1

Colecia

STEF Academic


LUCILIUS VASILIU
EIGHT MAJOR THEORETICAL BREAKTHROUGHS
IN THE SUPERIOR MATHEMATICS



2

























ISBN 978-973-1809-00-7



2007, Lucilius Vasiliu, Iai. All Rights Reserved.
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LUCILIUS VASILIU






EIGHT MAJOR THEORETICAL
BREAKTHROUGHS
IN THE SUPERIOR MATHEMATICS























STEF, IAI, 2007
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5

PREFACE

Motto
A Hilbert space is a giant computer
Vasiliu Lucilius

This book represents a sequence of the book Five Major Breakthroughs
in Superior Mathematics. This happened after all nowadays challenges, when
Mathematics is so far behind all other Sciences, life Informatics and Genetics,
which are evolving with huge steps every day.
There are a lot of entire Mathematical domains that have remained
unchanged since the year of 1900.
As a Mathematician, with the burning desire to developing also
Mathematics Sciences, I have been trying over the years, using daring and
original ideas, to give another impulse to this science.
In 2007, I have managed to make another three huge and extraordinary
theoretical breakthroughs which brought up to the light some extremely
difficult domains like: The Algebraic Theory of Numbers and The Algebraic
Geometry.
I would like to pay special regards this way to my dear professor Eugen
Campu from the Mathematical Faculty of Bucharest, to whom I have
collaborated over the hard times I have been through trying to solve Riemann
Hypothesis. He has helped me solve it after a terrible and tremendous battle I
had with all the obstacles I have been through in my way to solve this
Hypothesis. I have to mention also that professor Eugen Campu has also been a
great moral support for me during all this time.
I would also like to thank to the prestigious Mathematician and professor
Daniel Bump from Stanford University who was so willing to read and to
comment my work, the one that contained Riemann Hypothesis.

When it comes to the mathematical section, some intricacies may be
found in the rationations.
If the ones who will read the book will find these intricacies, the author
will be receptive at a civilized and constructive criticism and will apply himself
to correct them in a later edition.

Vasiliu Lucilius, May 2007
Internet address: vasiliulucilius@yahoo.com
Str. Ion Creang nr. 106, bl. C
1
, et. 5, ap. 3 Iai
6

7

Chapter 1
Fractional powers with rational exponent
of the monotonous operators of class C on R.
The study of functional equation f(f(x))=g(x), g:[a, b]R gC
[a, b] have started after the year of 1700, great mathematicians like
Leonard Euler or K. F. Gauss have thought about it.
During periods of time, an entire theory has been developed around
this equation, mathematicians all around the world trying to solve more
complicated functional equation, like P(f(x))=g(x), where P(x) is a
polynomial of n degree with real or complex coefficients. Along with the
evolution of mathematics, R had been replaced at the definition of
functions g with more complicated spaces, like R,
n
C , or at the
beginning of the 20
th
century with Hilbert H infinite dimensional spaces
or even with Banach spaces.
Moving on, we will solve the functional equation in the most basic
case, the one researched ever since 1700.
Theorem 1
Considering g:[a, b]R , g of class C on [a, b], g monotonically
increasing. Then it exists and is unique a monotonically increasing f
function and continuous, with the property that f(f(x))=g(x).
Demonstration
It is being considered a division
0
of the interval [a, b] comprised
of n
0
equidistant points a =x
o
, x
1
, , x
0
n
=b and x
1 j +
x
j
=
j 1,
o
n . On each interval [x
j
, x
1 j +
] it is approximated the function
g(x) with the segment determined by the points (x
j
, g(x
j
)) and (x
1 j +
,
g(x
1 j +
)) from the plane xOy. This approximation is possible because the
function g is continuous.
Thus it is obtained an affine approximant g
1
(x) continuous of the
function g. Applying a process of infinite dichotomy to the
0
division
we obtain a sequence of g
n
(x) of continuous function, afine on every
interval type [x
i
, x
1 i+
] of the division and monotonically increasing.
So,
8
0 > n N , n>1, therefore g
n
(x)g(x)< x [a, b].
On every interval [x
i
, x
1 i+
] of a division type
n
, n>1, the function
g
n
(x) is g
n
(x)=Ax+B, where A>0, because g
n
(x) is monotonically
increasing.
But it is known that for every function f
1
(x)=Ax+B with A>0 we
have the function f
2
(x)=a
1
x+b
1
with the property that
f
2
(f
2
(x))=a
1
(a
1
x+b
1
)+b
1
=
2
1
a
1
x a +
1
b +
1
b =
2
( ) f x Ax B = + .
Out of the identification of the coefficients we obtain
1
a A = and
1
1
B
b
A
=
+
, so:
f
2
(x)= Ax +
1
B
A +

So, for every function ( ) :[ , ]
n
g x a b R n

N , ( )
n
f x , 1 n > , in
order to have:
( ( )) ( )
n n n
f f x g x = .
Let us demonstrate now that every function ( )
n
f x is continuous in
x , [ , ] x a b .
It may be observed that the function ( )
n
f x is continuous on the
intervals
1
[ , ]
i i
x x
+
, being affine. The only thing left to analyze is the
continuity in the points
i
x of the division
n
. In order to do that we will
do a translation of coordinates so the point ( , ( ))
i i
x g x to become the
new origin of the orthonormal system of axes.
So
1 1
2 1
, [ , ]
( ) , 0
, [ , ]
i i
n i
i i
A x if x x x
g x x
A x if x x x

= =

But in this case we have
1 1
2 1
, [ , ]
( ) , 0
, [ , ]
i i
n i
i i
A x x x x
f x x
A x x x x

= =

It is very obvious that ( )
n
f x is continuous in 0.
i
x = We repeat the
procedure in every point of the
n
division and we obtain that ( )
n
f x is a
continuous function on [a, b].
Further more, on every interval
1
[ , ]
i i
x x
+
of the division
n
, n>1, if
( )
n
g x Ax B = + with 0 A > , we will have:
9
( )
1
n
B
f x Ax
A
= +
+

So ( ) ( )
1
n n
B
g x A f x
A
= +
+
on every interval
1
[ , ]
i i
x x
+
of the
division. This equality is obtained trough the direct calculus.

But the sequence ( )
n
g x is a Cauchy sequence of affine continuous
functions on the interval [ , ] a b . This is to be known from the
construction of ( )
n
g x and from the fact that g(x) is continuous on [ , ] a b .
So, 0
M
n

> N , so that ( ) ( )
n m
g x g x M <
, , [ , ]
M
n m n x a b > and M>0.
In this case, M is considered as the maximum of the A slope which
is bigger than 0 and finite, as a direct consequence of Lagranges theorem
applied to the g function of class C on [a, b].
So, for every division, max sup '( ) A M g x = [ , ] x a b
But ( ) ( )
1
n n
B
g x A f x
A
= +
+
on each interval
1
[ , ]
i i
x x
+
of the
division.
So,
( ) ( )
n m
g x g x A = ( ) ( )
n m
f x f x
or ( ) ( )
n m
f x f x =
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
n m n m
g x g x g x g x
A M


where
max sup g'(x) A M = ) 0 ( [ , ] x a b

The inequality (0) shows us that also ( )
n
f x is a Cauchy sequence
of continuous functions. So, if we shift to limit in the equality
( ( )) ( )
n n n
f f x g x = , we obtain that it exists and that is unique a function
f continuous on [ , ] a b , ( ) lim ( )
n
n
f x f x

= so that
( ( )) ( ) f f x g x = .
The uniqueness of f is directly obtained out of the construc-
tion procedure for ( )
n
g x and ( )
n
f x Q.E.D.
After this theoretical breaktrough we are now able to demonstrate
Theorem 2.
10
Theorem 2
Considering :[ , ] g a b R, g of class C on [a, b], g strictly
increasing. Thus it exists and is unique a function f strictly increasing and
continuous with the property that
[ ]
( ) ( )
k
f x g x = , where through
[ ]
( )
k
f x
we have noted the function ... f f f , the composition taking place for
k times.
Demonstration
It is being considered a division
0
of the interval [a, b] made by
0
n equidistant points.
0
1
, , ...,
o n
a x x x b = = and
1 j j
x x
+
=
0
1, j n . On each
interval
1
[ , ]
j j
x x
+
the function g(x) is being approximated with the
segment determined by the points ( , ( ))
j j
x g x and
1 1
( , ( ))
j j
x g x
+ +
from the
plane xOy. This approximation is possible because the g function is
continuous.
Thus it is obtained an affine approximant
1
( ) g x continuous of the
function g. Applying a process of infinite dichotomy to the division
0
,
we obtain a sequence of continuous ( )
n
g x affine function on each
interval type
1
[ , ]
i i
x x
+
of the division and strictly increasing.
So, 0 > , 1 n n

> N , so that
( ) ( )
n
g x g x [ , ] x a b < .
On each interval
1
[ , ]
i i
x x
+
of a , 1
n
n > division, the function
( )
n
g x has the form ( )
n
g x Ax B = + , where A>0, because ( )
n
g x is
strictly increasing.
But it is known that for every function
1
( ) f x Ax B = + with A>0,
we have the function
2 1 1
( ) f x a x b = + with the property that:
[ ] [ 1]
2 1 1 1 1
1 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 2
1 1 1 1 1
1
( ) ( ( ) )
....
( ... 1)
( )
k k
k k k
k k k
f x a a f x b b
a x a b a b a b b
a x b a a a
f x Ax B

