowcostdepositiontechniquesusea metalorganictitaniumortantanummixed withsuitableorganicadditives

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Solarthermalenergy

Gomathy.S

.Electricitygeneratedbyburningfossilfuels suchascoal,oilandnaturalgas,emits carbondioxide,nitrogenoxidesandsulfur oxidesgasesscientistsbelievecontribute toclimatechange.Solarthermal(heat) energyisacarbonfree,renewable alternativetothepowerwegeneratewith fossilfuelslikecoalandgas.

SizeofMarket

WhatisSolarThermalPower?
Freeandsecureresource, widelyavailableand highlypredictable Usesreflectorsto concentratesunsenergy andcreateheat Uniquelysuitedfor answeringpeakdemands

Source:EmergingEnergyResearch

AdvantagesandDisadvantages
Advantages Allchemicalandradioactivepollutingbyproductsof thethermonuclearreactionsremainbehindonthe sun,whileonlypureradiantenergyreachestheEarth. Energyreachingtheearthisincredible.Byone calculation,30daysofsunshinestrikingtheEarth havetheenergyequivalentofthetotalofallthe planetsfossilfuels,bothusedandunused! Disadvantages Sundoesnotshineconsistently. Solarenergyisadiffusesource.Toharnessit,we mustconcentrateitintoanamountandformthatwe canuse,suchasheatandelectricity. Addressedbyapproachingtheproblemthrough: 1)collection,2)conversion,3)storage.

Therearetwomainwaysofgeneratingenergy fromthesun. Photovoltaic(PV)andconcentratingsolar thermal(CST),alsoknownasconcentratingsolar power(CSP)technologies. PVconvertssunlightdirectlyintoelectricity. Thesesolarcellsareusuallyfoundpowering devicessuchaswatches,sunglassesand backpacks,aswellasprovidingpowerinremote areas.

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Solarthermaltechnologyislargescalebycomparison. OnebigdifferencefromPVisthatsolarthermalpower plantsgenerateelectricityindirectly. Heatfromthesun'sraysiscollectedandusedtoheat afluid. Thesteamproducedfromtheheatedfluidpowersa generatorthatproduceselectricity. It'ssimilartothewayfossilfuelburningpowerplants workexceptthesteamisproducedbythecollected heatratherthanfromthecombustionoffossilfuels

Therearetwotypesofsolarthermalsystems: passiveandactive. Apassivesystemrequiresnoequipment,like whenheatbuildsupinsideyourcarwhenit's leftparkedinthesun. Anactivesystemrequiressomewaytoabsorb andcollectsolarradiationandthenstoreit.

ParabolicTroughCollectors
Solarthermalpowerplantsareactivesystems, andwhilethereareafewtypes,therearea fewbasicsimilarities:Mirrorsreflectand concentratesunlight,andreceiverscollect thatsolarenergyandconvertitintoheat energy. Ageneratorcanthenbeusedtoproduce electricityfromthisheatenergy.

ParabolicTroughSystemSchematic

Becauseofitsshape,thistypeofplantcan reachoperatingtemperaturesofabout750 degreesF(400degreesC),concentratingthe sun'sraysat30to100timestheirnormal intensityontoheattransferfluidor water/steamfilledpipes.Thehotfluidisused toproducesteam,andthesteamthenspinsa turbinethatpowersageneratortomake electricity.

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SolarPowerTowers
Solarpowertowersystemsareanothertypeof solarthermalsystem.Powertowersrelyon thousandsofheliostats,whicharelarge,flatsun trackingmirrors,tofocusandconcentratethe sun'sradiationontoasingletowermounted receiver. Likeparabolictroughs,heattransferfluidor water/steamisheatedinthereceiver(power towers,though,areabletoconcentratethesun's energyasmuchas1,500times),eventually convertedtosteamandusedtoproduce electricitywithaturbineandgenerator.

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SolarPowerTowers:SandiaCRTF

Flatmirrorsareaimedtofocussunatthereceiver targettomeltsalt

ParabolicDishSystem
Theparabolicdishsystemusesaparabolic dishshapedmirrororamodularmirror systemthatapproximatesaparabolaand incorporatestwoaxistrackingtofocusthe sunlightontoreceiverslocatedatthefocal pointofthedish,whichabsorbstheenergy andconvertsitintothermalenergy. Thiscanbeuseddirectlyasheatforthermal applicationorforpowergeneration.

PARABOLICDISHSYSTEM

TechnologyComparison ParabolicTroughtheDominantTechnology
Thethermalenergycaneitherbetransportedto acentralgeneratorforconversion,oritcanbe converteddirectlyintoelectricityatalocal generatorcoupledtothereceiver ThePDCs(parabolicdishcollector)trackthesun ontwoaxes,andthustheyarethemostefficient collectorsystems.Theirconcentrationratios usuallyrangefrom600to2000,andtheycan achievetemperaturesinexcessof1500oC.
ParabolicTrough Tower Dish

Mechanism

Curvedtroughreflects solar radiationontotubeandheats theoilinsideit.Aheat exchanger createssteam whichrunsasteamturbine .

Circulararrayofmirrors concentratessunlighton receiverplacedattopof centraltower.Heatcreates steamtopowergenerator.

