Cardiovascular system: Blood 1) Blood: consists of plasma and formed elements eg RBC, WBC, platelets Function: (a) Transport

of dissolved gases, which are oxygen and carbon dioxide (b) Distribution of nutrients eg absorption from digestive tract and the release from liver or adipose tissue (c) Transport of metabolic wastes to the site of excretion such as the kidneys (d) Transport of enzymes and hormones to specific target tissues (e) Act as a buffer to stabilize pH and electrolyte composition of intestinal fluids eg lactic acids in muscles (f) Prevent loss of fluid though damaged vessels or injured sites (g) Defense against toxins and pathogens eg immune system (h) Stabilization of body temperature eg through blood flow Hypovolemic: low blood volume Normovolemic: normal blood volume Hypervolemic: excessive blood volume 2) Plasma - 55% of volume of whole blood - Water: 92% of the plasma volume - Differences between interstitial fluid and plasma Concentration of dissolved - Oxygen concentration: higher in oxygen and carbon dioxide plasma oxygen diffuses out of blood vessels into the peripheral tissues - Carbon dioxide concentration: lower in plasma carbon dioxide diffuse from the tissues into the blood vessels Concentration of dissolved - Plasma has significant quantities of proteins protein: large size and globular shape prevent protein from crossing capillary walls 3 major classes of plasma proteins Albumins - Major contribution to osmotic pressure of plasma - Transport of fatty acids, steroid hormones and other substances by attaching to lipids Globulins - Immunoglobulin ( antibodies): attack foreign proteins and pathogens - Transport globulin: bind to small ions, hormones that are insoluble or may be filtered out of the blood by the kidneys Fibrinogen - Essential for blood clotting - Fibrinogen interact to form large and insoluble strands

of fibrin; provides basic scaffold for blood clot 3) Red Blood cells (erythrocytes) - Hematocrit: % of whole blood contributed by formed elements ; closely approximately the volume of erythrocytes; often refer as packed cell volume - Structure of red blood cells Biconcave region with a think central region and thick outer margin Biconcave shape: provide strength and flexibility and disproportionately large surface area Large surface are: permit rapid diffusion of oxygen biconcave shape: form stacks called rouleaux can bend and flex: able to squeeze through small-diameter capillaries - RBC life span and circulation Lack mitochondria, ER, ribosomes and nuclei Obtain energy through anaerobic respiration and rely on glucose from surrounding plasma Protein synthesis cannot occur: proteins cannot be replaced Wear and tear and no replaced mechanism: 120 days life span - Haemoglobin Responsible for the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide Red pigment: oxygenated blood has bright red colour, deoxygenated blood has deep red colour; account for the colour in artery and veins Structure: 2 alpha- and 2 beta- chains; each subunits contains one heme group; each heme group has an iron ion which can interact with oxygen The iron-oxygen interaction is weak; oxygen is able to dissociate with iron ion without destroying the integrity of RBC Carbon dioxide bind to the amino acids of the globin subunit - Blood types Surface antigens ( agglutinogens): glycolipids or glycoproteins whose characteristics are genetically determined A,B, D (Rh) Antibodies ( immunoglobulin- agglutinins) attack foreign surface antigens; RBC clump together: known as agglutination or hemolyze, plug small vessels in organs such as kidneys, depriving them of circulation and damaging them 4) Leucocytes ( White blood cells) - Function: defend the body from invasion by pathogens and remove toxins, wastes and abnormal or damaged cells - Two main classes of leukocytes: granular leukocytes- have granular inclusion and agranular leukocytes- no cytoplasmic granules - Leukopenia- inadequate number of leucocytes. Leukocytosis- excessive number of leucocytes