= + + =
= + + + + + =
= + + + + + =
= = +

From the identification of the coefficients we obtain
1
k
a A = and
1
1
2
( ) ( ) ... ( ) 1
k
k k
k k
B
b
A A A

=
+ + + +
.
So, for every function
11
( ) :[ , ]
n
g x a b R, n

N ( ), 1
n
f x n > , in order to have:
[ ]
( ) ( )
k
n n
f x g x = .
Lets demonstrate now that every function ( )
n
f x is continuous in x
[ , ] x a b .
It is to be observed the fact that the function ( )
n
f x is continuous on
the intervals
1
[ , ]
i i
x x
+
, being affine. What it remains to be seen the
continuity in the points
i
x of division
n
. For this we will do a
translation of coordinates so that the point ( , ( ))
i i
x g x to become the new
origin for the orthonormal system of axes.
So,
1 1
2 1
, [ , ]
( ) , 0
, [ , ]
i i
n i
i i
A x if x x x
g x x
A x if x x x

= =

But in this case we have:
1 1
2 1
, [ , ]
( ) , 0
, [ , ]
k
i i
n i
k
i i
A x x x x
f x x
A x x x x

= =

It is obvious that ( )
n
f x is continuous in 0
i
x = . We repeat the
procedure in every point of the division
n
and we obtain that ( )
n
f x is a
continuous function on [a, b].
More over, on each interval
1
[ , ]
i i
x x
+
of the division
n
, 1 n > , if
( )
n
g x Ax B = + with A>0, we will have:
1 2
( )
( ) ( ) ... 1
k
n
k k k k k
B
f x Ax
A A A

= +
+ + + +

Making basic calculations it is shown that:
( ) ( )
1
1
1 2
1
( ) ( )
... 1
k k
k k
n n k k
k k k
A
g x A f x B
A A A

= +

+ + + +


on
each interval
1
[ , ]
i i
x x
+
of the division. But the series ( )
n
g x is a Cauchy
sequence of continuous affine functions on the interval [a, b]. This is
known from the construction of ( )
n
g x and from the fact that g(x) is
continuous on [a, b].
So, 0
M
n

> N , so that
1
( ) ( ) ,
k k
n m M
g x g x M n m n

< >
[ , ] x a b
12
In this case, M is taken as the maximum of the A slop which is
bigger than 0 and finite as a direct consequence of Lagranges theorem
applied to g function of class
1
C on [a,b].
So, for every division, max sup '( ) A M g x = [ , ] x a b
But
1
1
1 2
1
( ) ( ) [
( ) ( ) ... 1
k k
k k
n n
k k k k k
A
g x A f x B
A A A

= +
+ + + +
] on every
interval
1
[ , ]
i i
x x
+
of the division.
So,
1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
k k
n m n m
g x g x A f x f x

= or
1 1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
n m n m
n m
k k k k
g x g x g x g x
f x f x
A M


= (00)
where max sup '( ) A M g x = [ , ] x a b
The (00) inequality shows us that also ( )
n
f x is a Cauchy series of
continuous functions.
So, if we shift to limit in the equality
[ ]
( ) ( )
k
n n
f x g x = , we obtain
that it exists and that is unique a f continuous function on [a,b]
( ) lim ( )
n
n
f x f x

= so that
[ ]
( ) ( )
k
f x g x = .
Its uniqueness is directly obtained out of the construction
procedure of ( )
n
g x and ( )
n
f x .
Q.E.D.
So, we also defined the k class root of g(x).
If we want to define fractional powers with rational exponent for
g(x), we have the following possibility:
Considering
r
e
s
= , r s N and be it ( ) :[ , ] g x a b R
1
[ , ] g C a b ,
g strictly increasing.
We build the function f(x) with the property that
[ ]
( ) ( )
k
f x g x =
from Theorem 2 and then we compose f(x) for r times.
This way we managed to define fractional powers with rational
exponent for :[ , ] g a b R
1
[ , ] g C a b , g strictly increasing.
The interested readers may expand these results when instead of R
it is taken ,
n n
R C or we have g operators defined on Hilbert spaces. The
method is similar.
Also more complicated equations can be studied, such as P(f)=g,
where P is a polynominal of n degree with real or complex coefficient.
13

Chapter 2

Using the symmetry group in demonstrating the radiality
of several semilinear biharmonic equations solutions.

The symmetry problem in nature had fascinated the minds of
people since antiquity. Great thinkers of humanity were trying to
understand why the waves of the lake are radially symmetrical at the
surface of the water, when you throw a little stone into the lake. The
understanding of these problems began in the Middle Ages along with
the inventing of integral and differential calculus by I. Newton and G.F.
Leibnitz. So, the processes which were governing the world of physics
had been introduced to differential equations. However, solving the
symmetry problem seemed at that time a very complicated matter.
And it was complicated, because the mathematical apparatus which
was used until 1900 used to be very rudimentary.
Late development of mathematics in the 20
th
century permitted the
apparition of a very sophisticated method called the symmetrical
rearrangement which partially solves this problem. It is to be mentioned
here the famous article of Gidas-Ni-Nirenberg who uses the method in
demonstrating the radiality of positive solutions of a semilinear equation
of order 2. the method uses the principle of maximum which is valid only
for elliptical operators of order 2.
This result has been obtained in 1979 and it can be found on the
Internet and is considered a famous result and the core of the
development of a reach Internet literature.
The article ingeniously uses different variants of the principle of
maximum and an interesting procedure of domain reflection.
The article [1] establishes that the positive solutions for the
following elliptical semilinear equations.
( ),
0,
u f u inB
u on B
=

where B is a ball in
n
R and f is a continuous Lipschitz, are radial
symmetrical.
But the principle of the maximum is no longer valid for the
operators type ( ) P in spite of various attempts which are made now,
14
especially after 2000, in order to obtain different forms of the maximum
principle for bi-Laplacian.
Also the property of solutions positiveness in article [1] plays a
very important role. But in nature we also have solutions which have
negative parts.
Next, I will present my ideas regarding these types of equations.
The key to the reasoning is represented by the following theorem:
Theorem 1 [2]
Considering ( )
ij
A a = and ( )
ij
U u = two matrices type n n with
real numbers as elements.
We consider the following operators:
2
, 1
( ) : ( , ) ( , )
( )
n n
n
ij
i j
l j
P D C C
P D a
x x

=

R R R R
and
` `
: ( , ) ( , ), ( )
n n
U C C U f f U

= R R R R ,for any
( , )
n
f C

R R .
Then,
` `
( ) ( ) P D U U P D = if and only if
t
A UAU = .
Demonstration
If
{ }
1 2
, ,...,
n
e e e represents the canonic base from
n
R , then
1
( )
n
i ij j
j
U e U e
=
=

for 1, 2,..., i n = . For any

{ }
1, 2,..., k n we consider the
sequence functional :
n
k
U R R
1 2
1
( ) ( , ,..., )
n
n
k r rk n
r
U x x u x x x x
=
= =

R
If
1
n
i i
i
x x e
=
=

, then
1 1 1 1
( ) ( ) ( ( ))
n n n n
i i i ij j j j
i i j j
U x xU e xU e U x e
= = = =
= = =


Because
1 1
[ ( )]
n n
i
k ik ik ij jk
i i
j j
x
U x u u u
x x

= =

= = =


it results that
2
, 1 , 1 1
[ ( ( ))] ( ) ( )
n n n
ij ij k
i j i j k
i j i k j
f
a f U x a Ux U x
x x x x x
= = =


=





=
15
=
, , 1
( )
n
ij jk
i j k
i k
f
a u Ux
x x
=

=
=
2 2
, , , 1 , , , 1
( ) ( ) ( )
n n
ij jk r ij jk ir
i j k r i j k r
r k i r k
f f
a u Ux U x a u u Ux
x x x x x
= =

=


.

Out of the equalities

`
2
, , , 1
( ) ( ) ( )
n
ij jk ir
i j k r
r k
f
P D U f x a u u Ux
x x
=

`
2
, 1
( ( ) ) ( )
n
rk
r k
r k
f
U P D f x a Ux
x x
=

we obtain that
` `
( ) ( ) P D U UP D =
if and only if
, 1
n
ir ij jk rk
i j
u a u a
=
=

for any , 1, 2,..., k r n = , which is equivalent

to
t
UAU A = .
A remarkable particular case it represents the Laplaces differential
operator
2 2 2
2 2 2
1 2
...
n
x x x

= + + +

which, as to the previous theorem, is
invariant to the group of orthogonal transformations of
` `
n
U U = R for
any orthogonal matrices U.
In what follows next I will work with a classical example taken
after G. Dinca [3] Variational methods and applications.
Considering
{ }
,
n
B x x R = R . The function
4
( ) v C B is
being searched for, which satisfies the biharmonic semilinear problem
with homogeneous conditions at the frontier.
2 2 2 2
0 0 10 20 0
1
0
( ) ( , ), ...
( ) 0
monotonically increasing in v and continuous in (r,v)
r is fixed
n
B
B
Av v v f r v r x x x
v
P v
n
f

