Welding

INTRDUTION
Welding is the process of joining similar metals by the application of heat, with or without appl- ication of pressure or filler metal, in such a way that the joint is equivalent in composition and characteristics of the metal joined. In the begining, welding was mainly used for reparing all kinds of worm or damaged parts. Now, it e tensively used in manufacturing industry, contruc- tion industry !construction of ships, tanks, locomotives and automobiles" and maintenance work, replacing revetting and bolting, to a greater e tent. #he various welding process are$ i. ii. iii. iv. v. %lectric are welding, &as welding, #hermit welding, 'esistance welding and (riction welding

)owever, only electric arc and gas welding are discussed here. In either process, the work pieces are melted along a common edge, to their melting point and then a filler metal is introduced to from the joint on solidification. #he material to be welded must be free from rust, scale, oil or other impurities, so as to obtain a sound weld.

ARC WEDING
In arc welding, the heat required for joining the metals is obtain from an electric arc. #ransfor- mers or motor generator sets are used are arc welding machines. #hese machines supply high electric current at low voltage and electrode is used to produce the necessary arc. #he electro- de serves as the filler rod and arc melts the surface so that the metals to be joined are actually fused together

NOTE #o supply the current for welding, three type of power sources are available $
transformers, motor generators and rectifires. *i+e of welding machines ar reted according to their appo imate amperge capacity at ,-. duty cycle, such as /0-, 1--, 10-, 2--, 3--, 0-- and ,--. #his amperge is the rated current output at the working terminal.

Transformers #he transformer type of welding machine produce 4.5 current and is considered to be the least e pensive. It takes supply line and tronsforms is to the voltage required for welding. Motor generator #hese are designed to produce 6.5 current in either straight or reversed polarity. #he polarity selected for welding depends on the kind of electrode used the material to be welded. Rectifiers #heseare essentially transformers, containing and electrical device which changes 4.5 into 6.5. In addition to the welding machine, certain accessories are needed for carrying out the welding work

Welding Cables
#wo welding cables are required, one from the machine to the electrode holder and the other, from the machine to the ground clamp. (le ible cables are usually preferred because of the ease of using and coiling the cables. 5ables are specified by their current carrying capacity, say 2-- 4, 3-- 4, etc.

Electrodes
(iller rod used in arc weding are called electrodes. #hese are made of metallic wire called core wire, having appro imately the same composition as the metal to be welded. #hese are coated uniformly with a protective coating called flu . While flu ing an electrode, about 1-mm of length is left bare at one end for holding with the electrode holder. It helps in transmitting full current from electrode holder to the front end of the electrode coating. (lu acts as an insulating of electricity. In general, electrodes are classified into five main groups$ mild steel, high corbon steel, special alloy steel, cast-iron and non-ferrous. #he greatest range of arc welding is done with electrode in the mild steel group. 7arious constituents like titanium o ide, potassium o ide, cellulose, iron or manganese, ferromanganese, ferro-silicates, carbonates, gums, clays, asbestos, etc., are used as coating on electrodes. While welding, the coating or flu vaporises and provides a gaseous shield to prevent atmospheric attack. #he si+e of an electrode is measured and designated by the diameter of the core wire in *W& and length, apart from the brand and code names, indicating the purpose for which they are most suitable. 4ccording to 8I*, the coated electrodes are specified by si digits with a prefi letter.

#he prefi letter refers to the method of manufacture. #he first three digits refer to performance characteristics. #he last three digits refer to mechanical properties of weld metal deposit. #he suffi letter if present, refers to special properties.

Electrode Holder
#he electrode holder is connected to the end of the welding cable and holds the electrode. It should be light, strong and easy to handle and should not become hot while in opertion. #he jaws of the holder are insulated, offering protection from electric shock.

Ground Clamp
It is connected to the end of ground cable and is clamped to the work or welding table to complete the electric cicuit. It should be strong and durable and given a low resistance connection.

