Table 13.2. +ynopsis of ma1or appr oaches for conservation and management of 2uropean cultural landscapes.

Table 5.4. Table Indications 4.1. 3.3. The 8.1. Land Characteristics changing coming use and available from roleof of inter selected cultural land. views. landscapes digital Number sensors over s r ating three most different impor fr equently tance periods are used of r anked economic in land with use/cover development. lowest number mapping. s being most im

Table 8.2. List of the different kinds of disturbances that are important for the maintenance of natural and cultural biodiversity.

Table 5.6. ist of the main land!use categories recovered from the landscape of "#$% and their e&tent. Table 5.3. Indices of landscape ecology for the three year s.

Table 7.1. 'he pastoral e&ploitations of the (assif )one of the *yr n es (+,-I-. %//%).

Table 12.1. Component statistics for three for est certi .cation protocols as of %0 -ugust %//%.

The Conservation of Cultural Landscapes

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The Conservation of Cultural Landscapes

Edited by

Mauro Agnoletti

Faculty of Agriculture University of Florence, Italy

CABI is a trading name of CAB International CABI Head Of.ce CABI North American Of.ce Nosworthy Way !" #assach$setts A%en$e Wallingford !th &loor O'fordshire O()* +, Cambridge- #A *.)/0 12 13A Tel4 566 7*8)60) /.))) Tel4 5) 9)! /0" 6*"9 &a'4 566 7*8)60) //"* &a'4 5) 9)! /"6 9 !" ,:mail4 cabi;cabi.org ,:mail4 cabi:nao;cabi.org Website4 www.cabi.org <CAB International .**9. All rights reser%ed. No part of this p$blication may be reprod$ced in any form or by any means- electronically- mechanically- by photocopying- recording or otherwise- witho$t the prior permission of the copyright owners. A catalog$e record for this book is a%ailable from the British =ibrary- =ondon- 12. A catalog$e record for this book is a%ailable from the =ibrary of Congress- Washington- +C. I3BN )*4 ) 6"0/ *!6 9 I3BN )/4 0! ) 6"0/ *!6 "

Typeset by >hoeni' >hotosetting- Chatham- 12 >rinted and bo$nd in the 12 by Biddles =td- 2ing?s =ynn

Contents

The Editor vii Contributors viii Introduction: Framing the Issue a Trans disciplinar! "e#ection on Cultural $i Landscapes M. Agnoletti % %# The &evelopment of a 'istorical and Cultural Evaluation Approach in ( Landscape Assessment: the &!namic of Tuscan Landscape bet)een %*(+ and +,,M. Agnoletti Cultural Landscapes in .orthern Forests Time/ 0pace and Af#liation to the (, Land L. stlund and I. Bergman Energ! Balance and Land 1se: the Ma2ing of an Agrarian Landscape from the -+ 3antage 4oint of 0ocial Metabolism 5the Catalan 3all6s Count! in %*7,8%*9,: E. Tello, . !arrabou and ". #uss$ Earth ;bservation Techni<ues and =eographic Information 0!stems as Tools >9 for Assessing Land 1se8Cover Changes in a Landscape Conte$t !. #%irici, &. #orona and M. '(%l

+# (#

-#

>#

9#

4A"T II: MA.A=EME.T 9% The 4ro?ect for the "ural Landscape 4ar2 in Moscheta 5Tuscan!/ Ital!: 9( M. Agnoletti, ). Marinai and *. &aoletti 7# Long term 3egetation &!namics in 0outhern 0candinavia and Their 1se in @- Managing Landscapes for Biodiversit! .+.,. Brads%a- and !.E. +annon Mountain Landscape/ 4astoral Management and Traditional 4ractices in the %,* .orthern 4!renees 5France: ../&. M0taili0 *# Maintaining Cultural and .atural Biodiversit! in EuropeAs Economic Centre %+> and 4eripher! &. Angelstam
%