= = = = + + +

= =

These types of problems have been obtained ever since the 19
th

century by Sophie Germain in the study of the homogeneous and
isotropic embedded plates bending at the frontier.
16
Theorem [Vasiliu Lucilius 1988], Theorem
The biharmonic semilinear problem (P
1
) admits a unique solution
which is radial.
Demonstration
In [3] it is being demonstrated that A operator is a positively
defined symmetrical operator. Because
0
( , ) f r v is monotonically
increasing in v, it results that the operator
0
( , ) Lv Av f r v = is
monotonically maximal. So, the equation 0 Lv = admits a unique
solution.
Now we will demonstrate the radiality of the solution.
According to Theorem 1 from [2], making x Ux , we have that if
( ) v x is solution, then ( ) v Ux is also solution U orthogonal matrices.
Here is essential also the spheres invariation to the orthogonal changes.
I will proceed now to the last state of the demonstration.
In [2], we have the following Theorems:
Theorem 2[2]
Considering , x y R with the property that x y = . Then it exists
an orthogonal matrices with the property Ax y = . The norm considered
on
n
R is the Euclidian one.
Theorem 3[2]
Considering :
n
f R R an invariant function to the orthogonal
transformations, meaning it has the property ( ) ( ) f Ax f x = for every A
orthogonal matrices type n n and for every
n
x R . Then f is a radial
function, meaning that it exists : g
+
R R so that ( ) ( ) f x g x = for
every
n
xR . Applying the Theorems 2 and 3 to the unique solution we
obtain that ( ) v x is a radial function. Q.E.D.
To make it simpler to understand, we will say that the operators
symmetry group overlaps the symmetry group of the domain, resulting
the radiality, or the solution spins around but remains the same, giving
the radiality.
The interested readers may search the Internet for similar problems
debating existential problems for biharmonic or polyharmonic equations
and their radiality can be easily obtained by applying the group of
symmetry to the solution.
17
Bibliography to Chapter 2
[1] Gidas, B.; Ni;Wei Ming; Nirenberg, L., Symmetry and related
properties via the maximum principle. Comm. Math. Phys. 68 (1979),
209-243.
[2] Sorin Radulescu, Marius Radulescu, Theorems and Problems of
Mathematical Analysis, Didactical and Pedagogical Publishing House,
Bucharest, 1982.
[3] George, Dinca, Variational Methods and Applications, The
Technical Publishing House, Bucharest, 1980.
18

Chapter 3

A study on zeroes of the function ( ) z of Riemann
24
th
of August, 2000 by Lucilius Vasiliu

Riemanns hypothesis is considered at this moment the most
important mathematical problem due to its numerous connections which
it realizes to different domains, which apparently seem separated to those
of mathematics.
In this study, the author manages to transform the problem from a
Complex Analysis problem into a Convex Functional Analysis problem,
thus obtaining a geometrical algorithm for generating the zeroes to
Riemanns function ( ) z .

So, the problem is geometrized and algorithmized. In 2004 it has
been considered, even by prestigious specialists from U.S.A., as the best
writing in this extremely fascinating and difficult domain at the same
time, the one of analytical theory of numbers.
The reader who is interested of these aspects, may find in this study
essential ideas to approaching some problems which are situated beyond
Riemanns Hypothesis, such it would be Riemanns Generalized
Hypothesis or The Great Hypothesis of Riemann.
The First Stage
Problem putting
We have
1
1
( ) , , for >1.
z
n
z z it
n

= = +

R
And also,
1
1 1 1 1
2 ( ) 2 ... ... for Rez>1
2 4 6 (2 )
z
z z z z
z
n

= + + + + +



So we have
1 1
1
1
(1 2 ) ( ) ( 1) for Rez>1 (1)
z n
z
n
z
n

Then we use the following integral representation of the sum of a
Dirichlet series, whose coefficients satisfy a certain asymptotic condition.
19
Lemma 1
Let us consider
1
( )
n n
a

a numerical succession ( )
n
n x
z a

and z
a complex number for which
( )
lim 0.
z
x
x
x

= Then
1
1
0
( )
n
z z
n
a x
z dx
n x

+
=
=

(on the condition that at least one of the two members be defined).
Demonstration
As ( ) x is constant for each interval
[ )
, 1 n n + for any complex
number 0 z we shall have
1 1
1
1
1 1
( ) 1 1 1 1 ( 1)
( )
( 1)
k k
k
n
z z z z z
n n
a x k
dx n
x z n n z n k

+
= =

= =

+

where
for the last equality I used the relation ( ) ( 1) , 2
n
n n a n = .
Thus,
1
1
1
( ) ( )
k
k
n
z z
n
a k x
z dx
n k x

+
=
= +

and lemma is obtained doing
0 k . Taking in particular
1
( 1)
n
n
a

= we have
1
( ) ( 1)
n
n x
x

.
It can be noticed that
[ )
( ) 2 1, x x < + and
( )
lim 0
z
n
x
x

= for
Rez>0 , and lemma gives us
1
1
1
1
1 ( )
( 1) , for Rez>1.
n
z z
n
x
z dx
n x

+
=
=

So, we have the identity:
1
1
1
( )
(1 2 ) ( ) , Rez>1 (2)
z
z
x
z z dx
x

+
=

But the function
1
(1 2 ) ( )
z
z

exists also for Rez>0, because

[ )
( ) 2 1, x x < + the integral
1
1
( )
z
x
dx
x

+
exists also for Rez>0.
So, we have the identity:
1
1
1
( )
(1 2 ) ( ) , Rez>0. (3)
z
z
x
z z dx
x

+
=

Now we work in band 0<Rez<1. We have
1 ln2
-it 1 1 1
2 2 2 , but 2 so
2 1 and 2 2 2 2 1 for 0 Re 1
it i it it it
z it
e
z




= =
= = = < <

So, it results that
1
1 2 0 for 0 Re 1.
z
z

< <
We know from The Dictionary of Mathematical Analysis,
Scientific and Encyclopedic Publishing House, Bucharest,1989, on page
20
136, that the zeroes of ( ) with z z it = + are in the critical band
0 1 < < (from Hadamard and de la Vale Poussins theorem). Using the
identity (3) and the fact that
1
1 2 0 for 0<Rez<1
z
, it results that in the
critical band 0 1 < < the zeroes of the function ( ) z coincide with the
zeroes of the function
1
1
( )
( ) .
z
x
f z z dx
x

+
=

So, we must show that the

function
1
1
1
( )
( )
z
x
f z dx
x

+
=

doesnt admit symmetrical zeroes given to

the critical axis
1
2
= . Our problem has been reduced to this.
Lemma 1 is taken from the book Complex Analysis. Classical and
Modern Aspects, coordinator Cabiria Andreian Cazacu, Scientific and
Encyclopedic Publishing House, Bucharest,1989, 405 pages.
We note with
1
S
the critical band 0 Re 1 z < < .
Afterwards, we shall work only in the critical band
1
S .
We define the function ( , ) g z v .
[ ]
1
1
( , ): 0,10
( , ) ( )
v
g z v S C
g z v f z e

=

It can be noticed that [ ]
0 0,10
v
e v .
Thus the zeroes of the function ( , ) g z v are the zeroes of the
function
1
( ) f z , which, in its turn, are the zeroes of the function ( ) z
from the critical band 0 Re 1 z < < .
So,
1
1
( )
( , )
v
z
x
g z v e dx
x

+
=

.
Observation. Instead of
[ ]
0,10 v , I can choose
[ ]
0, , v being
however much along our study. The factor
v
e is a factor of homothety.
Stage 2
We define the space Hilbert complex
[ )
2
1, L .
I do not write the problems connected to defining these spaces,
considering them as a classical known theory.
We have:
[ ) [ ) {
2
1, : 1, L f C f = is measurable Lebesgue and
2
f is integrable Lebesgue
}

21
[ )
2
1 1
1,
1
, ( ) ( )
L
u v u x v x dx

It is evident that
[ )
2
1
( )
1,
z
x
L
x

+
according to the criterion in
for 0 Re 1 z < < because ( ) 2 x < .
Stage 3
We consider two certain zeroes symmetrical
1
z and
2
z symmetri-
cal to the axis
1
2
= .
Thus
1 1 0
z it = + and
2 2 0
z it = + where
2 1
1 = .
We define the vectors ( , ) B v and ( ) A t and it is shown that
( ) A t
[ )
2
1, L t R + and
[ )
2
( , ) 1, B v L +
[ ]
1 1
( , ) ,1 0,10
2 2
v

.
Demonstration
Let us consider the function
[ )
2
: 1, A L + R

[ )
1
1
2
( )
( )( ) 1,
it
x
A t x x
x x

+
= +
Where
1
is chosen so that
1
1
3

< .
We notice that A(t)(x) is measurable in on
[ )
0, .
ln it it x
x e =
We have
1
1 1
2
2
1 1 2 ln ln
2 2
1 ( ) 1 ( ) ( )
( )( )
it x iy x
x x x
A t x t R
e e x x
x x



+ +
= =

.
Thus
2
( )( ) A t x is integrable Lebesgue on
[ )
1, , according to the
criterion in . So,
[ )
2
( ) 1, A t L t R .
The function
[ ] [ )
1 1
2
: ,1 0,10 1,
2 2
B L





is defined
through:
22
1
1
1
1
2
( , )( )
3
v
e
B v x where
x

+
= <
We can notice that ( , )( ) B v x is continuous in x on
[ )
1, , thus it
is measurable Lebesgue on
[ )
1, and
1
2
2
1
1
2( )
( , )( ) ,
3
v
e
B v x
x x