Diapedesis- the migration of white blood cells through the intact walls of blood vessels and into the surrounding tissue Granular leucocytes- Neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils Agranular leuocytes- monocytes and lymphocytes Neutrophils Cytoplasm- with pale, neutral staining granules containing lysosomal enzymes and bactericidal compounds Polymorphonuclear leukocytes nucleus with many lobes 1st to arrive at an injury site Function: attack and digest bacteria Short life span: 12 hours. Its breakdown release chemical that attract other neutrophils and others that has a broad antibiotic activity against the pathogens Eosinophils ( Acidophils) Granules stained with eosin: an acidic red dye deep red granules Bilobed nucles ( two lobed nucleus) Are phagocytic cells attracted to foreign compounds that have reacted with the circulating antibodies Increase drastically during an allergic reaction Are attached to injury sites, where they release enzymes to reduce the degree of inflammation and to control its spread to adjacent cells Basophils Numerous granules that stain with basic dyes- deep purple or blue Migrate to sites of injury and cross the capillary endothelium to accumulate within the damaged tissues discharge their granules into the interstitial fluids Granules- contains histamine (dilates blood vessels) and heparin (prevent blood clotting) increase inflammatory response at injury sites by increasing capillary and venule permeability. Release chemicals that stimulate mast cells and attract basophils to the area Monocytes Largest White blood cells Kidney bean-shaped nucleus Called free macrophages outside the bloodstream. Highly mobile as compared to the fixed immobile macrophages Usually arrive at the injury site shortly after the first neutrophils Release chemicals that attract and stimulate other monocytes and phagocytic cells Release substances that lure fibroblasts into the region Lymphocytes: Primary cells of the lymphoid system For specific immunity: an ability to mount a counterattack on invading pathogens or foreign proteins on an individual basis T cells: enter peripheral tissues and attack pathogens directly

 B cells: differentiate into plasmocytes and produce antibodies that attack pathogens at distant portions of the body NK cells: for immune surveillance- destruction of abnormal tissue cells 5) Blood conditions - Sickle cell anemia Mutation affecting the amino acid sequence of the beta-chain of haemoglobin molecules After releasing the oxygen molecules, the Hb molecules clustered into rods, and the cells become stiff and curved- trapped in capillaries and lack of oxygen in peripheral tissues - Anemia: the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood is reduced due to low hematocrit value or reduced amount of haemoglobin - Polycythemia: elevated hematocrit value with normal blood volume Erythrocytosis: polycythemia of RBC Polycythemia vera: an increase in all blood cells - Hemophilia: inherited blood disorder that is characterized by inadequate production of clotting factors 6) Platelets ( Thrombocytes) - Normal red bone marrow megakaryocytes: enormous cells with large nuclei. Nucleus: lobed or ring-shaped. Contains many GA, ribosomes and mitochondria. - Megakaryocytes manufacture membrane, enzymes and structural proteins shedding cytoplasm in membrane-enclosed packets: platelets - Circulates for 10-12 days before being removed by phagocytes - 1/3 of platelets are stored in spleen and other vascular organs as reserves for circulatory crisis such as severe bleeding - Thrombocytopenia and thrombocytosis: low platelet count and high platelet count - Functions: Transport of chemical important for clotting process Formation of temporary patch at the walls of damaged vessels via clumping of platelets Active contraction after formation of clot has occurred: reduces size of clot 7) Hematopoiesis: process of blood formation - Pluripotential stem cells myeloid stem cells and lymphoid stem cells - Myeloid stem cells: two form red blood cells and megakaryocytes. Three form various form of leucocytes - Lymphoid stem cells: form T-cells and plasmocytes

Erythropoiesis: process of red blood cells formation Produced in red bone marrow: vertebrae, sternum, ribs, skull, scapulae, pelvis, proximal limb bones Fatty yellow bone marrow can be converted into red bone marrow Regulated by Erythropoiesis- stimulating hormone or erythropoietin Erythropoietin is secreted and produced under hypoxic condition, in the kidneys Two major effects: increased rate of cell division in erythroblasts and stem cells that produced erythroblasts, speeds up the rate of maturation in RBC, primarily by accelerating the rate of hemoglobin synthesis Stages of erythropoiesis: erythroblasts ( immature cells that actively produce hemoglobin) reticulocytes( nuclei shredded) mature erythrocytes Leukopoiesis: process of forming white blood cells Originate in bone marrow Lymphopoiesis: also originate in bone marrow, but many migrate to thymus Immature B-cells and NK cells: Bone marrow. Immature T-cells: thymus glands