Dishfocusessunlighttosingle point,wherethermalcollector capturestheheat .Engine converts heatinto mechanicalenergywhich drivesgeneratortoproduce electricity . 525KW(perdish) 2530 EmbryonicPilotunderway Negligible

SizeScale Cost(cent\kWh) Commercial Status Marketshareby2012 (MW)

50600(MW) 1418 Maturetechnology,20yr commercialtrackrecord 92%

1064(MW) 1618 Proofofconcept 5%7%

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SolarThermalHeat Solarthermalsystemsareapromisingrenewable energysolutionthesunisanabundant resource.Exceptwhenit'snighttime.Orwhen thesunisblockedbycloudcover.Thermal energystorage(TES)systemsarehighpressure liquidstoragetanksusedalongwithasolar thermalsystemtoallowplantstobankseveral hoursofpotentialelectricity.Offpeakstorageisa criticalcomponenttotheeffectivenessofsolar thermalpowerplants.

Inatwotankdirectsystem,solarthermalenergyisstored rightinthesameheattransferfluidthatcollectedit. Thefluidisdividedintotwotanks,onetankstoringitata lowtemperatureandtheotheratahightemperature. Fluidstoredinthelowtemperaturetankrunsthroughthe powerplant'ssolarcollectorwhereit'sreheatedandsent tothehightemperaturetank. Fluidstoredatahightemperatureissentthroughaheat exchangerthatproducessteam,whichisthenusedto produceelectricityinthegenerator. Andonceit'sbeenthroughtheheatexchanger,thefluid thenreturnstothelowtemperaturetank.

Atwotankindirectsystemfunctionsbasically thesameasthedirectsystemexceptitworks withdifferenttypesofheattransferfluids, usuallythosethatareexpensiveornot intendedforuseasstoragefluid. Toovercomethis,indirectsystemspasslow temperaturefluidsthroughanadditionalheat exchanger.

Unlikethetwotanksystems,thesingletank thermoclinesystemstoresthermalenergyasasolid, usuallysilicasand. Insidethesingletank,partsofthesolidarekeptatlow tohightemperatures,inatemperaturegradient, dependingontheflowoffluid. Forstoragepurposes,hotheattransferfluidflowsinto thetopofthetankandcoolsasittravelsdownward, exitingasalowtemperatureliquid. Togeneratesteamandproduceelectricity,theprocess isreversed.

Solarthermalsystemsthatusemineraloilor moltensaltastheheattransfermediumare primeforTES,butunfortunatelywithoutfurther research,systemsthatrunonwater/steamaren't abletostorethermalenergy. Otheradvancementsinheattransferfluids includeresearchintoalternativefluids,using phasechangematerialsandnovelthermal storageconceptsallinanefforttoreducestorage costsandimproveperformanceandefficiency.

capacitytostoreheattostoresolarenergyisapplicabletomore thanjustlargescalesolarthermalpowerplantsandstorage facilities. Theideacanworkinsomethingascommonplaceasagreenhouse. Allgreenhousestrapsolarenergyduringtheday,usuallywiththe benefitofsouthfacingplacementandaslopingrooftomaximize sunexposure. Butoncethesungoesdown,what'sagrowertodo?Solarthermal greenhousesareabletoretainthatthermalheatanduseittowarm thegreenhouseatnight. Stones,cementandwaterorwaterfilledbarrelscanallbeusedas simple,passivethermalmassmaterials(heatsinks),capturingthe sun'sheatduringthedayandradiatingitbackatnight.

SolarThermalGreenhouses Theideaofusingthermalmassmaterials materialsthathavethe

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Solarthermalchimneys
Justassolarthermalgreenhousesareawayto applysolarthermaltechnologiestoan everydayneed,solarthermalchimneys,or thermalchimneys,alsocapitalizeonthermal massmaterials. Thermalchimneysarepassivesolar ventilationsystems,whichmeanstheyare nonmechanical.
Examplesofmechanicalventilationinclude wholehouseventilationthatusesfansandducts toexhauststaleairandsupplyfreshair. Throughconvectivecoolingprinciples,thermal chimneysallowcoolairinwhilepushinghotair fromtheinsideout. Designedbasedonthefactthathotairrises, theyreduceunwantedheatduringthedayand exchangeinterior(warm)airforexterior(cool) air.

Thermalchimneysaretypicallymadeofablack, hollowthermalmasswithanopeningatthetop forhotairtoexhaust. Inletopeningsaresmallerthanexhaustoutlets andareplacedatlowtomediumheightina room. Whenhotairrises,itescapesthroughthe exteriorexhaustoutlet,eithertotheoutsideor intoanopenstairwell. Asthishappens,anupdraftpullscoolairin throughtheinlets.

Inthefaceofglobalwarming,risingfuelcostsandanever growingdemandforenergy,energyneedsareexpectedto increasebynearlytheequivalentof335millionbarrelsof oilperday,mostlyforelectricity. Whetherbigorsmall,onoroffthegrid,oneofthegreat thingsaboutsolarthermalpoweristhatitexistsrightnow, nowaiting. Byconcentratingsolarenergywithreflectivematerialsand convertingitintoelectricity,modernsolarthermalpower plants,ifadoptedtodayasanindispensablepartofenergy generation,maybecapableofsourcingelectricitytomore than100millionpeopleinthenext20years. Allfromonebigrenewableresource:thesun.