= <

is integrable Lebesgue on
[ )
1, according to the criterion in .
Thus,
[ ) [ ]
1 1
2
( , )( ) 1, ( , ) ,1 0,10
2 2
B v x L v






.
We have
[ )
1 1
2 1,
1 1 1
1 1
2 2
( )
( , )
( ) ( )
( , )
( ), ( , )
v
v
z
it
A t
B v
L
x x e
g z v e dx dx
x
x x x
A t B t

+
+ +
= = =

=



It is seen that the function B is a real function, so
[ ]
1 1
( , ) ( , ) ( , ) ( , ) ,1 0,10
2 2
B v B v B v v



= =


.
Stage 4
We show that the family of functions ( ), A t t R is a continuous
set in the space
[ )
2
1, L .
Let us consider
0
t R.
We know that
ln it it x
x e = .
We have:
1 1
0
2
2
0 1 1
1 1
2 2
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
it it
x x
A t A t dx dx
x x x x



+ +
= =



0 0 1
1
2
2
2
1 ln 2 ln
1 1
2
( ) 1 1 ( ) 1 1
2
it it x it it x
x x
dx dx
x x x x e e
x

+


= = =




0
1
2
ln ln
2
1
( )
2
it x it x
x
e e dx
x x

that
2
ln
1,
it x
e t = R and
[ )
1, x and
[ )
0
2
it ln
0
e 1 and 1,
x
t x = R .
Thus
23
0
1
1
2
2
ln ln
2
0
2
1 1
2
2 2
0ln 0 1 0
2
1
( )
( ) ( )
( )
(cos ln cos ) (sin ln sin ln ) ( , )
it x it x
x
A t A t dx e e dx
x x
x
t x t t x t x dx I t t
x x

= =

+ =

We have:
0
2
ln ln 2 2
0 0
(cos ln cos ln ) (sin ln sin ln )
it x it x
e e t x t x t x t x = +

2 2
2 2 8 + = .
As
1 0 0
( , ) it is , it results that >0 M 1 I t t t t

> R so that:
0
1 1
2
2 2
ln ln
1
2 2
( ) ( )
8 (D )
4
it x it x
M M
x x
e e dx dx
x x x x




< <



On the other hand,
[ ]
0 0
1 1
2 2
2
ln ln ln ln
2
2 2
1 1,
( ) ( )
( 1) max (D )
M
it x it x it x it x
x M
x x
e e dx M e e
x x x x

<

Applying a consequence of the theorem of Langrange of the finite
increases, we have:
2 2
0 0
(cos t ln x-cos t ln ) (sin t ln x-sin t ln ) x x +
2 2
0 0
(t ln x-t ln x) (t ln x-t ln ) x + <
2 2 2 2
0 0 0
ln ( ) ( ) 2( ) ln x t t x t t t t x = .
Thus the inequality
2
( ) D becomes
0
1 1
2 2
2
ln ln 2
0 3
2 2
1 [1, ]
( ) ( )
( 1) max 2( ) ln (D )
M
it x it x
x M
x x
e e dx M t t x
x x x x

<

3
M being fixed from the stage
1
( ) D , from
3
( ) D , it results that
1
0

> so that t R with

0 1
t-t

< to have:
[ ]
1
2
2 2
0 4
2
1,
( )
2( ) ( 1) max ln (D )
4
x M
x
t t M x
x x

<

From
4
( ) D and
3
( ) D it results that
1
0

> so that t R with

0 1
t-t

< to have:
0
1
2
2
ln ln
5
2
1
( )
(D )
4
M
it x it x
x
e e dx
x x

<

And from
5
( ) D and
1
( ) D it results that
1
0 0

> > so that

0 1
t with t-t

< R to have:
24
0
1
2
2
ln ln
6
2
1
( )
(D )
2
it x it x
x
e e dx
x x

<

Thus
1 0 1
0 so that t with t-t we have:

> < R
2
0 7
1
( ) ( ) (D )
2
A t A t dx

<

From
7
( ) D it results that
1
0 0

> > so that t R with

0 1
t-t

< we have:
2
2
2
0 0
[1, ]
1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
L
A t A t A t A t dx

= <

0
t being taken arbitrarily, it results that A(t) is a continuous set in
[ )
2
1, L + .
Stage 5
We show that the family of functions ( , ) B v is a continuous set in
the space
[ )
2
1, L + in function of depending on
[ ]
1 1
( , ) ,1 0,10
2 2
v

.
Demonstration
Let us consider
[ ]
1 1
0 0
( , ) ,1 0,10
2 2
v

. We have:
2
0
1 0 1
2
2
0 0 0 0
[1, ]
1
2
2
0 0 2 0 0
1 1
1 1
2 2
( , ) ( , ) ( , ) ( , )
( , ) ( , ) ( , , , )
L
v v
B v B v B v B v dx
e e
B v B v dx dx I v v
x x

+ +
=
= =

Because
2 0
( , , , )
o
i v v there is
1 1
0 0
( ,v), ( , ) ,1 [1,10]
2 2
v






, it results that
>0 M 1

> so that
0
1 0 1
2
1
1 1
2 2
(F )
4
v v
M
e e
dx
x x

+ +
<

25
We notice
1
1
1
2
1 1
1
( , , )
: ,1 [1,10] [1, ]
2 2
v
e
g v x
x
g M

+
=




R

It can be noticed that derivatives
1
g

and
1v
g are limited on
1 1
,1 [0,10] [1, ]
2 2
M

as well.
Thus
2
M

so that
1 2
g ( , , ) v x M

< and
1v 2
g ( , , ) v x M

< .
Applying a consequence the theorem of Langrange of two
variables, where x is considered a parameter, we obtain:
2
2
2
1 1 0 0 2 0 0
( , , ) ( , , ) g v x g v x M v v

< +

.
Thus
2
2
2
1 1 0 0 2 0 0 2
1
( , , ) ( , , ) ( 1) (F )
M
g v x g v x dx M M v v

< +


From
2
( ) F it results that
2
0

> so that:
1 1
( ,v) ,1 [0,10]
2 2

with
2
0 0 2
( ,v)-( , ) v

<
R
to have:
2
2
2 0 0 3
( 1) (F )
4
M M v v


+ <


From
2 3
( ) and (F ) F it results that
2
0

> so that:
2
1 1
0 0 2
( , ) ,1 [0,10] with ( ,v)-( , to have
2 2
v v




<


R
:
0
1 0 1
2
4 1 1
1
2 2
(F )
4
v v
M
e e
dx
x x

+ +
<

From
1
( ) F and
4
( ) F it results that
2
0 0

> > so that

2
1 1
0 0 2
( , ) ,1 [0,10] with ( ,v)-( , )
2 2
v v




<


R
to have:
0
1 0 1
2
5 1 1
1
2 2
(F )
4 4 2
v v
e e
dx
x x

+ +
< + =

26
From
5
( ) F it results that
2
0 0

> > so that

1 1
( ,v) ,1 [0,10]
2 2

with
2
0 0 2
( , ) ( , ) v v

<
R
we have:
[ )
2
2
2
0 0 0 0
1,
1
( , ) ( , ( , ) ( , )
2
L
B v B v B v B v dx

= <

,
0 0
( , ) v
being taken arbitrarily, it results that ( , ) B v is a continuous set.
Stage 6
We show that ( ) 0 t A t R. We show that when the vector A(t)
runs continuously the set in the space
[ )
2
1, L , then the hyperplan
t
H
perpendicular on A(t) also varies continuously as geometric position.
We have
1 1
2
1 1
1 1
2 2
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
it it
x x
A t A t A t dx dx
x x x x



+ +
= = =



1 1
2 2
2 2
1 1
( ) 1 1 ( )
0 t
it it
x x
dx dx
x x x x x x



= = >


R. Thus ( ) 0 A t t R.
We know that Hilbert space has a very similar geometry with
Euclidian spaces.
More demonstrations can be given here with reasoning of type ,
considering the generators of the hyperplan
t
H which at a continuous
movement of A(t) they also move continuously.
But I think that the simplest demonstration is this one.
Considering the vector system A(t) and the
t
H hyperplan as a rigid
in Hilbert space through the continuous movement of A(t) we have
evidently the continuous movement too of
t
H in Hilbert space.
Stage 7
Putting Riemanns problem in terms of functional analysis
From the Stage 1 we know that we have reduced the study of
zeroes of ( ) z from the critical band 0 Re 1 z < < to the study of the
zeroes of function g(z,v) also in the critical band 0 Re 1 z < < .
1
1
( )
( , ) 0<Rez<1
v
z
x
g z v e dx
x

+
=

We have showed in Stage 3 that
2
[1, )
( , ) ( ), ( , )
L
g z v A t B t
+
= .
We know, according to the Dictionary of Mathematical Analysis,
Scientific and Encyclopedic Publishing house, Bucharest, 1989, on page
27
136, that the zeroes of ( ) z are in the critical band 0 1 < < and are
placed symmetrically reported to the critical axis
1
2
= .
Also, we know from The Dictionary as well that it has been
demonstrated that there is an infinity of zeroes on the critical axis
1
2
=
(Hardy, 1914).