Contents

%(#

"ethin2ing Traditional 4reservation Approaches for Managing a Forested %-- Cultural Landscape: the Case of MarshBillings"oc2efeller .ational 'istorical 4ar2As Mount Tom Forest . 1iamant, #. Marts and 2. Mitc%ell %,# Bor2ing Forest Landscapes: T)o Case 0tudies from .orth Carolina %>9 !.B. Blan3 %%# "estoration in the American .ational Forests: Ecological 4rocesses and %7( Cultural Landscapes 2. Langston %+# Land use and Landscape 'istories: the "ole of 'istor! in Current %9- Environmental &ecisions *. Anderson Cultural Landscape Management in Europe and =erman! %*( *. ,ei4enegger and ,. *c%en3 %-# The "estoration of Forest Landscapes through Farmland Afforestation %@9 Measures in 0pain #. Montiel Molina 4A"T III: CA0E 0T1&IE0 +%% 'istoric Landscape "estoration: Case 0tudies of 0ite "ecover! in +%( 4ost industrial 0outh Cor2shire/ England I.1. ot%er%am %7# Comparative International "esearch on Agricultural Land use 'istor! and ++9 Forest Management 4ractices: the Tuscan Estate of Castello di 0pannocchia and 3ermontAs MarshBillings"oc2efeller .ational 'istorical 4ar2 !. Lat4 0haping the Landscape: Long term Effects of the 'istorical Controvers! +-+ about the 3iennese Forest 5Biener)ald: E. .o%ann "ecover! and 3aloriDation of a 'istorical Fruit ;rchard: the Eol!mbetra in +>( the Temple 3alle!/ 0icil! !. Barbera, M. Ala, 1.*. La Mela )eca and T. La Mantia Inde$ The colour plate section is inserted after p# >+ +7+

@#

%>#

%9#

%*#

The Editor

#a$ro Agnoletti is associate professor at the &ac$lty of Agric$lt$re- 1ni%ersity of &lorence 7Italy8 where he teaches the co$rses of @landscape analysis and management? and @en%ironmental and forest history?. He also teaches at the &ac$lty of Architect$re- and has ta$ght in the 13A and in se%eral ,$ropean co$ntries. He is the coordinator of the research gro$p @&orest and woodland history? of the International 1nion of &orest Aesearch OrganiBation 7I1&AO8 and %ice:president of the ,$ropean 3ociety for ,n%ironmental History 7,3,H8. He is the coordinator of the committee on landscape of the Italian National 3trategic >lan for A$ral +e%elopment 7.**!C.*)/8 and the representati%e for history- c$lt$re and landscape of the Italian #inistry of Agric$lt$re and &orestry >olicies at the #inisterial Conference for the >rotection of &orest in ,$rope. He has directed national and international research proDects and organiBed se%eral international meetings on landscape history and management. www.forestlandscape.$ni..it

Contributors

M# Agnoletti, 1e5artment of Environmental Forestry *cience and Tec%nology, University of Florence, )ia *an Bonaventura 67, I/896:8, Florence, Italy. E/mail; mauro.agnoletti<uni..it M# Ala, 1i5artimento di #olture Arboree, Universit= di &alermo, )iale delle *cien4e, >96?@ &alermo, Italy. 0# Anderson, &resident, Forest +istory *ociety, A96 ,illiam )ic3ers Avenue, 1ur%am, 2ort% #arolina ?AA96/76B?, U*A. E/mail; stevena<du3e.edu 4# Angelstam, Faculty of Forest *ciences, *c%ool for Forest Engineers, *-edis% University of Agricultural *ciences, *E/A7> ?6 *3inns3atteberg, *-eden. E/mail; 5er.angelstam<sms3.slu.se =# Barbera, 1i5artimento di #olture Arboree, Universit= di &alermo, )iale delle *cien4e, >96?@ &alermo, Italy. E/mail; barbera<uni5a.it I# Bergman, Associate &rofessor, *ilvermuseet, >79 >9 ArCe5log, *-eden. E/mail; Ingela.Bergman<arCe5log.se =#B# Blan2, Associate &rofessor, 2ort% #arolina *tate University, 1e5artment of Forestry, aleig%, 2ort% #arolina ?AB>8/@99?, U*A. E/mail; gblan3<unity.ncsu.edu ) Bradsha), Environmental +istory esearc% !rou5, !eocenter D Ester )olgrade 69, 1'/6789 #o5en%agen ', 1enmar3. E/mail; r%-b<geus.d3 . Chirici, geoLAB D Laboratory of !eomatica, 1i5artimento di *cien4e dellFAmbiente Forestale, University of Florence, )ia *an Bonaventura 67, I/896:8, Florence, Italy. E/mail; g%erardo.c%irici<uni..it / Corona, 1i5artimento di *cien4e dellFAmbiente Forestale e delle *ue isorse, University of Tuscia, )ia *an #amillo de Lellis, 96699 )iterbo, Italy. Email; 5iermaria.corona<unitus.it 6 CussF, 1e5artament dFEconomia i dF+istGria EconGmica, Universitat AutGnoma de Barcelona, Edi.ci B, #am5us de la UAB, 9@6>7 Bellaterra H#erdanyola del )allIsJ, *5ain. E/mail; "avier.#usso<uab.es " &iamant, Mars%DBillingsD oc3efeller 2ational +istorical &ar3, ,oodstoc3,