Wire Brus and C ipping Hammer

4 wire brush is used for cleaning and preparing the work for welding. 4 chiiping hammer is used for removing slag formation on welds. 9ne end of the head is sharpened like cold chisel and the other, to a blunt, round point. It is generally made of tool steel.

Wor!ing Table
It is made of steel plate and pipes. It is used for positioning the parts to be welded properly.

"ace # ield
4 face shield is used to protect the eyes and face from the rays of the arc and from spatter or flying particles of hot metal. It is available either in hand helmet type. #he hand type is convenient to use wherever the work can be done with ane hand. #he helmet type, through not comfortable to wear leaves both hands free for the work. *hields are made of light weight non-reflecting fiber and fitted with dark glass to filler out the harmful rays of the arc. In some designs, a cover glass is fitted in front of the dark lens to protect it from spatter.

Welding #creen

When people are around where welding is done, they may be protected from the rays of the arc by means of a protected screen. In some shops, separate welding booths are provided for the purpose.

Tec ni$ue o% Welding

&reparation o% 'or! 8efore welding, the work pieces must be thoroughly cleaned of rust, scale and other foreign material. #hin pieces of metal are generally welded without bevelling the edges. )owever, thick work pieces should be bevelled or veed out to ensure adequate penetration and fusion af all parts of the weld. 8ut, in either case, the parts to be welded must be separated slightly to allow better penetration of the weld.

NOTE While making butt welds in thin metal, it is better practice to tack-weld the
pieces at intervals to hold them properly while welding. #tri!ing an arc #he following are the stages and methods of striking an arc and running a bead$ /. *elect an electrode of suitable kind and si+e for the work and set the welding current at a proper value. 1. (asten the ground clamp to either the work or welding table. 2. *tart or strike the arc by either of the following methods$ !i" Stroke or withdraw In this method, the arc is started by moving the end of the electrode on to the work with a slow sweeping motion, similar to striking a match. Touch and withdraw In this method, the arc is started by keeping the electrode perpendicular to the work and touching ar bouncing it lightly on the work. #his method is preferred as it facilitates restarting the momentarily broken arc quickly. If the electrode sticks to the work, quickly bend it back and forth. :ulling at the same time. ;ake sure to keep the shield in the front of the face, when the electrode is freed from sticking. 3. 4s soon as the arc is struck, move the electrode along, slowly from left to right, keeping at /0o to 10o from vertical and in the direction of welding. 0. While welding, maintain proper length of arc. It is the distance from the tip of the electrode to the bottom of the crater.

!ii"

,. 4s the end of the electrode melts-off, lower continuously to maintian the same length af arc. <. 8reak the arc at the end of the bead, by holding the electrode still, long enough to fill the crater and gradually lifting it up from the work.

NOTE It is better to make the bead in one continuous sweep. If the welding is stopped
for any reason, chip the slag from the crater at the end of the bead and restart the welding. Wea(ing 4 steady, unifom motion of the electrode produces a satisfactory bead. )owever, a slight weaving or oscillating motion is prefered, as this keeps the metals molten a littile longer and allows the gas to escape, bringing the slag to the surface. Weaving also produce a wider bead with better penetration. E%%ect o% current and speed #he current setting and the speed of electrode movement greatly affect the penetration and the strength of the weld. In both the figures, weld a shows proper adjustment of current and electrode speed with good fusion and overlap or undercutting. #oo low a current results in high bead with poor penetration. =ow speed in large, wide bead with overlap, too high current results in deep penetration, undercutting of edges of the bead, and e cessive spatter, wheras fast movement results in small, narrow, irregular bead with poor penetration. Welding )oints Wherever possible, it is better to weld by placing the parts in the flat position. In this, welding is done on top, so that gravity helps pull the molten metal into joint. Welding positions 6epending on the location of welding joint, appropriate position of the electrode and hand movement are selcted.