Conclusion:SolarThermal
Solarthermalsystemsarecosteffectiveat lowtemperaturesforwaterheatingor cooking Waterheatersareenergysavers,butinitial costdissuadesmanyfromusingthesame. Massivepowertoweryields10MW,whilea typicalutilityplantis5001500MW Powertowersarentlikelytobeeconomically practicalforsometime Solardryers,cookers,andovensarerelatively inexpensiveandavailableforremotecooking

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CONTENTS TO BE DISCUSSED

SOLAR ENERGY
Solar

radiation Estimation and Measurements

UNIT-I

WHY SOLAR ENERGY

WHAT IS SOLAR ENERGY

Originates with the thermonuclear reactions occurring in the sun. Represents the entire electromagnetic radiation (visible light, infrared, ultraviolet, xrays, and radio waves).

Solar energy is the most readily available source of energy. Solar energy received in the form of radiation, can be converted directly or indirectly into other forms of energy, such as heat and electricity. It is free. It is also the most important of the non-conventional sources of energy because it is non-polluting.

FACTS ABOUT SOLAR ENERGY

SOLAR CONSTANT

Energy is radiated by the sun as the electromagnetic waves of which 99 percent have wavelengths in the range of 0.2 to 4.0 micrometers.

The rate at which Solar energy arrives at the top of the atmosphere is called the Solar Constant Isc.

Energy supplied by the sun in one hour is almost equal to the amount energy required by the human population in one year.

It is the amount of energy received in unit time on a unit area perpendicular to the Suns direction at the mean distance of the earth from the Sun.

Most if the other source on renewable energy have their in sun.

The standard value (NASA)-1353 watts/sq.metre

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WAVELENGTH VERSUS ENERGY

Wavelength() Approximate energy(W/m2) 0-0.38 95 0.38-0.78 640 0.78-4.0 618

SOLAR RADIATION
Beam Radiation (Direct radiation) Reaches directly to the earth surfaces, which produces the shadow effect. Diffused Radiation Solar radiation from the sun after its direction has been changed.

Approximate Percentage of total energy

7%

47.3%

45.7%

Variation

in

Solar

Radiation

due

to

REFLECTION,ABSROPTION AND SCATTERING

Solar Radiation = Beam Radiation + Diffuse Radiation

Reflection: by surface and clouds Absorption : Short wave Ultra-violet rays by ozone and long wave infra red by Co2 and moisture in the atmosphere.

Also called Insolation: total solar radiation received on a horizontal surface of unit area on the ground in unit time (1 day) Insolation varies with date, time, altitude of sun and with weather conditions (clouds,humidity)

Scattering : As Solar radiation passes through the earths atmosphere the components of the atmosphere, such as water vapor, dust in the atmosphere causes scattering.

Solar Radiation Measurements

Must measure both direct and diffuse radiation. Solar Radiation measured by two basic type of instruments

Types of Pyrheloimeters

Pyrheliometers measures beam radiation, blocks diffuse radiation. Used for routine measurements.

Pyrheliometer-Collimates the radiation(parallel rays) to determine the beam intensity as a function of incident angle

Pyranometer-It measures the total hemispherical solar radiation.

Types : Angstrom pyrheliometer The Abbot Silver disc pyrheliometer Eppley pyrheliometer

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Angstrom Compensation Pyrheliometer

A thin blackened shaded manganin strip is heated electrically upto the same strip exposed to solar radiation.

Angstrom Compensation Pyrheliometer

The thermocouples on the back of each strip connected in opposition through a galvanometer to check the equality of temperature.

Abbot Silver Disk Pyrheliometer

Eppley Pyrheliometer

It consist of blackened silver disk positioned at the lower end of tube with diaphragms to limit to the aperture to 5.7deg .

A Mercury-in-glass thermometer is used to measure the temperature of the disk and shutter made of 3 polished metal leaves is provided at the upper end of tube to allow solar radiation to fall on the disk at regular intervals.

The thermometer stem is bend through 90 deg so that it lies along the tube to minimize its exposure to the sun.

Bismuth-silver thermopile with 15 junctions mounted at the base of a brass tube, the limiting diaphragms subtend an angle of 15 degrees A thermopile is basically a series arrangement of thermocouples used to develop a much greater voltage than it is possible using only one. The tube is filled with dry air and sealed with crystal quartz window which is removable. The instrument has found wide acceptance within the U.S.A and many parts of the world.

Used as calibrating instruments.

Pyranometers

Measures total or hemispherical or global radiation over a hemispherical point of view. Hot and cold junctions of a thermopile. Emf proportional to solar radiation is received.range of 0 to 10mV Types: Eppley pyranometer Yellot solarimeter(photovoltaic solar cell) Thermoelectric pyranometer Moll-Gorczyheski solarimeter

Eppley Pyranometers
The

temperature is sensed on the concentric silver ring ( 0.25 mm thick ) consist of black (absorb radiation) and white surface (reflect radiation) with a thermopile 10 or 50 thermocouple junctions to detect the temperature difference between the coated rings and it is enclosed in hemispherical glass cover.

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Eppley Pyranometers
Yellot Solarimeter
Used

on photovoltaic detectors. cells are used to measure solar radiations.

Silicon The

incident radiations are converted to the

equivalent electrical energy.