)ermont 989>6, U*A. E/mail; olfKdiamant<n5s.gov 9 =arrabou, 1e5artament dFEconomia i dF+istGria EconGmica, Universitat AutGnoma de Barcelona, Edi.ci B, #am5us de la UAB, 9@6>7 Bellaterra H#erdanyola del )allIsJ, *5ain. E/mail; amon.!arrabou<uab.es

Contrib$tors

'annon, Environmental +istory esearc% !rou5, !eocenter D Ester )olgrade 69, 1'/6789 #o5en%agen ', 1enmar3. . Gohann, University of 2atural esources and A55lied Life *ciences )ienna, ,lassa3strasse 8B, 6679 )ienna, Austria. E/mail; elis.Co%ann<utanet.at / EHhl, 1e5artment of ,ood *cience, ,orld Forestry, University of +amburg, Leusc%nerstrasse >6, ?6976 +amburg, !ermany. E/mail; -eltforst-irtsc%aft<%ol4.uni/ %amburg.de 6 La Mantia, 1i5artimento di #olture Arboree, Universit= di &alermo, )iale delle *cien4e, >96?@ &alermo, Italy. tommasolamantia<uni5a.it

La Mela 3eca, 1i5artimento di #olture Arboree, Universit= di &alermo, )iale delle *cien4e, >96?@ &alermo, Italy. . Langston, Associate &rofessor, 1e5artment of Forest Ecology and Management, University of ,isconsin/Madison, Madison, ,I 87A9B, U*A. E/mail; nelangst<-isc.edu / LatD, )ice &rovost for International Affairs, &rofessor of !eogra5%y and International *tudies, Lf.ce of International Affairs, &ortland *tate University, &L BoM A86, &ortland, Lregon >A?9A/9A86, U*A. E/mail; lat4g<5dM.edu 6 Marinai, 1e5artment of Environmental Forestry *cience and Tec%nology, University of Florence, )ia *an Bonaventura 67, I/896:8, Florence, Italy. " Marts, Mars%DBillingsD oc3efeller 2ational +istorical &ar3, ,oodstoc3, )ermont 989>6, U*A. c%ristinaKmarts<n5s.gov G# 4# MItailiI, !EL1E D UM 8B9? #2 *, Maison de la ec%erc%e, Universit0 ToulouseD le Mirail, 7698@ Toulouse, France. E/mail; Metailie<univ/tlse?.fr .# Mitchell, Mars%DBillingsD oc3efeller 2ational +istorical &ar3, ,oodstoc3, )ermont 989>6, U*A. noraKmitc%ell<n5s.gov C# Montiel Molina, #om5lutense, University of Madrid, Faculty of !eogra5%y and +istory, and 1e5artment of egional !eogra5%ic Analysis and &%ysical !eogra5%y, #iudad Universitaria, sNn, E/?@9:9 Madrid, *5ain. E/mail; crismont<g%is.ucm.es L# Jstlund, Associate &rofessor, 1e5artment of )egetation Ecology, *-edis% University of Agricultural *ciences, >96 @7 UmeO, *-eden. E/mail; Lars.Lstlund<sve3.slu.se 0# 4aoletti, 1e5artment of Environmental Forestry *cience and Tec%nology, University of Florence, )ia *an Bonaventura 67, I/896:8, Florence, Italy. ) "otherham, Tourism, Leisure and Environmental #%ange esearc% Unit, *%ef.eld +allam University, #ity #am5us D &ond *treet, *%ef.eld *6 6,B, U'. E/mail; i.d.rot%er%am<s%u.ac.u3 . 0chen2, Institute for !eogra5%y, +istorical !eogra5%y, Mec3en%eimer Allee 6BB, 187668 Bonn, !ermany. E/mail; -infried.sc%en3<giub.uni/bonn.de / Tello, 1e5artament dF+istGria i Institucions EconGmiPues, Facultat de #iences

EconGmiPues i Em5resarials, Universitat de Barcelona, 1iagonal B>9, 9@97: Barcelona, *5ain. E/mail; tello<ub.edu 6 BeiDenegger, Institute for Economic !eogra5%y, Lud-igstrasse ?@, 1/@9879 Munic%, !ermany. sabine.-ei4enegger<gmM.net