If the function ( ) z has two zeroes
1 1 0 2 2 0
and z z it it = + = + is
symmetrical to the axis
1
2
= and g(z,v) has these zeroes as well.
Thus the hyperplan
0
t
H will be in contact with the set ( , ) B v in
points with the form of and
1 2
( , ) and B( , ) B v v .
Also, let us consider
3 1
1
2
z it = + one zero on the critical axis, in this
case, the hyperplan
1
t
H will have in common with the surface ( , ) B v the
points of form
1
( , )
2
B v .
Thus the study of the symmetrical zeroes of the function ( , ) g z v
and of what happens in this case reduces to the study of aspect, form of
intersection between the set ( , ) B v and the hyperplan
t
H .
28
Stage 8
The form of the set ( , ) B v ( , ) B v = . It is evident that the function
1
2
1
2
0
1
( ) f
x

+
= is convex in
[ )
0
x 1, + .
[ ] [ ] [ )
1
3 4 3 4
1 1
3 4
v
1
2
So B( , ) (1 ) ( , ) ( (1 ) , )
0,10 , 0,1 , , ,1 and 1,+ ( )
2 2
e
where B( ,v)=
x
v B v B v
v

+
+ > +





So the set ( , ) B v ( , ) B v = is convex in .
Stage 9
Final considerations on the zeroes of ( ) z
We show that the family of function ( , ) B v is a differentiable set
in the space
[ )
2
1, L + depending on
1 1
,1
2 2

Demonstration
Let it be
1 1
0 0
( , ) ,1 [0,10]
2 2
v

We have:
[ ) 1,
2
0 0
1 0 1
2 2
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1
2
1 1
2 2
3 0 0
0 1
( , ) ( , ) ( , ) ( , )
( , , )
L
v
v
e e
B v B v B v B v
dx
x x
dx I v

+ +

= =

= =

We have to show that
0
3 0 0
lim ( , , ) I v

exists and is finite.

Passing to the limit we obtain:
29
0
3 0 0
lim ( , , ) I v

0
1
2
1
1 2
1
ln
v
e x dx
x

+
=

Let us show now that
1
2
1
1 2
1
ln x dx
x

exists and is finite where

1 1 1
1
,1 and
2 2 3



<


.
Let us show that ln
r
x x < , where r>0 starting from one
4
x>M.
Applying the exponential, we have to show actually that
r
x
x e < where
0 r > starting from one
4
x M > .
Let it be
3
( )
r
x
e
l x
x
= . We have to show that
3 4
( ) 1, l x x M > > .
Let it be
( )
'
1
3
2 2 2
( 1)
( ) , 0
r r
r r r r
x x
x r x x x r
e x e x
e rx e x e e rx
l x r
x x x x

= = = = >




It is obvious that starting from one
4
x M > , we have
'
3 3
l ( ) 0 so l ( ) x x > is strictly increasing.
We calculate lim
r
x
x
e
x

We are in one of the cases where the rule of 1Hopital applies.
We have
4
lim lim , (x)' 0 x>M
r
x
x x
e x

= = + and
' 1
'
( )
lim lim lim , 0
' 1
r r r
x r x r x
x x x
e rx e rx e
r
x x

= = >
We calculate now lim
r
r x
x
x e
x

. We are still in one of these cases

where the rule of 1Hopital applies:
30
' '
1 1 1
2
4
( ) ( ) ' ( )
lim lim lim
( ) ' 1
( )
lim lim
1 1
( )
lim lim , 0, 0
r r r r
r r r
r r
r x r x r x r x
x x x
r x r r x r x r
x x
r r x r x
x x
x e x e x e x e
x x
rx e x rx e x e r x r
x r x r e rx e
x M r
x x




+
= = =
+ +
= = =
+
= > > >

We try to calculate
2
lim
r
r x
x
x e
x

We still are in one of the cases where a variant of the theorem of
1Hopital applies.
2 2 ' 2 ' 2
2 1 1 2 2 3
3
( ) ( ) ' ( )
lim lim lim
( ) ' ( ) '
2 (2 )
lim lim
1
lim
r r r r
r r r
r
r x r x r x x r
x x x
r x r x r x r r
x x
r x
x
x e x e x e e x
x x x
rx e rx e x e rx rx
x
rx e
x

+
= = =
+ +
= =

Going recursively, we apply the rule of 1Hopital and obtain:
2 2 3 3
4
lim lim lim lim ...
lim ... and x>M 0, 0
r r r r
r
x r x r x r
x x x x
n nr x
x
e rx e r x e r x e
x x x x
r x e
n r
x

=
> > N

As
0
0 r n

> N so that
0
1 n r > .
Therefore
0
n so that
0
0
1
lim lim
r
r
n r
x
n r
x
x x
x e
x e
x


= = + because
1 0
o
n r > .
Therefore, lim ,
r
x
x
e
r o
x

= + > as well.
So we have the function
3
( )
r
x
e
l x
x
= .
31
We know that
4
0 M > thus that
3
( ) l x is strictly increasing for
4 3
and lim ( )
x
x M l x

> = + .
Therefore
5
0 M > thus that
3 5
( ) 1 x>M l x > .
So
5
1
r
x
e
x M
x
> > therefore
5
0, 0
r
x
x e x M r < > > >
5
ln , 0, 0 ( )
r
x x x M r < > > >
Therefore
[ )
1
1
2
2
1
ln 1, x L
x
+
+ where
1 1
,1
2 2

and
1
1
3

< therefore
1
0 > according to the inequality ( ) and to
the criteria in .
Therefore the family of function ( , ) B v is a differentiable set in
the space
[ )
2
1, L + depending on
1 1
,1
2 2

and
[ )
0
1
1
1
0 2 1
2
1
( , ) ln 1, ,
3
v
B v e x L
x

+
= + < .
Therefore, the tangent vector to
0
( , ) B v is
[ )
0
1
1
0 2
2
1
B ( , ) ( ln ) 1,
v
v e x L
x

+
= + .
The vector determines one tangent plan to the set ( , ) B v , after we
apply the homothety factor
[ ]
, 0,10
v
e v .
We consider
3 1
1
2
z it = + a zero on the critical axis
1
2
= .
In this case, the hyperplan
t
H will have in common with the set
( , ) B v the points of the form of
1
,
2
B v



.
What happens if g(z,v) will have the other two zeroes
1 1 0
z it = +
and
2 2 0
z it = + ?
In this case, the hyperplan
t
H moves continuously by
[ )
2
1, L +
reaching the situation showed in Figure 1.
32


What happens at points
1
,
2
B v



, respectively ( , ) B v and
2
( , ) B v ?
At these points, the hyperplans
1
t
H and
0
t
H are tangent to the set
( , ) B v and this is the only possible situation, because if the hyperplan
stings the set ( , ) B v the continuous variation of
t
H combined with the
continuity of the set ( , ) B v will render us a continuous set of zeroes for
the function g(z,v) and therefore for the analytical function ( ) z what is
ABSURD. Therefore the set ( , ) B v is caught between the hyperplans
1
t
H and
0
t
H .
Therefore, at points
1
( , ) B v and
2
( , ) B v we have a bidimensio-
nal plan determined by the vectors tangent to the set ( , ) B v , plan
tangent to ( , ) B v .
These vectors are:
[ )
0
1 1
1
1 0 2
2
1
( , ) ln 1,
v
B v e x L
x

+
= + and
[ )
0
2 1
1
2 0 2
2
1
( , ) ln 1,
v
B v e x L
x

+
= +
1 1
,1
2 2

and
1
1
3

< .
33
This bidimensional plan is tangent to the set ( , ) B v in
1
( , ) B v
and
2
( , ) B v , and we will mark it with T.
Let us show now that the vectors
1 0
( , ) B v

and
2 0
( , ) B v

are
independently linear vectors in T so they make up a basis for the plan T.
We have to show that:
1 1 0 2 2 0
( , ) ( , ) 0 B v B v

+ = implies
1 2
0 = = .
We have:
[ )
0 0
1 1 2 1
1 1
1 2
2 2
1 1
( ) ln ( ) ln 0, 1,
v v
e x e x x
x x


+ +
+ = +
So
[ )
1 1 2 1
1 1
1 2
2 2
1 1
0, 1, x
x x


+ +
+ = +
So
[ )
2 1
1 2
1
0, 1, x
x



+ = +
So
2 1
2 1
1
x

= = constant,
[ )
1, x +
So
2 1
2 1
1
x

= = constant,
[ )
2 1
1, , x + > and
1
1
3

< ,
1
1
2
< . So
2 1 1
1
0
2
+ > .
We see that the last equality between the continuous unconstant
function
2 1
2
1
x

and
1
on the interval
[ )
1
1, , + =constant leads
us to only one conclusion:
1 2
0 and 0 = = .
So the vectors
1 0
( , ) B v

and
2 0
( , ) B v

are independently linear

vectors in T so they make up a basis for the T plan, an bidimensional
plan. But the vector
1 0
( , ) B v T .
If
0
1 1
1
1 0 1 0
2
( , ) , ( , )
v
e
B v T B v T
x


+
= then
1 2
, l l R so that
1 0 1 1 0 2 2 0
( , ) ( , ) ( , ) B v l B v l B v

= + so that
[ )
0
0 0
1 1 1 1 2 1
1 1 1
1 2
2 2 2
1 1
( ) ln ( ) ln , 1,
v
v v e
l e x l e x x
x x x
+ + +
= + + .
34
That is
[ )
2 1
1 2
1
1 ln ln , 1, l x l x x
x

= +
So
[ )
2 1
1 2
1
1 ln , 1, x l l x
x


= + +



So a constant function on
[ )
1, + is equal to a continuous function
on
[ )
1, + .
If we mark
2 1
1 2
1
( ) ln U x x l l
x


= +


.
We have
1
2 1 1 2 1 1
1
and so 0
3 2

> < + > .