Sunshine Recorder
Measures duration of bright sunshine in a day

Estimation of Average Solar radiation

The monthly average horizontal solar radiation Hav was given by Angstrom which is

The duration of sun shine is measured by means of suns rays are focused by a glass sphere to point on a card strip held in a groove in a spherical bowl concentrically with the sphere.

where a and b are constants a=0.35 b=0.61 Ho=monthly average horizontal solar radiation for a clear day = average daily hours of bright sunshine for same period N=maximum daily hours of daily sunshine for same period A better form of the above equation suggested by Page(1964) where Ho=the average monthly insolation at the top of the atmosphere. a and b are modified constants depending upon the location. Their values for various locations and climate conditions can be obtained from standard tables

Burnt space with length equal to duration of sunshine is obtained on the strip.

SOLAR ENERGY COLLECTORS

Solar collector is a device for collecting solar radiation and transfer the energy to a fluid passing in contact with it.

Principle of heat conversion is green house effect

Two types of solar collectors ;

Non-concentrating (or) Flat plate type Concentrating (focusing type) type flat type

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Flat plate collectors

Temperatures below about 90 degrees are adequate, as they are for space and service heating flat plate collectors, which are of the non-concentrating type, are particularly convenient.

Flat plate collectors

Flat-plate solar collectors may be divided into two main classifications based on the type of heat transfer fluid used. Liquid heating collectors are used for heating water and non-freezing aqueous solution and occasionally for nonaqueous heat transfer fluids.

They are made in rectangular panels, from about 1.7 to 2.9 sq.m,in area and are relatively simple to construct and erect.

Flat plates can collect and absorb both direct and diffuse radiation.

Air or gas heating collectors are employed as solar air heaters.

Main components
1.

Typical liquid collector

2. 3. 4.

5.

Transparent cover which maybe one or more sheets of glass or radiation transmitting plastic film or sheet Tubes, fins, passages or channels to carry water, air or other fluid. The absorber plate, normally metallic or black surface Insulation at the back and sides to minimize heat losses. Standard insulating materials like fiber glass can also be used. Casing or container for protection.

Advantages of second glass Heat transport system-water, air

Solar air heaters

Advantages of Flat plate collectors

Advantages and disadvantages of air as medium Porous and non-porous absorber

They have the advantages of using both beam and diffuse solar radiation. They do not require orientation towards the sun. They require little maintenance. They are mechanically simpler than the concentrating collectors, absorbing surfaces and orientation devices of focusing collectors.

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Applications of Solar Air Heaters

Concentrating Collectors: Focusing Type

Focusing collector is a device to collect solar energy with high intensity of solar radiation on the energy absorbing surface.

Heating buildings. Drying agricultural produce and lumber. Heating green houses. Air conditioning buildings utilizing desiccant beds or a absorption refrigeration process.

Such collectors generally use optical system in the form of reflectors or refractors. These type of collectors can have radiation increase low value of 1.5-2 to high values of the order of 10,000.

Using air heaters as the heat sources for a heat engine such as a Brayton or Stirling cycle.

Optical Efficiency

Types of Concentrating Collectors

The combined effect of all loses is indicated through the introduction of a term called the optical efficiency.

Parabolic trough collector Mirror strip reflector Fresnel Lens collector Flat plate collector with adjustable mirrors Compound parabolic concentrator

The introduction of more optical losses is compensated for by the fact that the flux incident on the absorber surface is compensated for by the fact that the flux incident on the absorber surface is concentrated on smaller area.

Parabolic Trough Reflector

The

Cross section of Parabolic Trough Reflector

principle of the parabolic trough collector, which radiation coming from the particular direction is

is often used in concentration collectors.

Solar

collected over the area of the reflecting surface and is concentrated at the focus of the parabola.
It

can be vary over a wide range the length of a

reflector unit may be roughly 3 to 5m,and the width about 1.5 to 2.4m.

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Parabolic Trough Reflector

Typical cylindrical parabolic system

Parabolic trough reflectors have been made of highly polished aluminium,of silvered glass or of a thin film of aluminized plastic on a firm base.

For the solar radiation to be brought to a focus by parabolic trough reflector, the sun must be in such a direction that it lies on the plane passing through the focal line and the vertex.

Trough type of collectors are generally oriented in the eastwest or north-south directions.

Parabolic Trough Reflector

Mirror Strip Reflector

In another kind of focusing collector, a number of plane or slightly curved mirror strips are mounted on a flat base.

For the east-west orientation, the collectors are laid flat on the ground.

The angles of the individual mirrors are such that they reflect solar radiation from a specific direction on to the same focal line.

The north-south orientation permits more solar energy to be collected than the east-west arrangements, except around the winter equinox.

The angles of the mirrors must be adjusted to allow for changes in the suns elevation, while the focal line remains in a fixed position.

The choice of orientation in any particular instance depends on the foregoing and other considerations.

Fresnel Lens Collector Fresnel Lens Collector

In Fresnel lens collector, the solar radiation is focused into the absorber from the top, rather than from the bottom as in the parabolic type.

For a trough-type collector, the lens is rectangle about 4.7m in overall length and 0.95m in width.

It is made in sections from cost acrylic plastic and can probably be produced in quantity at low cost.

Insulation at the bottom and sides of the absorber pipe and a flat-plate over the top reduce thermal losses.

To be fully effective, the Fresnel lens must be continuously aligned with the sun in 2 directions namely, both along and perpendicular to its length.

A stainless steel reflector adjacent to the pipe reflects back emitted thermal radiation.