@E now in these things- a large part of what we call nat$ral- is notF it is e%en G$ite arti.cial4 that is to say- the tilled .elds- the trees and other domesticated plants that are placed in order- the ri%ers kept within bo$nds and directed toward a certain co$rse- and s$ch- lack both the state and the appearance that they wo$ld ha%e in nat$re. In this way the appearance of any land inhabited for a few generations by ci%iliBed people- not to say in cities and other places where men li%e together- is arti.cial- and m$ch different from what it wo$ld be in nat$re.? Hiacomo =eopardi 7)!0 C) /!8- In &raise of Birds

Introduction: Framing the Issue a Trans disciplinar! "e#ection on Cultural Landscapes

#. Agnoletti

C$lt$ral landscapes are today a reso$rce whose preser%ation represents a most modern theme- rele%ant to a great n$mber of sectors s$ch as planning- c$lt$ral heritage preser%ation- r$ral de%elopment- nat$re conser%ation and forestry- to cite D$st a few. The role of the landscape and therefore its perception has changed thro$gh timeF it is no longer D$st a @c$lt$ral? aspect- intended as an elitist phenomenon- isolated from the socio:economic aspect- b$t emerges as an essential element in the interpretation of a modern approach to s$stainable de%elopment- far from paradigmatic %iews- b$t close to the needs of a large part of society in the whole world. It is not $sef$l to report all the many de.nitions $sed to describe c$lt$ral landscapes- a matter for which more than a single chapter wo$ld be needed- b$t there are words that li%e in o$r minds more than others- also affecting the way to %iew research matters. In this respect- the de.nition gi%en by Carl 3a$er in )0.9 has the ad%antage of s$mmariBing m$ch of the core concept4 @The c$lt$ral landscape is fashioned from a nat$ral landscape by a c$lt$re gro$p. C$lt$re is the agent- the nat$ral area the medi$m- the c$lt$ral landscapes the res$lt?. It is interesting to note that in those same years the Italian philosopher Benedetto Croce promoted the first law protecting landscape in Italymostly based on the concept of the preser%ation of aesthetic %al$es- an interesting b$t %ery different approach- close to what Italy has represented since the end of the ) th cent$ry when the tra%ellers of the @Hrand to$r? Do$rneyed across ,$rope- a trip $ndertaken by many ,$ropean men of letters and philosophers to widen their c$lt$ral backgro$nd. A more modern concept considers c$lt$ral landscapes to be the e'pression of historical integration between social- economical and en%ironmental factors- in.$: encing all aspects of de%elopment. According to the ,$ropean =andscape Con%ention- landscape constit$tes a reso$rce fa%o$rable to economic acti%ity- contrib$ting to h$man well being and consolidation of c$lt$ral identity. At world le%el there is an e%ident trend towards degradation and the creation of less %al$able landscapes- $p to the point that c$lt$ral landscapes are often more endangered than nat$re. Their conser%ation imposes choices that are not easily made- along with the re%ision of some past orientations in the .elds of agric$lt$re- forestry and nat$re conser%ation.

The Conservation of Cultural 'eritage

1ntil recently- international doc$ments regarding s$stainable de%elopment said
< CAB International .**9. T%e #onservation of #ultural Landsca5es 7ed. #. Agnoletti8

#. Agnoletti

little abo$t c$lt$ral landscapes. The 3tockholm declaration of )0!. and the Br$ntland Aeport in )0 ! did not refer to landscape- while Agenda .) 7)00.8 had some reference to this matter- b$t witho$t clearly addressing it. In .**/- the &AO HIAH3 proDect 7Hlobally Important Ingenio$s Agric$lt$ral Heritage 3ystems8 clearly addressed the relationships between agric$lt$ral heritage systems and their landscape. Howe%er- the main speci.c tool a%ailable at world le%el for the conser%ation of c$lt$ral landscapes is s$rely the World Heritage Con%ention 7WHC8 of 1N,3CO 7)0!.8. At a ,$ropean le%el the ,$ropean =andscape Con%ention 7,=C8 is the most comprehensi%e proposal applying to the entire territory- while the >an:,$ropean Biological and =andscape +i%ersity 3trategy set $p for the period )009C.*)9 offers a more speci.c approach- as also described in the chapter by 3chenk. It is %ery signi.cant that c$lt$ral landscapes 7C=8 ha%e only recently been introd$ced into the World Heritage Con%ention 7)00.8. Before that time the con%ention was mainly protecting nat$ral heritage and c$lt$ral heritage- the latter concerning mostly mon$ments or architect$ral assets- with emphasis placed on the aesthetic. According to the WHC- c$lt$ral landscapes represent the @combined work of nat$re and of man. They are ill$strati%e of the e%ol$tion of h$man society and settlements o%er time- $nder the in.$ence of the physical constraints andIor opport$nities presented by their nat$ral en%ironment and of s$ccessi%e social- economic and c$lt$ral forces- both e'ternal and internal?. The three categories selected to classify C= and incl$de them in the World Heritage =ist 7WH=8 of protected properties are4 7i8 @a clearly defined landscape?- mostly referring to parks and gardensF 7ii8 @organically e%ol%ed landscapes?di%ided into two s$bcategories 7a8 @relict and fossil landscapes? and 7b8 @contin$ing landscape?F and 7iii8 @associati%e landscapes?. Item 7ii8 more speci.cally refers to the feat$res res$lting from the action of forestry and agric$lt$re shaping the land- while item 7iii8 is more linked to the intangible %al$e created by manCnat$re relations.