We calculate lim ( )
x
U x

.
Because
2 1 1
1
0
2
+ > . We have the limit
2 1
2
ln
lim 0
x
l x
x

= .
This happens because on the same Stage 9 we determined the
inequality ( ) .
5
ln , 0, 0 ( )
r
x x x M r < > > >
So
2 1
1
1 2 1 1
1
0, if 0
1
lim ( ) ln lim ln , if 0
, if 0
x x
l
U x x l l xl l
x
l

= + = = + <

>

So the equality:
[ )
2 1
1 2
1
1 ln , 1, x l l x
x


= + +


is impossible.
So there is no
1 2
, l l R so that
1 0 1 1 0 2 2 0
( , ) ( , ) ( , ) B v l B v l B v

= + .
This means that the bidimensional plan
1
T

that is tangent to
the set ( , ) B v in
1
( , ) B v is not the same with the bidimensional
plan
2
T

that is tangent to the set ( , ) B v in

2
( , ) B v
Let us see now in what relation is the tangent bidimensional plan
1
T

with the set ( , ) B v . If this plan would be sting the set ( , ) B v then
as we know that
1
0
( ) A t T

because
1 0
t
T H

the continuous variation

35
of A(t) combined with the continuity of the set ( , ) B v would lead us to
a continuous set of zeroes, for the function g(z,v) so also for the
analytical function ( ) z . ABSURD.
If there would be any other tangential contact points like
3
( , ) B v
with the set then we would have
1 3
T T

= but this is impossible because
of the reasoning previously presented at Stage 9 that showed that
1 2
T T

.
So the plan
1
T

does not have in common with the set

1
( , ) B v
only the points like
1
( , ) B v the set ( , ) B v being located completely
on one part of this plan.
We put the set ( , ) B v in a convex prismatic wrapper made by
bidimensional planes. Two faces of the convex prismatic wrapper will be
included in the planes
1
T

and
2
T

.
This also means that the hyperplan
0
t
H that is tangent to the set
( , ) B v in
1
( , ) B v does not have in common with the set ( , ) B v only
points of form
1
( , ) B v the set ( , ) B v being located completely on
one side of this hyperplan
0
t
H that divides the Hilbert space
[ )
2
1, L + into two semispaces.
Analogously, it is shown that the hyperplan
01
t
H that is tangent to
the set ( , ) B v in the points like
2
( , ) B v does not have in common with
the set ( , ) B v but the points like
2
( , ) B v the set ( , ) B v being located
completely on one side of this hyperplan
01
t
H that divides the Hilbert
space
[ )
2
1, L + into two semispaces.
So, in any of the points
1
( , ) B v an
2
( , ) B v the set ( , ) B v
admits different support hyperplans.
So the situation in Figure 1 in which we have the hyperplan
0
t
H
tangent to the set ( , ) B v in
1
( , ) B v and
2
( , ) B v is impossible. See
Figure 2.
So the function g(z,v) cannot have other two zeroes
2 1 0
z it = +
and
2 1 0
z it = + symmetrical to the critical axis 1/ 2 = .
36
Therefore, according to Stage 1 the function ( ) z cannot have
other two zeroes
2 1 0 2 1 0
and z it z it = + = + symmetrical to the critical
axis 1/ 2 = . Q.E.D.

Summary
Stage 1 The putting of the problem.
Stage 2 We define the Hilbert space complex
[ )
2
1, L +
Stage 3 We consider two certain zeroes symmetrical
1
z and
2
z
symmetrical to the axis
1
2
= .
Thus
1 1 0
z it = + and
2 2 0
z it = + where
2 1
1 = .
We define the vectors ( , ) B v and A(t) and it is shown that
[ )
2
( ) 1, A t L , t R and
[ )
2
( , ) 1, B v L ,
37
[ ]
1 1
( , ) , 0,10
2 2
t

.
Stage 4 We show that the family of functions A(t), t R is a
continuous set in the space
[ )
2
1, L .
Stage 5 We show that the family of functions ( , ) B v is a
continuous set in the space
[ )
2
1, L depending on
[ ]
1 1
( , ) ,1 0,10
2 2
v

.
Stage 6 We show that ( ) 0 t A t R. We show that when the
vector A(t) passes continuously the set in the space
[ )
2
1, L then the
hyperplan
t
H perpendicular on A(t) also varies continuously as
geometric position.
Stage 7 The Putting of Riemanns Problem in Terms of Functional
Analysis.
Stage 8 The form of the set ( , ) ( , ) B v B v = .
Stage 9 Final considerations on the zeroes of ( ) z .

Bibliography
Dicionar de Analiz matematic, The Scientific and Encyclopedic
Publishing House, Bucharest, 1989.
Analiz complex, aspecte clasice i moderne, The Scientific and
Encyclopedic Publishing House, Bucharest, 1988.
38

Chapter 4
The problem of invariant Subspaces
The problem of invariant Subspaces is a quite important problem.
In this chapter, the author tries to find subtle connections between the
theory of fixed point, the spectral theory and the existence of invariant
lines for continuous linear operators on Hilbert spaces.

October 2005 by Vasiliu Lucilius

In the book Theorems and problems of Mathematical Analysis of
brothers Marius Radulescu and Sorin Radulescu, we have the following
very strong results at page 87:
3.63. Let it be an even number and
n
S the sphere by the radius 1
with the center in the origin of
1 n+
R . Let it show that for any continuous
function :
n n
f S S there is
0 n
x S so that
{ }
1
0 0 0 0
( ) or ( ) 1
n
n
f x x f x x S x x
+
= = = = R
We demonstrate the following theorem:
Theorem 1
Let it be H a separable Hilbert space. We mark by
{ }
1 .
H
S x H x = =
Let it be a function :
H H
f S S . F is strictly continuous on
H
S
and in the same time f is weakly continuous on
H
S . Let it show that
there is
0 H
x S so that
0 0 0 0
( ) or ( ) f x x f x x = = .
Demonstration
We know that the ball unit is weakly compacted (Alaoglus
Theorem).
It is considered an approximation of the sphere
H
S made up of
points that are taken on the sphere so as to make up spherical triangles
with the side shorter than . This is possible because the sphere
H
S is a
limited set.
39
The number of the points that make up for this approximation is
finite. We shall mark by
i
x these points 1, i n

. Let it be the points

( ) 1,
i H
f x S i n

.
Considering the dimensional finite linear space generated by these
points and ( )
i i
x f x , and 1, i n

and we should manage the conditions

in such a way as to make this space to have an uneven dimension.
If it has an uneven dimension, we keep it like that.
If not, let it be a point
o
i H
x S . We consider a spherical calotte
centered in
0
i
x and with the diameter
10
d

< . We show that there is a
point
t
x in this calotte that does not belong to the finite dimensional
linear space generated by the points
i
x and ( ), 1,
i
f x i n

.
It would be impossible for all calotte points to belong to this space.
Why? Let us apply to the calotte the unit operators of the Hilbert space
H. These operators have the property Ax x = . These operators applied
to the spherical calotte from near to near built up the entire sphere
H
S .
So the resulted infinite linear combinations generate the entire Hilbert
space H. Therefore, a finite dimensional space would generate a infinite
dimensional space. Which is absurd.
So, there is a point
t
x situated in a spherical calotte centered in
0
i
x
and with the diameter
10
d

< so that it does not belong to the linear
space generated by the points
i
x , ( )
i
f x , 1, i n

, dimensional finite
space.
We mark this space by
n
H

. The space
n
H

is a finite dimensional
space of uneven dimension made up by points
i
x , ( ), 1,
i
f x i n

to
which was added eventually the point
t
x with
0
0
, 1,
10
t i
x x i n

< .
Now we make up a continuous spherical -approximation of a strongly
continuous function :
H H
f S S , f being in the same time a weakly
continuous function from
H
S to
H
S . How shall we do it?
Let it be an ABC with peaks on the sphere
H
S the points A, B, C
belonging to the -spherical approximation , 1,
i
x i n

and the spherical

sides being shorter than .
40
For the point
1 2 3
A B C + + with
2 2 3
1 + + = and
1 2 3
, , [0,1] Considering
1 2 3
( ) ( ) ( ) f A f B f C + + . Then we
consider a center homotety
H
O that leads the points from ABC on the
spherical triangle ABC and the points of the flat triangle ( ) ( ) ( ) f A f B f C
on the spherical triangle ( ) ( ) ( ) f A f B f C . In the case we also have the
point
t
x with
0
10
i t
x x

< point that renders the uneven dimension of
the space
n
H

we consider
0
0
( ) ( ), 1,
t i
f x f x i n

= .
We obtain in this way a continuous function :
n n
n H H
f S S

as
0 and n

, we obtain a sequence of functions with the property

4
( ) ( ) ( ), ( )
n n
f x f x x H


n
f

are strongly continuous
functions and they are also weakly continuous functions, because
n
H


are finite dimensional spaces.
Let us work now on the estimation ( ) . We first notice that the
norm on spaces
n
H

is the same as the norm on the Hilbert space H.
Let us be
1 2 i i i
x x x
+ +
a spherical triangle with the peaks
1 2
, ,
i i i
x x x
+ +

situated on - spherical approximation.
Let it be x spherical
1 2 i i i
x x x
+ +
the sides of the spherical triangle
being shorter than .
We have:
1
2
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
n
n
n
i
H
i
H
i
H
f x f x
f x f x
f x f x