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Point Focusing Collector

A

Point Focusing Collector

dish 6.6m,in diameter has been made from about 200 absorber, located at the focus, is a cavity made of

The concentration ratios is the ratio of the area of the concentrator aperture to the energy absorbing area of the receiver, it determines the concentrator, are very high . effectiveness of a

curved mirror segments forming a paraboloidal surface.

The

zirconium-copper alloy with a black chrome selective coating.

The

In case of Parabolic system and therefore can be used where high temperatures are required.

dish can be turned automatically about two

axes(up-down and left-right)so that the sun is always kept in a line with the focus and the base of the paraboloidal dish.

In cylindrical parabolic system, the concentration ratio is lower than parabolic counter parts.

Point Focusing Collector

Point Focusing Solar Collector

Concentration ratios of about 30 to 100 or higher would be needed to achieve temperatures in the range of 300 to 500 degree Celsius or higher.

Central receiver collector- tower power plant using heliostat mirrors.

Central Receiver Collector

Concentrating Collectors-Flat Plate Collector Augmented With Mirrors

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Compound Parabolic Concentrator

Compound Parabolic Concentrator

CPC reflectors can be designed for any absorber shapes. Flat one sided absorber Flat two sided absorber Wedge-like absorber Tubular absorbers They are suitable for the temperature range of 100-150 degree Celsius even if the absorber is not surrounded by a vaccum.

CPC is non-focusing-but solar radiation from many directions is reflected toward the bottom of the trough.

CPC provides moderately good concentration, although less than a focusing collector in an east-west direction without adjustment for sun tracking..

Compound Parabolic Concentrator

Advantages of Compound Parabolic Concentrator

There is no need of tracking ,as it has high acceptance angle, only essential adjustments are required.

The Efficiency for accepting diffuse solar radiation is much larger than conventional concentrators.

Its Concentration ratio is equal to the maximum value possible for given acceptance angle.

The Maximum concentration ratios are available with parabolic system, is of the order of 10,000.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Concentrating collections over Flat-plate Type Collectors

Reflecting surfaces required less material and are structurally simpler than flat-plate collectors. For a concentrator system the cost per unit area of solar collecting surface is therefore potentially less than that for flat-plate collectors. The absorber area of a concentrator system is smaller than that of a flat-plate system for same solar energy collection and therefore the isolation intensity is greater.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Concentrating over Flat-plate Type Collectors

Concentrating systems can be used for electric power generation when not used for heating or cooling. The total useful operating time per year can therefore be large for a concentrator system than for a flat-plate collector and the initial installation cost of the system can be regained by saving in energy in a shorter period of time.

Little or no anti-freeze is required to protect the absorber in a concentrator system whereas the entire solar energy collection surface requires anti-freeze protection in a flat-plate collector.

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1.

Direct Thermal Application Direct use of Heat resulting in absorption of solar radiation Space heating of residences, buildings Hot water service Curing of agricultural industrial products Solar Electric Application Converts Solar energy directly or indirectly to electrical energy Solar Thermal Electric Conversion Includes production of high temperature To boil water or working fluid required to run turbines of electric generator Photovoltaic Conversion solar cells convert solar energy to electrical energy

Disadvantages

Out of the beam and diffuse solar radiation components, only beam component is collected in case of focusing collectors because diffuse component cannot be reflected. Additional requirements of maintenance particular to retain the quality of reflecting surface against dirt, weather, oxidation etc. Non- uniform flux on the absorber whereas flux in flatplate collectors is uniform. Additional optical losses such as reflectance loss and the intercept loss High initial cost.

2. a.

b.

Solar Energy Storage

c. Thermo Electric Conversion Conversion of solar energy to electrical energy using thermo electric effect d. Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion * Difference in temperature between solar heated surface and cold deep ocean to operate a vapour expansion turbine n electric generator.

Permits solar energy to be captured when insolation is highest and used later when needed. Makes it possible to deliver short peaks of power for exceeding the rated power capacity of the plant. Improve reliability. Permit a better match between solar energy input and load demand than without storage.

Solar Energy Storage System

Thermal Energy Storage

Energy can be stored by heating, melting or vaporization of material, and the energy becomes available as heat, when the process is reverse.

Storage by causing a material to rise in temperature is called Sensible Heat Storage.

Storage by phase change, the transition from solid to liquid or from liquid to vapor is another mode of thermal storage, known as Latent Heat storage.

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Applications
Thermal

Sensible Heat storage

Sensible

energy storage is essential for both domestic

heat storage involves a material that

water and space heating application.

For

undergoes no change in phase over the temperature domain encountered in the storage process.

the high temperature storage system needed for

thermal power application.

Used

in industries and horticultural

Water tank storage unit

Where

Water tank storage unit

Qs = (mCp)s (T1 T2)

Energy is added by circulating water through collector and is removed by circulating water through load

Qs Total thermal energy capacity Cp Specific heat The ability of store thermal energy in a given container of volume V is, Q/V= Cp T - density of the storage medium

Storage

Water storage

The materials used for this type of storage are

Most common heat transfer fluid for a solar system is water and the easiest way to store thermal energy is by storing the water directly in a well insulated tank.