There are si' cr$cial c$lt$ral criteria $sed for the incl$sion of properties in the WH=- which m$st also meet the test of @a$thenticity? to satisfy the criterion of being of $ni%ersal %al$e- as well as possessing @$niG$eness?- @signi.cance? and @integrity?. All these criteria s$ggest the cr$cial role of landscape assessment and the importance of the methodologies $sed for their assesment. As stated in the recent 1N,3CO world paper n. 9e%al$ation has already become increasingly diffic$lt- mostly beca$se of the absence of comparati%e st$dies- an @o$tstanding need? for places like ,$rope characteriBed by an @e'traordinary? %ariety of farmed landscapes 7&owler.**/8. Howe%erattention to methodologies is still needed. +$ring some lect$res at the ICCAO# in Aome in .**.- one of the ad%isory bodies of WHC- it was e%ident how the backgro$nd of st$dents coming from many different co$ntries of the world was basically well s$ited to analyse proposed properties- mostly $sing classic historical- archaeological or ethno: anthropological research. On the other handmodern techniG$es based on m$lti:temporal analysis- remote sensing and assessments of land $se changes- together with all the techniG$es today a%ailable in the .eld of forest and woodland history or historical ecology- necessary for $nderstanding landscape changes and assessing a$thenticity- significance- and integrity- were m$ch less known and mastered. In this respect this book offers a contrib$tion proposing not only specific methods as e'plained in the .rst part by Jstl$nd and Bergman- Tello et al. and Chirici et al.- b$t also presenting comparati%e approachesas e'plained for T$scany. In fact- altho$gh different gro$ps of people may ha%e different perceptions of what a %al$able landscape is- it is clear that a dynamic e%al$ation is needed to $nderstand the traDectory of a landscape system and recogniBe which elements ha%e become a %al$e and which ha%e not- while similar methodologies applied to different sites offer better chances to assess landscape- especially when trying to e%al$ate speci.c elements 7e.g. chestn$t woods- %ineyards-

Introd$ction4 &raming the Iss$e

terraces- etc.8 that may present different %al$es in different conte'ts. On the other hand- this e%al$ation also meets the reG$irements of the ,=C whose speci.c meas$res reG$ire identi.cation- analysis of changes and assessment of landscapes in each co$ntry. It is also worth noting the potential offered by the approach of Tello et al.- where a traditional c$lt$ral landscape is also analysed from the point of %iew of energy .ows- offering a possibly %al$able tool for m$ltiple analysis- partic$larly important for assessing s$stainability. The approach of 1N,3CO is meant to sa%e speci.c sites and in fact the criticism coming from the Co$ncil of ,$rope- s$ggesting an @elitist? approach- is symptomatic of the different %iewsperspecti%es and goals of the ,$ropean =andscape Con%ention 7,=C8 and WH=. Act$ally- the two processes are not comparable. The WH= cannot be $sed as a primary instr$ment for the simple matter of the dif.c$lty of incl$ding all %al$able c$lt$ral landscapes in the list and s$bmitting them all to a management system as reG$ested. In this respect the ,=C might be a more powerf$l tool- addressing the matters of policiesG$ality obDecti%esprotectionmanagement and planning for ,$ropean 1nion 7,18 landscapes at national and regional le%elfacilitating a process that is going to affect go%ernance. As at ! K$ne .**9- ten states had signed it and ./ more had signed and ratifiedaccepted or appro%ed. The fact that landscape m$st be recogniBed and protected independently from its %al$e does not pre%ent the selection of speci.c properties of special signi.cance- also beca$se altho$gh there are many opport$nities to establish nat$re protection areas in ,$rope- there are no similar instr$ments to protect c$lt$ral landscapes. This simple consideration co$ld open a long disc$ssion abo$t the idea of @nat$re? and @c$lt$re? in modern societies. Howe%er- for now the WH= represents the only chance to protect c$lt$ral landscapes of special importance- $nless proponents accept a sort of $nclear mi't$re between nat$ral and c$lt$ral %al$es- also proposed in some de.nitions of WH c$lt$ral landscapes and the ,1 Habitats directi%e- where