+
+
<
<
<

And ( ) 0 when 0 by the uniformly continuity of f on
n
H
S

. On the other hand
1 2 1 3 2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
n i i i
f x t f x t f x t f x

+ +
= + + and
1 2 3
= + + f( x ) f( x ) f( x ) f( x ) where
1 2 3
1 + + = and
1 2 3
, , [0,1] , 1 t > and 1 t when 0 , t being the homotety
factor. It is obvious that from the continuity of f and from the fact that
1 t when 0 that
41
1 1 2
2 3
1 1
( ) ( ) ( ), ( ) ( ) ( ) and
1
( ) ( ) ( )
n n
n
i i
H H
i
H
f x f x f x f x
t t
f x f x
t

+
+
< <
<

and
1 1 2 3
( ) 0 ( ) and ( ) 0 when 0.
Therefore
4
( ) ( ) ( ),
n
n n
H
f x f x x H

< , where
4
( ) 0
when 0 .
This is the estimation ( ) . This happens on each spherical triangle
with the side shorter than of -approximations.
But all the functions ( ) :
n n
n H H
f x S S

have the property that
0
n
n H
x S

so that
0 0 0 0
( ) or ( )
n n n n n n
f x x f x x

= = .
Making
0
and
n H H
x S S

weakly compact, it results that we can

extract from the sequence
0n
x

a subsequence that converges weakly to a
point
0
x

.
But :
H H
f S S is weakly continuous so passing to the limit on
this subsequence in the estimation ( ) we obtain that
0
x H

so that
0 0 0 0
( ) or ( ) f x x f x x

= = .
It is known that ( )
n
f x

is strongly continuous on the finite linear

space
n
H

so it is also weakly continuous. Therefore we transported the
result on Hilbert spaces. We now consider a continuous linear operator
: A H H . Being continuously linear, it transforms the lines that pass
through the origin
H
O also in lines which pass by
H
O the transformation
being continuous.
These lines intersect in the unit sphere
{ }
1
H
S x H x = = .
Thus it is obtained a function :
n H H
f S S , which is strongly
continuous. But if A is linear strongly continuous it is also weakly
continuous from the definition of weakly continuity. So the function
:
A H H
f S S it is also a weakly continuous function.
We are now able to demonstrate the following theorem:
42
Theorem 2
Let it be H a Hilbert separable space and : A H H a continuous
linear operator. Then this operator admits an unidimensional invariant
subspace.
Demonstration
Let it be the function :
A H H
f S S , that is weakly continuous and
strongly continuous
{ }
1
H
S x H x = = . We know according to the
Theorem 1 that
0 0 0 0 0
so that ( ) or ( )
H
x S f x x f x x

= = .
Therefore, there is a line
0 0 H
x O x

that the operator A invaries.
We obtained therefore a line d that is invariant to the action of the
continuous operator , ( ) A A d d = . Q.E.D
Observation. By using estimation ( ) we can show that the
sequence
0n
x

is a Cauchy sequence in the norm of space H so passing to
the limit in the estimation ( ) we obtain that
0
x H

, so that
0 0
( ) f x x

= or
0 0
( ) f x x

= . In that manner we can renounce at the
hypothesis of weakly continuity of the function f and we can renounce
also at the using of the Alaoglus theorem.
43


Chapter 5
A study on Navier-Stokes equations.
The Navier-Stokes equations represent a turning point in the field
of differential equations. The classical methods could not do much about
it by now. Therefore it is necessary to find new efficient methods to
reduce the difficulties of the problem. Such a method might be the using
of the integral representation of self-adjoints operators formulae, which
derives from a quite different domain from the one of differential
equations of evolution, namely from the spectral theory of linear
continuous operators and from the theory of measure. What this formula
does? It manages to regularize the operator with continuous Lipschitz
regularization, so that it shifts the problem in the frame of the classical
theory which has been known until nowadays.

1
st
of September 2005, Vasiliu Lucilius

We shall try to demonstrate the following important theorem:
Theorem 1
Considering H a Hilbert space. Considering A an unlimited linear
self-adjoint operator. Then A can be approximated as good as possible
with a series of Lipschitz continuous operators. It means that it exists a
series of , A A

continuous Lipschitz operators with the property that
when 0 A A

.
Demonstration
In the book Initiations in the Theory of Linear Operators by
F.H.Vasilescu, we have the following theorem on page 109:
Theorem
Considering
( ) A H /
an self-adjoint operator. It exists then a
spectral measure
`
: ( ) ( ) E Bor A H R with the following properties:
2
(1) ( ) : ( ) , : D A x H t d E t x x

= <

R

44
(2) ( ) ( ) , ( ) A x tdE t x x D A

=

R

The set ( ) H / is the set of closed operators.
On page 103, we have the following Lemma:
Lemma. Considering
1
: ( ) D H H a densely defined linear
operator. Then its

adjunct is a closed linear operator. It results that

every densely defined self-adjoint operator is closed.
Also, in the same book, on page 113, we have the formula
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ), where ( ) and ( ) f A f t dE t L H A l H f B =

R
R .
We define the functions
1 2
, : f f R R :
1 2
( ) sup( , 0) : ( ) inf( , 0) f t t f t t = = .
We mark with
1 2
( ) : ( ) A f A A f A
+
= = . We have
1 2
( ) ( ) f t f t t = .
The operators

A
+
and A

are positive self-adjointss operators and

A A A
+
= . Because A A A
+
= due to ( ) formula, we can
approximate

A and A
+
with the Yosida approximants. So we obtain a
sequence of A

continuous Lipschitz linear operators so that

( ) ( ) A x A x

when 0 . Q.E.D.
In the book Functional Analysis by Romulus Cristescu , Didactical
and Pedagogical Publishing House, Bucharest, 1979, on page 170, we
have the following
Lemma: Considering U an operator that applies in itself a complex
Hilbert space. It is normal if and only if it can be represented as
1 2
U V iV = +
where
1 2
and V V are transferable self-adjoint operators. In
consideration of Theorem 1, we obtain
Theorem 2
Considering H a Hilbert space. Considering A an normal operator.
Then A can be approximated as good as possible with a sequence of
continuous Lipschitz operators.
Demonstration
The demonstration is relevant out of Theorem 1 and Lemma.
We are trying to demonstrate Theorem 3.
45
Theorem 3
Considering H a Hilbert space. Considering A an unlimited linear
operator. Then A can be approximated as good as possible with a
sequence of continuous Lipschitz linear operators.
Demonstration
We are defining the operators
1
and A A A A

= = + we have
1 1
A A A A

= + = + =
and A A A A

= = = .
So
1
is self-adjoints and is normal. Applying theorems 1 and 2
it results that and
1
each can be approximated with a sequence of
continuous Lipschitz operators. So, also their sum can be approximated
with a sequence of continuous Lipschitz operators. But +
1
2A = . So,
A can be approximated with a sequence of continuous Lipschitz
operators, meaning that it exists ( ) A x

continuous Lipschitz so that

( ) when 0 A x Ax

.
We shall return now to the Navier-Stokes system.
(1)
1
( , )
, 0
n
i i
j i i
j
j i
n
u u p
u u f x t
t x x
x t

=

+ = +

R

1
0 ( , 0) (2)
n
n
i
i
u
divu x t
x
=

= =

R
with the initial conditions
0
( , 0) ( ) ( ) (3)
n
u x u x x = R
Here,
0
( ) u x is a C

vector field of free divergence on

n
R , ( , )
i
f x t
are the components of an applied given external force (for example,
gravitation, is a positive coefficient (viscosity) and
2
2
1
n
i
i
x
=

is the
Laplacean.
Eulers equations are (1), (2), (3), with =0. For solutions which
are reasonable from a physical point of view, we have to be sure that
( , ) u x t does not strongly increase when x . This way we will focus
our attention to the f forces and to the initial
0
u conditions.
46
3
0
3
( ) (1 ) on (4)
for any and k and
( , ) (1 ) on [0, ], for any ,m,k (5)
k
x k
m k
x t mk
u x C x
f x t C x t

+
+ +
R
R

We accept a solution of (1), (2), (3) as physically reasonable as
long as it satisfies
, ( [0, )) (6)
n
p u C

R and
n
2
u(x,t) , for all t 0 (limited energy) (7) dx C <

R

We have the problem (A) taken from The Clay Institute (5).
Existence and smoothness of Navier-Stokes equation on
3
R .
Considering 0 > and 3 n = . Considering
0
( ) u x smooth, a vector
field of zero divergence satisfying (4). Considering ( , ) f x t identical null.
Then it exists the smooth function
[ )
3
( , ), ( , ) on 0,
i
p x t u x t R ,
satisfying (1), (2), (3), (6), (7).
We define the Hilbert space in which we are operating. Consi-
dering K a compact,
n
K R . Let be H(K) and
( )
3
2
1
H H K =

to
which is added the divu=0 condition.
So
{ }
2
2 1 2 3
( , , ) , ( ), 1, 3, 0
t
i
H u u u u u H K i divu = = = .
Now we consider p a given vector.
We work on system (1).
We consider each operator type
i
j
u
x

.
Taking into consideration Theorem 3 it exists series of continuous
Lipschitz operators that approximates these operators for , 1, 3 i j . But,
by meanings of regularization, the
i
j
j
u
u
x

quantities become differen-

tiable on the space
2
H . Applying the first theorem of finite increasing for
these operators on Hilbert space
2
H , we can deduce that these regulator
operators are Lipschitz continuous on a set
{ }
2 2
( , ) . ( , ) , B O R H B O R u H u = R .
So, equation (1) becomes a equation type
47
0
' ( )
( , 0) ( )

=
=
u A u p
u x u x

where
1 2 3
, , , [0, ]
t
p p p
p t
x x x


=



, p a given vector and A u

is a continuous Lipschitz regularization of operator
1
, 1, 3
n
i
i j
j
j
u
u u i j
x

on set B(0,R)
2
, (0, ) A u A v L u v u v B R H


But these equations have an unique solution (0, ) u B R

, which
can be obtained as a fixed-point of an contracting application defined on
a metrical space that was conveniently chosen. This is a well-known
classical theory. (4) page 352
But , 0 A u

regulator operators form a Cauchy sequence.