Water Rock, gravel or crushed stone Iron, red iron oxide or iron ores concrete

The optimum tank size for flat plate collector system is about 70kg/m2

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Characteristics of water for use as storage medium

Packed Bed Exchanger Storage

For

It is an inexpensive, readily available and useful material to store sensible heat. High thermal storage capacity Energy addition and removal from this type of storage is done by medium itself, thus eliminating any temperature drop between transport fluid and storage medium

sensible heat storage with air as the energy

transport mechanism, rocks, gravel or crushed stone in a bin has the advantage of providing a large, cheap heat transfer surface
Its

thermal capacity is only half that of water and

the bin volume will be about 3 times the volume of a water tank

Pumping cost is small

Advantages of Rock over Water

Schematic of Packed Bed Storage Unit

Rock is more easily contained than water Rock acts as its own heat exchanger, which reduces total system cost

The heat transfer coefficient between the air and solid is high Cost of the storage material is low Conductivity of the bed is low when air flow is not present

Latent Heat Storage

The phase change must occur with limited super cooling

Heat is stored in a material when it melts and from the material when it freezes.

extracted

Cost of materials and its containers must be reasonable

Material that undergo a change of phase in a suitable temperature range may be useful for energy storage if the following criteria can be satisfied

Its phase change must occur close to its actual melting temperature

The phase change must be accompanied by high latent heat effect

Material must be available in large quantities

A small volume change during the phase change

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A sodium acetate heating pad. When the sodium acetate solution crystallises, it becomes warm. Glaubers salt Na2SO4.10H2O-soduim sulphate decahydrate Salt eutectics Some organic compound like paraffin or fatty acids Refractory materials (MgO, Al2O3, SiO2)

Electrical Storage
Capacitor storage:

At high voltage low current capacitor storage is used

Where V volume of dielectric - constant E electric field strength

Inductor storage:
Electric

field strength is limited by breakdown

strength of the dielectric

The

At

low voltage and high current inductor storage

is used

electrical energy storable in a dielectric is where - permeability of the material

Hm- magnetic flux density

limited
Mica

is the best dielectric material

Battery storage:
A A

Working of Battery Storage System

battery is the combination of individual cells. cell is the elemental combination of materials and

A cell consists of two electrodes called anode and cathode immersed in a suitable electrolyte

electrolyte constituting the basic electrochemical energy stored

Secondary

When an electrical load is connected between the electrode charge separation occurs at the interface between the electrode and electrolyte, freezing both an electron and an ion.

batteries are rechargeable and primary batteries batteries- lead acid, nickel cadmium, iron air,

are non rechargeable

Secondary

nickel-hydrogen, zinc air, sodium sulpur, sodium chlorine etc.

The electron flows through the external load and ion through the electrolyte, recombining at the other electrode

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Chemical Storage

Storage in the form of fuel: by solar radiation

A storage battery in which the

Some of the reactions that could potentially be useful for the storage of solar energy: 2NACl + photons AgCl (s) + photons NO2 + photons H2C + O2 2NO+Cl2 Ag(s) + Cl2 NO + O2 H2O2

reactant is generated by photochemical reaction brought about

In this case converter itself acts as a storage battery

The battery is charged photochemically and discharged electrically whenever needed

Thermo-chemical energy storage: Thermochemical storage systems are suitable for medium and high temperature applications only

A+B

AB

The forward reaction takes place with absorption of heat and heat is stored in the form of products, when heat is desired the products are to be remixed to allow the reversible reaction to take place with liberation of heat

Advantage of thermochemical storage include high energy density storage at ambient temperatures for long periods without thermal losses

Both forward and reverse reactions takes place at constant but different temperature

This type of storage is illustrated by a hypothetical reaction

Hydrogen Storage: Energy can be stored and transport as hydrogen, which serves as a secondary fuel.

The

hydrogen and oxygen gas produced can be stored either in gas or liquid form for a long time system thus effectively stores the suns energy

The

On wind electric or photovoltaic system the dc output power can be fed directly into a electrolyzer tank which produces hydrogen and oxygen from ordinary water

as hydrogen and oxygen, and from this storage a smooth reliable power output may be taken for a limited time set by the hydrogen storage capacity

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Mechanical Energy Storage

Pumped Hydroelectric Storage:
Electric

The overall efficiency of the pumped storage, that is the percentage of the electrical energy used to pump the water is recovered as electrical energy is about 70%

power in excess of the immediate

demand is used to pump water from a supply at a lower level to a reservoir at a high level
When

The pumped hydroelectric storage is the most economical means presently available to electric utilities, hence solar and wind energy in electrical form can be used by this system

the power demand exceeds the supply, the

water is allow to flow back down through a hydraulic turbine which drives a generator

Schematic Diagram for Pumped Hydroelectric storage system

Compressed Air Storage:

A wind turbine can directly pump air into a suitable pressurized storage tank

Then later when the wind is not blowing the energy stored in the air could be utilized to drive an air turbine, whose shaft would then drive a generator

Thus supplying the needed electrical power when the wind is not blowing

Flywheel Storage:

Electromagnetic Energy Storage

Here

The rotation of flywheel can be used to operate a generator to produce electricity when required

energy storage is via super conducting magnet

An

electromagnetic field is produced by an electric

The same machine serves as both a motor, when electricity is supplied and as a generator, when the armature is rotated by the flywheel

current flowing through a wire can store energy

If

the coil were made of super conducting material and

kept at the required low temperature, resistance losses are small and once initiated, an electric current would remain constant

The energy recovery efficiency is estimated to be upto 90%

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Applications of solar energy

Electrical

energy supplied as direct current to

wire coil would be stored in the electromagnetic field

Direct thermal applications Solar electric applications

Solar thermal electric conversion Photovoltaic methods Thermoelectric conversion Wind energy, Ocean energy

By

attaching coil to load, the stored energy

Energy from biomass and bio-gas

could be recovered as electrical energy.