c$lt$ral %al$es co$ld be sa%ed within the framework of nat$re conser%ation- ob%io$sly a G$ite pec$liar angle from which to look at the problem. These are some of the problems enco$n: tered with the proposal of creating a landscape park in the Apennine mo$ntains in #oscheta 7Italy8 described in the book- ampli.ed by the fact that restoring a wood past$re from a wood is simply forbidden by law- since woodlands cannot be red$ced in their e'tension. It is also time to red$ce the arti.cial separation between nat$ral and c$lt$ral %al$es typical of many conser%ation approachesF in the world today the nat$ral system is well embedded into the socio:economic system- affecting all its feat$res. Howe%er- an effecti%e conser%ation of c$lt$ral landscapes cannot be done witho$t interfering with the processes affecting their dynamics and also with the way s$stain:ability is percei%ed and applied.

Agriculture and "ural &evelopment

The dynamics of r$ral landscape are triggered by socio:economic de%elopments affecting the r$ral world. The techniG$es $sed in traditional societies- $s$ally before the technological de%elopment of mechaniBation and chemical fertiliBers- created %al$able c$lt$ral landscapes where the strict relationship between man and the land o%er a long time period has acc$m$lated %al$es- stratifying them in the physical components of the territory. The different forms of .elds and woodlands- the $se of tree species for hedgerows and mi'ed c$lti%ation- the $se of .re C an often mis$nderstood ecological agent- as %ery well e%idenced by #etailiL C ha%e created an e'traordinary %ariety of landscapes. ,$rope is a good e'ample of this di%ersity if we look closely at landscapes along a gradient northCso$th and eastCwest- as presented by se%eral chapters in this bookF b$t a great degree of di%ersity can be $nderstood also in the chapters describing North America. The changes in technology- c$lt$re and economy at world le%el are threatening traditional landscapes- incl$ding the biodi%ersity on which they are based- b$t also

#. Agn olett i

the str$ct$re of r$ral society. Comple' c$lt$ral landscapes typical of densely pop$lated regions and landscapes where the pop$lation had to establish speci.c management practices to adapt to the local en%ironment are rapidly disappearing. &armers are often compelled to de%elop inno%ation and to adopt $ns$stainable practiceso%ere'ploiting reso$rces and also contrib$ting to the genetic erosion and loss of the c$lt$ral identity of places- interr$pting the transmission of important heritage from one generation to another. This acc$m$lated knowledge and e'perience in the management and $se of local reso$rces is a signi.cant wealth at world le%el e'pressing the c$lt$ral identity of each ethnic gro$p. 1nfort$nately- there has not been a clear recognition of the significance of landscape reso$rces in r$ral de%elopment strategies- as well as the role of r$ral landscape for society- not only in the international doc$ments concerning s$stainability- b$t also in policies. In this respectpolitical entities like the ,1 are %ery interesting case st$dies of the effects of a Common Agri: c$lt$ral >olicy 7CA>8 affecting different nations with different histories. According to the O,C+ 7OrganiBation for ,conomic Cooperation and +e%elopment8 definition- r$ral regions in the new ,1- open to ." co$ntries- represent 0.M of the territoryF "9M of the pop$lation li%es in r$ral regions- generating 6"M of gross %al$epro%iding "/M of the employment- while agric$lt$re and forestry represent !!M of land $se. +espite the e%ident importance of the r$ral regions for landscape G$ality and socio:economic aspects- we can easily concl$de that agric$lt$ral policy 7incl$ding forestry8 in the past decades has fa%o$red the degradation of c$lt$ral landscapes. The contrib$tion gi%en to technological de%elopment- prod$ction- setaside) and the

practices- homogeniBing landscape and often introd$cing new degradation- as described in the chapters abo$t T$scany and in the ). Aemo%al of c$lti%ated land from prod$ction. case of 3pain described by #ontiel #olina. There has been little recognition of the relationships between typical prod$cts and local landscapes- or ser%ices like agri: to$rism- based on landscape- and few actions for the conser%ation of the c$lt$ral %al$es of traditional landscapes- representing the c$lt$ral identity of the ,$ropean regions. &rom this point of %iew the new ,1 co$ntries in ,astern ,$ropedescribed in the chapter by Angelstam- will probably e'perience the same trends. The new ,1 agric$lt$re reform 7CA>8 offers f$rther possibilities- b$t also new threats to c$lt$ral landscapes- altho$gh m$ch will depend on the way regions $se this instr$ment. The new @single farm payment? independent from prod$ction is probably going to again fa%o$r the abandonment of traditional c$lti%ations$s$ally less rem$nerati%e for farmers- who will not be interested in sa%ing these types of c$lti%ation witho$t speci.c