NOTE Welding creates residual stressess and distortion in workpiece. *ince welding
produces residual!internal" stresses, the workpiece often requires annealing or stress relieving.

GA# WE*DING
9 yacetylene flame is commonly used for gas welding. It consists of supply of o ygen and acetylene under pressure in cylinders, pressure regulators, a torch, hoses and accessories like goggles and a lighter. #he o ygen and acetylene cylinder are connected to the torch through pressure regulators and hoses. #he regulator consists of two pressure gauges, one for indicating the pressure within the cylinder and the other shows the pressure of gas fed into the torch, which may be regulated. #he torch mi es

the two gases and the flame may be controlled by adjustment the o ygen and acetylene supply.

NOTE i. In o y-acetylene welding, the flame must be supplied by a correct balance of

o ygen and acetylene so that it is neither o idising nor carbursing, since either of these flames would weaken the weld. ii. 9 ygen regulator have >'ight hand? threads with plain nuts and acetylene regulator have >=eft hand? threads with notched he agon nuts so that they can not be confiused. #he regulator is closed by unscrewing the regulating screw.

Goggles
&oggles with coloured glasses are used to protect the eyes from glare and flying bits of hot metal. 4 welding table with a top of fire bricks is recommended for o yacetylene welding.

T+pe o% "lames
#he correct adjustment of the flames is important for efficient welding. When o ygen and acetylene are supplied to the torch in nearly equal volumes, a neutral flame is produced having a ma imum temperature of 21-- o 5. #he neutral flame is widely used for welding steel, stainless steel, cast iron, copper, aluminium, etc. 5arburising flame produced with an e cess of acetylene, is needed for welding lead. 9 idising flame with e cess of o ygen is used for welding brass. 6epending on the thickness of the job, different torch no++le si+es are used. #he pressure of the gases and the flame si+e vary depending on the si+e of the no++le tip.

"iller rods
(or o yacetylene gas welding, filler rods are not coated with flu @ however they are applied separately. ;ild steel welding rods are usually copper coated to prevent rusting. 5ast iron rods are square shaped. 8ra+ing rods are made of brass or bro+en. #hey are usually one meter long. (iller rod si+e increases as the metal thickness to be joined increases. /.0mm diameter filler rod is recommended for /A *W& sheet and 1 to 2mm diameter for 2mm thick sheet and so on.

T+pes o% ,oints
#he type of joint needed depends on the neture of material, its thickness and the kind of job. #he types of joints used are common to both arc and gas welding. 8oth ferrous and non-ferrous welding may be carried out in gas welding.

Tec ni$ue o% Welding

Ad,usting e$uipment and lig ting t e torc #he recommended stages for adjusting the gas welding equipment and lighting the torch are as follows /. *elect the proper si+e tip for the job and insert it carefully into the torch. 1. 5heck the valves on the torch to ascertain that they are turned-off!clock wise". 2. 9pen the acetylene cylinder valve slightly , say B to C turn. 3. 9pen the o ygen cylinder valve slowly, till it full open. 0. 9pen the acetylene valve on the torch and turn the acetylene regulator screw clockwise, untill the gauge reads -.0 to / kgDcm 1 of pressure. #hen close the valve on the torch. ,. 9pen the o ygen valve on the torch to check the flow wnd close it. <. :ut-on the welding goggles, gloves and apron. A. 9pen the acetylene valve on the torch by B turn. =ight the torch with a lighter, keeping its tip away from the cylinder and your body. E. 4djust the acetylene valve on the torch untill the flame e tends slightly from the end of the tip. /-. 9pen and adjust the o ygen valve on the torch untill the desired flame is obtained. Welding process #he following are the steps involved in a gas welding work$ /. :repare the work pieces to be welded and place them in proper position on the welding table. 1. Wear goggles, gloves and apron. 2. *elect proper si+e tip for the job and fi it to the torch.