Solar Thermal Electric Conversion

Heat can be converted directly into electrical energy by solar cell or thermoelectric methods, but these techniques may not be suitable for use with the sun-generated heat.

The most practical thermal electric procedure for solar energy is to utilize the energy to heat a working fluid.

The heat energy is then converted into mechanical energy in a turbine and finally into electrical energy by means of conventional generator coupled to the turbine.

Power cycles-low, medium and high temp. ArrangementsCentral Receiver Collector-large scale generation Distributed collector-smaller capacity2kW

Thermo Electric Conversion systems

Low temperature using flat plate collectors or solar pond. Concentrating collectors for medium and high temperature. Power tower concept or central receiver system Distributed collector system

Low temperature systems

Temperature range of 60-100 degree Celsius Rankine cycle is used Organic fluid is Freon or butane Flat plate collectors or solar pond arrangement

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Solar pond
A natural or artificial body of water for collecting and absorbing solar radiation and storing it as heat. Dissolved salts to create stable density gradient.

Medium temperature systems

Temperature above 100 degree Celsius 250-500 degrees Celsius Parabolic cylindrical collector is used

High temperature Systems

Central Receiver Collector Distributed collector systems (solar farms)

Central receiver systems (Tower Power plant)

Principle and working

A large field of mirrors, called heliostats, track the sun. A tower collects light concentrated by the heliostats onto a central receiver on top of a tower. Tower heights range from approximately 300 to 650 feet. HTF, composed of either water or molten nitrate salt, moves through the receiver and is heated to temperatures over 500 C. The heated HTF is then sent to a heat exchanger where water is turned into steam, which then drives a turbine generator.

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Description of the system

Tower with the central receiver on top Heat conversion subsystem Heat storage device Field of oriented mirrors

Distributed Collector system (Solar ponds)

Solar Electric Power Generation

Direct conversion of solar energy into electricity by means of photovoltaic effect, i.e. conversion of light into electricity. Photovoltaic effect -generation of an electromotive force as a result of the absorption of ionizing radiation. Solar cells- Energy conversion devices which are used to convert sunlight to electricity by the use of photovoltaic effect.

What is a solar cell?

Solar cell animation Solar cell working

Solid state device that converts incident solar energy directly into electrical energy Efficiencies from a few percent up to 20-30% No moving parts No noise Lifetimes of 20-30 years or more

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Cross Section of Solar Cell

Schematic view of Typical Solar Cell

How Does It Work?

How solar cells Generate electricity

The junction of dissimilar materials (n and p type silicon) creates a voltage Energy from sunlight knocks out electrons, creating a electron and a hole in the junction Connecting both sides to an external circuit causes current to flow In essence, sunlight on a solar cell creates a small battery with voltages typically 0.5 V DC

A PV system consists of :

Photon interaction in a semi conductor three processes are required :

The photons have to be absorbed in the active part of the material and result in electrons being excited to a higher energy potential.

The electron hole charge carrier created by the absorption must be physically separated and moved to the edge of the cell.

The charge carriers must be removed from the cell and delivered to a useful load before they loose their extra potential.

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A PV system consists of :
For completing the above processes a solar cell consists of *Semiconductor in which electron hole pairs are created by absorption of incident solar radiation *Region containing a drift field for charge separation and *Charge collecting front and back electrodes. The photo-voltaic effect can be described easily for p-n junction in semiconductor. Combination of n-type and p-type semiconductors thus constitute a photovoltaic cells or solar cell. The electric field which separates the charge created by the absorption of sunlight.

This p-n junction is usually obtained by putting a p-type base material into a diffusion furnace containing a gaseous n-type doping such as phosphorous and allowing the n-dopant to diffuse into the surface about 0.2m. Each of the individual solar cells will produce power at about 0.5V with the current directly proportional to the cells area.

Conversion Efficiency and Power Output The equivalent circuit of a Solar Cell : Current voltage relationship is given by Ji = Jo [exp (Ve/KT) 1 ] Jo saturation current V- voltage across junction E- electronic charge K- boltzmanns constant T- absolute temperature

J=JL JI =JL - Jo [exp (Ve/KT) 1 ]

Photovoltaic uncertain

semi-conductors extra

with

conversion efficiency can

efficiencies up to about 25% or more are known, but it is if the conversion compensate for the additional cost, except in special circumstances.

A Basic Photovoltaic System for Power Generation

The maximum power of a silicon cell occurs at an output voltage of approximately 0.45 volt.

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Combining Solar Cells

Solar array A Blocking diode Battery storage Inverter/Converter Appropriate switches and circuit breakers

Solar cells can be electrically connected in series (voltages add) or in parallel (currents add) to give any desired voltage and current (or power) output since P = I x V. Photovoltaic cells are typically sold in modules (or panels) of 12 volts with power outputs of 50 to 100+ watts. These are then combined into arrays to give the desired power or watts.

From Cells to Modules

Cells, Modules, Arrays

The open circuit voltage of a single solar cell is approx 0.5V.

Much higher voltage is required for practical application.

Solar cells are connected in series to increase its open circuit voltage.