meas$res fa%o$ring tree plantations in areas remo%ed from prod$ction ha%e contrib$ted to the dis: appearance of traditional c$lti%ation

meas$res. The lack of important initiati%es regarding the landscape is also tied to the will to defend the interests- howe%er lawf$l- of economic acti%ities which consider reg$lations abo$t the landscape limiting or possibly damaging to their acti%ity- not only in the ind$s: trial sector- b$t also in the agric$lt$ral one. There is also the idea that farming acti%ities always preser%e landscape G$ality- an atti: t$de historically criticiBable- b$t symptomatic of an opinion shared by many people. The A'is ) of CA> ,1 A$ral +e%elopment Aeg$lation .**!C.*)/ C @impro%ing competiti%eness of the agric$lt$re and forestry sector? C holds no indications concerning the de%elopment of the G$ality of agric$lt$ral prod$ction promoting landscape as an added %al$e. There is in fact an $nderestimation of the role of landscape within se%eral prod$cti%e sectors- foremost of which is %itic$lt$rewhich represents a power point for se%eral co$ntries. As shown by recent research carried o$t in T$scany- the market %al$e of the prod$ct @wine? largely consists of immaterial factors- among which the landscape 7e'pression of c$lt$re- history and en%ironmental G$ality8 represents the main component. Therefore- the prod$cer bases

Introd$ction4 &raming the Iss$e

m$ch of hisIher earnings on the e'ploitation of a reso$rce for whose maintenance one sho$ld in%est some reso$rces. The wine:makers know it %ery well- b$t few of them are in%esting money in this reso$rce. The @key actions? described in the CA> address the need to face increasing global competition- and landscape reso$rces co$ld easily help to reach this goal. &rom this aspect- the effort of se%eral co$ntries to incl$de some wine regions in the World Heritage =ist of 1N,3CO is G$ite signi.cant- as has already occ$rred for the TokaDi region in H$ngary. &or the Chianti region of Italy this has not been s$ccessf$l as yet beca$se of disagreement on the possible ad%antages and disad%antages- not among the winemakers- b$t among towns for the effects of the management system reG$ested by 1N,3CO on their $rban planning. It is also a matter of accepting the concept of a grad$al e%ol$tion from a merely prod$cti%e role to a role of territory preser%ation- which some farmers themsel%es still .nd hard to grasp. That is also one of the reasons why m$ch of the ,1 b$dget goes into agric$lt$re. In this respect- the reference to en%ironmental ser%ices in A'is .- recogniBing the farmers? role in deli%ering ser%ices s$ch as water and soil protection with no speci.c indications abo$t landscape- is also neglecting the fact that the abandonmemt of traditional practices may also increase hydro:geological risk. A'is . of ,1 r$ral de%elopment C @impro%ing en%ironment and co$ntryside? C might offer some possibilities- especially when it refers to preser%ing farmed landscapes. Howe%erit is not clear what is meant e'actly by protecting both nat$ral reso$rces and landscape in r$ral areas and the indicators s$ggested in the g$idelines for r$ral de%elopment do not help in this respect. The r$ral landscape is a c$lt$ral creation- therefore there is the need for caref$l e%al$ation when promoting more nat$reF p$shing for more renat$raliBation might work for hea%ily ind$strialiBed areas- b$t the $se of agri: en%ironmental meas$res to recreate traditional mi'ed c$lti%ations- wood past$res- tree rowspollard trees- hedges and landscape mosaics wo$ld often be better than recreating @pristine forests? e%en for ecological networks. We do not necessarily need large forest areas to connect habitats- while we sho$ld not conf$se the role of a @network? with its physical str$ct$re. Not only the chapters on 3o$thern ,$rope b$t also the one by Bradshaw and Hannon on 3weden describe traditional c$lti%ations- raising the iss$e of what is meant by the term @biodi%ersity? and the preser%a: tion of @high nat$re %al$e farming and forestry systems?- both in CA> and nat$re conser%ation strategies. It sho$ld be remembered that the loss of biodi%ersity is also linked to the red$ction of species introd$ced by farmers in some periods of history- as the Aomans did also by importing @nonnati%e? species from the orient. Biodi%ersity sho$ld also consider @spaces? created by the different land $ses- typical of many traditional landscapes. This di%ersity is today dramatically red$ced by abandonment and conseG$ent ad%ancement of forest %egetation on old .elds- or by the e'tension of mechaniBed monoc$lt$res. Therefore- meas$res concerning afforestation and also agri:en%ironmental meas$res need to be caref$lly e%al$ated since many wo$ld simply $se these s$bsidies beca$se they are there- despite the fact that what is really needed is something else. With regard to organic farming- which is a %ery positi%e initiati%e in many ways- it m$st be remembered that organic prod$cts can be made in 3icily or in 3weden- b$t their prod$ction does not ens$re the conser%ation of the landscape they come from. It is instead time to close the circle @G$ality of food C G$ality of the landscape?fa%o$ring a strong correlation between the two. A'is / of ,1 r$ral de%elopment C @the G$ality of life in r$ral areas and di%ersi.cation of r$ral economy? C co$ld act$ally represent a good opport$nity if di%ersi.cation into non:agric$lt$ral acti%ities co$ld incl$de ser%ices like the restoration and management of landscape and the promotion of agrito$rism- which wo$ld create new Dobs. To$rism has not always been seen as the direct res$lt of farming acti%ities C in other words- @ser%ices? are sometimes placed o$tside the r$ral world- b$t especially when