3. *elect the filler rod of recommended si+e. 0. 4djust the welding equipment and light the torch. ,. 4djust the torch for neutral flame. <. )old the torch, with the inner cone about 2mm away from the metal and tackweld the pieces at either end. A. *tarting from one end, weld along the edge with a +ig +ag torch movement. 4dd the filler metal to the joint as welding progresses. #he two techniques of gas welding are shown N9#% 6o not touch the torch tip with rod or molten metal. 4lways keep the rod in the melt. If the torch tip is too close to the melt, it will from small blow holes in the weld and the torch may back fire. :ractice the rythm of torch and rod movement for achieving good results. # utting-o%% t e e$uipment 4fter completing gas welding operation, the following procedure must be followed for shutting-off the equipment$ /. (irst close the torch acetylene valve and then torch the o ygen valve. 1. 5lose the acetylene cylinder valve first and then o ygen cylinder valve. 2. 6rain the gas fron the regulator and hose by opening the torch acetylene valve. 3. 6rain the o ygen from the regulator and hose by opening the torch o ygen valve. 0. 9pen the regulator screw on each regulator and remove the pressure from the diaphragms of the regulators. ,. )ang-up the hose and torch.

#A"E &RACTICE#
General
/. 4lways weld in a well ventilated place. (umes given off from welding are unpleasant and in some case may be injurious, particularly from galvanised or +inc coated parts. 1. 6o not weld around combustible or inflammable materials, where sparks may cause a fire.

2. Never weld containers which have been used for storing gasoline, oil or similar materials, without first having them thoroughly cleaned.

Arc Welding
/. 5heck the welding machine to make sure that it is properly gronded and that all leads are properly insulated. 1. Never look at the arc with the naked eye. #he arc burn your eyes severely. 4lways use a face shield while welding. 2. :revent welding cables from coming in contact with hot metal, water, oil or grease. 4void dragging the cables around sharp corners. 3. %nsure proper insulating of the cables and check for openings, 0. 4lways wear the safety hand gloves, apron and leather shoes. ,. 4lways turn-off the machine when leaving the work. <. 4pply eye drops after welding is over for the day, to relive the strain an eyes. A. While welding, stand on dry footing and keep the body insulated from the electrode, any bareparts of the electrode holder and the work.

Gas Welding
/. 4lways wear welding goggles while doing gas welding. 1. 4lways use the spark lighter to light the torch@ never use a match. 2. 6o not allow blow pipe to heat cylinder, hoses or any other equipment. 3. 6o not allow the hose to become e cessively warm. 0. 6o not remove tha spanner used for operating the valve. 4lways keep it with cylinder. ,. *ecure cylinder in use, against falling, which may knock-off the valve. <. #o test the leakage in a valve or hose, use soap water but not a lighted match.

.ODE* RECORD #HEET

Aim #o prepare a single 7-butt joint!,-o" using the given two thick flat ;.* pieces !'efer (ig".

Tools and e$uipment used 'ough and smooth files, protractor, arc wekding machine !transformer type", mild steel electrode and electrode holder, chipping hammer, etc. #e$uence operations /. #he given ;.* pieces are thoroughly cleaned of rust, scale and other foreign material. 1. 9ne edge of each piece is bevelled, to an angle of 2- o, leaving nearly /D3th of the flat thickness. 2. #he two pieces are positioned on the welding table, such that they are separated slightly for better penetration of the welding tale. 3. #he electrode is fitted in an electrode holder and the welding current is set to a proper valve. 0. #he ground clamp is fastened to the welding table. ,. Fsing a face shield, the arc is started by keeping the electrode perpendicular to the work and touching it lightly on the work. <. 4s soon as the arc is struck, the electrode is to moved slowly along the joint keeping at /0o to 10o from vertical and in the direction of welding. A. 4t the end of the bead formation, the arc is broken. E. #he slag formation on the weld is removed by using a chipping hammer.