Advantages of Solar Photovoltaic System

Disadvantages :
High cost Storage is required

Direct room temperature conversion of light to electricity Absence of moving parts Highly reliable / No pollution / Long life High power to weight ratio Consume no fuel to operate as the suns energy is free Amenable to on site installation

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Applications of Solar Photovoltaic System

PV was developed for the space program in the 1960s

Water pumping sets for micro irrigation and drinking water supply.

Community radio and Television sets Railway signaling equipments. A PV array Street Lighting Weather monitoring

Photovoltaic Array for Lighting

Telecommunications Tower

Remote Water Pumping in Utah

Recreation Vehicle Outfitted with Solar Panels

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Solar Lanterns for Landscaping

A Solar Driven Band

Pole Mounted PV

Pole Mounted PV

Maximum Power Point Tracking

Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) is a technique that grid tie inverters, solar battery chargers and similar devices use to get the maximum possible power from one or more solar panels. Solar cells have a complex relationship between solar irradiation, temperature and total resistance that produces a non-linear output efficiency known as the I-V curve. It is the purpose of the MPPT system to sample the output of the cells and apply the proper resistance (load) to obtain maximum power for any given environmental conditions.

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Photovoltaic cells have a complex relationship between their operating environment and the maximum power they can produce. For any given set of operational conditions, cells have a single operating point where the values of the current (I) and Voltage (V) of the cell result in a maximum power output. These values correspond to a particular load resistance, which is equal to V / I as specified by Ohm's Law. The power P is given by P=V*I. From basic circuit theory, the power delivered from or to a device is optimized where the derivative (graphically, the slope) dI/dV of the I-V curve is equal and opposite the I/V ratio (where dP/dV=0). This is known as the maximum power point (MPP) and corresponds to the "knee" of the curve.

A load with resistance R=V/I equal to the reciprocal of this value draws the maximum power from the device. This is sometimes called the characteristic resistance of the cell. This is a dynamic quantity which changes depending on the level of illumination, as well as other factors such as temperature and the age of the cell. If the resistance is lower or higher than this value, the power drawn will be less than the maximum available, and thus the cell will not be used as efficiently as it could be. Maximum power point trackers utilize different types of control circuit or logic to search for this point and thus to allow the converter circuit to extract the maximum power available from a cell.

Controllers usually follow one of three types of strategies to optimize the power output of an array. Maximum power point trackers may implement different algorithms and switch between them based on the operating conditions of the array. Perturb and observe Incremental conductance Constant voltage

Maximum Power Point Tracking, frequently referred to as MPPT, is an electronic system that operates the Photovoltaic (PV) modules in a manner that allows the modules to produce all the power they are capable of.

MPPT is a fully electronic system that varies the electrical operating point of the modules so that the modules are able to deliver maximum available power. Additional power harvested from the modules is then made available as increased battery charge current.

MPPT is not a mechanical tracking system that physically moves the modules to make them point more directly at the sun.

A MPPT solar charge controller is the charge controller embedded with MPPT algorithm to maximize the amount of current going into the battery from PV module.

MPPT can be used in conjunction with a mechanical tracking system, but the two systems are completely different.

MPPT is DC to DC converter which operates by taking DC input from PV module, changing it to AC and converting it back to a different DC voltage and current to exactly match the PV module to the battery.

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MPPT Working

MPPT Characteristics
The MPPT system in a Solar Boost charge controller calculates the voltage at which the module is able to produce maximum power Rather than simply connecting the module to the battery, the MPPT system in a Solar Boost charge controller calculates the voltage at which the module is able to produce maximum power. In this example the maximum power voltage of the module (VMP) is 17V. The MPPT system then operates the modules at 17V to extract the full 75W, regardless of present battery voltage. A high efficiency DC-to-DC power converter converts the 17V module voltage at the controller input to battery voltage at the output.

To understand how MPPT works, lets first consider the operation of a conventional (nonMPPT) charge controller. When a conventional controller is charging a discharged battery, it simply connects the modules directly to the battery. This forces the modules to operate at battery voltage, typically not the ideal operating voltage at which the modules are able to produce their maximum available power. The PV Module Power/Voltage/Current graph shows the traditional Current/Voltage curve for a typical 75W module at standard test conditions of 25C cell temperature and 1000W/m 2 of insolation. This graph also shows PV module power delivered vs module voltage. For the example shown, the conventional controller simply connects the module to the battery and therefore forces the module to operate at 12V. By forcing the 75W module to operate at 12V the conventional controller artificially limits power production to 53W.

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Contd..

In this Example, the maximum power voltage of the module (VMP) is 17V The MPPT system then operates the modules at 17V to extract the full 75W, regardless of present battery voltage. Actual charge current increase varies with operating conditions. As shown in fig., the greater the difference between PV module maximum power voltage VMP and battery voltage, the greater the charge current increase will be.

Electrical Output Characteristic

MPP

Maximum Power depends on the environment: Insolation, clouds, mobile applications, reflection and temperature Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) Algorithms: Constant voltage, constant current, incremental conductance
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Conclusions of MPPT

Conclusions of MPPT

Power output of the module improves with the MPPT system than it was with out the MPPT system.

Temperature of the module is an important parameter. The power output of the module changes by about 0.5% for every degree rise in temperature. So a 38W module gives only a power of about 29W peak

The module placement also plays an important role in power output. Module is kept in south facing. Buts its elevation angle must be adjusted every month to get high power output.

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