(0, ) when - 0 A u A u u B R

< .
Out of Banachs Theorem it results that even the fixed-points of
A u

operators form a Cauchy sequence in ( , ) B o R . So,

when 0. u u

(3) page 29. So, Navier-Stokes system admits an

unique solution on
[ ] { }
2
0, (0, ) where (0, ) , B R B R u H u = R .
This unique solution extends on
[ )
2
0, H + . So, the system (1), (2), (3)
admits an unique solution on compact K taken arbitrary R
n
K . So,
extending on compacts, it results that if we are to consider the p vector
given, the system (1), (2), (3) admits an unique solution u that depends
on p .
Bibliography
Initiation into the theory of linear operators, by Florian Horia
Vasilescu, Technical Publishing House.
Functional Analysis by Romulus Criestescu, The Didactical and
Pedagogical Publishing House, Bucharest, 1979.
Principle and Applications of Fixed Point Theory by Ioan A. Rus,
Dacia Publishing House, 1979.
Partial Differential Equations by Marin Marin, Tehnical
Publishing House, 1998.
The web address of Clay Institute www.claymath.org
48
Chapter 6
A STUDY ON FERMATS GRAND THEOREM
We consider the space
4
R . Let be the hyperplan
8 4 2 0 + + = x y z t
4
R in . We show that in this hyperplan there cant
exist points such as
( )
, , ,
p p p p
A B C D where 5, , ,

Z p A B C and
{ }
0

Z D . We assume, by reduction to the absurd, that the hyperplan

contains points of the form
( )
, , , , , ,

Z
p p p p
A B C D A B C and
{ }
0 , 5

Z D p , prime number.
We have 8 4 2 0
p p p p
A B C D + + = . Hence results that
1
2 D D = .
We have
1
8 4 2 2 0 + + =
p p p p p
A B C D or
1
1
4 2 2 0

+ + =
p p p p p
A B C D .
Results that
1
2 C C = . Hence
1 2
1 1
2 2 2 0
p p p p p p
A B C D

+ + = .
Hence
1
2 B B = . Results that
1 2 3
1 1 1
2 2 2 0.

+ + =
p p p p p p p
A B C D Hence
1
2 = A A .
So
1 2 3
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2 0
p p p p p p p p
A B C D

+ + = . By dividing with
3
2
p
,
we obtain:
1 1 1 1
8 4 2 0, 5
p p p p
A B C D p + + = .
Analogously we show that
1
A is divided by 2,
1
B is divided by 2,
1
C is divided by 2,
1
D is divided by 2.
Recursively, we find that A is divided by 2 ,
k
B is divided by 2
k
, C
is divided by 2
k
, D is divided by 2
k
, , hence 0 k A B C D = = = = N .
If D=0, then following the same reasoning, we show that
8 4 2 0
p p p
A B C + + = implies 0 A B C = = = , where we have considered
5 and , , p A B C

Z .
Hence the hyperplan
4
8 4 2 0 in x y z t + + = R cannot contain
points like
( ) { }
, , , where 5, , , and
p p p p
A B C D p A B C D o

Z Z .
In absolute analogy we show that the hyperplan
4 8 5 2 0 x y z t = does not contain points such as
( )
, , ,
p p p p
A B C D , where 5 p , prime number , ,

Z A B C and
{ }
0

Z D .
49
But the intersect of these two hyperplan is a set
( )
, , , 0 x y z with the
property that
( )
12 0 x y z + + = . But the intersect does not contain points
such as
( )
, , ,
p p p p
A B C D , where 5 p ,
{ }
, , and 0 A B C D

Z Z .
Hence the plane
( )
12 0 x y z + + = in
3 4
R R does not contain
points such as
( )
, ,
p p p
A B C 5 p , , A B C

Z .
As a result, the plan 0 x y z + + = can not contain points like
( )
, ,
p p p
A B C , , , A B C

Z . Hence the equation
p p p
A B C + = can not
have solutions in for 5 p

N .
In an analogue manner, using the same type of reasoning, we can
study very many equations of the type
1
0,
=
=

s
p
k k
k
a x where

Z
k
x ,
R
k
and 1, k s .
It can be seen that this method, although it is elementary, surpasses
in mathematical power and deepens the extremely complicated algebraic
methods, based on the group theory.
50

Chapter 7
WE WILL DEMONSTRATE THAT EULER-MASCHERONIS
CONSTANT IS AN IRRATIONAL NUMBER
We have the sequence
1 1 1
1 ... ln
2 3
n
n n
n

= + + + + N .
We know that 0, 57
n
=
We will note:
[ ] { }
1 1 1
1 ...
2 3
+ + + + = = +
n n n
s s s
n
and
[ ] { }
ln ln ln = + n n n .
It cab be easily observed that
[ ] [ ] { }
ln 0,1
n
s n . So, in order to
demonstrate the irrationality of we have to demonstrate first that the
sequence
{ } { }
ln
n n
u n s = converges to an irrational number. We know
that ln n is an irrational number, so { }
ln n is also an irrational number.
It is known the following famous theorem that we will note it as
Th [1].
Th[1]
Any rational number from the [0,1] interval can be written as
1
where 0, 1
!
k
i
i
i
a
a i
i

=
=

So any irrational number out of the [0,1] interval can be written as:
1
1
!

=
=

i
i
a
i
where 0, 1
i
a i , and the sum is infinite.
So { } { }
i
1
ln where a 1
!
i
n n
i
a
u n s i
i

=
= = <

Because
[ ] [ ] { }
ln 0,1
n
s n , the
n
u sequence will also have two
limits, taking into consideration the convergence of
n
.
We will demonstrate that these tow limits are irrational. We will
generally demonstrate than any
1
with 1
!
i
i
i
a
a i
i

=
<

series (which
obviously is convergent) it converges to an irrational number.
Let there be
51
1
1
!
n
i
n i
i
a
x a i
i
=
= <

1
1
!
n m
i
n m i
i
a
x a i
i
+
+
=
= <

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 2
2 1
... ...
1 ! 2 ! ! 1 ! 2 ! !
n n n m
n n m
n m n
a a a
a a a
x x
n n n m n n n m
+ + +
+ + +
+
= + + + + + + <
+ + + + + +

( ) ( )
1 1 1 1 1
. . ... .
! 1 1 ! 2 1 !
+ +
+ + +
+ + + + + +
n n n m
n n n n n m n m

( ) ( )
2
1 1 1 1 1
1 ... ...
! 1
1 1

+
+ + + + + =

+ +
+ +

m
n m
n n m n
n n

1 1 1 1 1 1 1
. . .
1
! ! !
1
1
n m n m n
n n m n n m n n
n


+ + +
= = <

+ +

+

For the fixed n and m + we obtain:
1
1
0
!
n
l x
n
< < , so, noting
1
0 1
1
!
n
n
l x
n

< = < , we obtain that:
1 2
1
1
... .
1! 2! ! !
n
n
a a a
l
n n
= + + + +
Where
( )
n
0 1 and 0,1
i i
a i a < Z
If we assume that
1
l , so
1
, ,
m
l m n
n

= N N , then
1 2
1
... .
1! 2! ! !
n
n
a a a m
n n n
= + + + + , where
( )
0,1 , 1, 1
n i
a i n Z .
By multiplying this equality with n! we obtain:
( )
1 2
1 ! ! ...
1! 2! !

+ + + =


n
n
a a a
m n n
n
.
But this final equality is impossible because ( ) 0,1
n
and the left
member represents an integer. So, the supposition that
1
l has lead to
an absurdity. So
1
\ l R . The same we proceed when it comes to
show that
2
\ l R .
So, \ R .
52
TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE...................................................................................... 5

Chapter 1. Fractional powers with rational exponent of the
monotonous operators of class C on R. .......................................... 7

Chapter 2. Using the symmetry group in demonstrating the
radiality of several semilinear biharmonic equations solutions. ... 13

Chapter 3. A study on zeroes of the function ( ) z of
Riemann................................................................................................. 18

Chapter 4. The problem of invariant Subspaces ................... 38

Chapter 5. A study on Navier-Stokes equations.................... 43

Chapter 6. A study on Fermats grand theorem..................... 48

Chapter 7. We will demonstrate that Euler-Mascheronis
constant is an irrational number......................................................... 50

53




































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