#. Agn oletti

they are tied to the appreciation of landscape reso$rces- they are clearly linked to the acti%ity of farmers. In this respect- the conser%ation of c$lt$ral landscapes might represent an economic opport$nity e%en witho$t ha%ing a prod$cti%e landscape in terms of crops. In other words- the simple maintenance of c$lt$ral landscape represents an economic acti%ity in itself- with people employed D$st for this p$rpose. 1nfort$nately- there is not a clear $nderstanding of how landscape affects e%en the $s$al to$rism formss$ch as those linked to m$se$ms or historic city centres- beca$se when many %isitors are tra%elling from one place to another it is also to appreciate the landscape. In this respect it is interesting to see how a large portion of this to$rism is presented as @ecoto$rism?- clearly proposing the iss$e of the appreciation of the nat$ral %al$es of territories- whereas they are mostly c$lt$ral. &rom this perspecti%e it is $sef$l to %iew what has happened in co$ntries like the 13A- where employment in landscape ser%ices has seen a spectac$lar growth between )0!. and .**/- accompanied by a strong decrease of entreprene$rs and employees in the traditional prod$cti%e acti%ities in agric$lt$re or forestry. It wo$ld not be $nrealistic to imagine a similar de%elopment especially for those regions offering important landscape reso$rces. One e'ample of interpreting the new CA> for landscape conser%ation co$ld be the de%elopment of strategies and actions for preser%ing and de%eloping landscape reso$rces thro$gh the national r$ral de%elopment plans. This has occ$rred in Italy- with the establishment of a commission for this p$rpose.

Forest 0trategies
The strategies concerning forestry- and the way s$stainable forest management 73&#8 has been interpreted- are playing an important role in %iew of the increasing e'tension of forest areas in the ,1. &orest and woodlands ha%e been mostly regarded as a so$rce of timber or of ecological %al$e. There has rarely been an appreciation of their c$lt$ral significance- $nless when referring to recreation or social %al$es. #ost of the traditional knowledge related to local management forms- timber assortments and the relationships between woodland and agric$lt$re typical of agro:forestry systems has been lost. Today this knowledge s$r%i%es in some niches in Western ,$rope and in de%eloping co$ntries- as described by Angelstam for ,astern ,$rope. The tendency to $se species better s$ited for prod$cti%e f$nctions- also thro$gh afforestation- and to re:nat$raliBe forests are rapidly deleting the e%idence of past c$lt$ral in.$ences. The 1nited Nations Conference on ,n%ironment and +e%elopment held in Aio in )00. adopted se%eral @forest principles?- meant to s$bmit the forests of the world to speci.c managements$pporting the de%elopment and implementation of criteria and indicators to clearly de.ne elements of 3&# and to monitor progress towards it. 3e%eral international meetings ha%e s$ggested some thematic elements as key components of 3&#4 e'tent of forest reso$rcesF biological di%ersityF forest health and %italityF prod$cti%e f$nctions of forest reso$rcesF protecti%e f$nctions of forest reso$rcesF socio:economic f$nctionsF legal- policy and instit$tional frameworks. These elements- also acknowledged by the 1nited Nations &or$m on &orests 71N&&8- re.ect the criteria of the nine ongoing regionalI international processes on criteria and indicators for 3&# and were acknowledged by the International Conference on Criteria and Indicators in H$atemala in &ebr$ary .**/ and by the &AO Committee on &orestry in .**/. In ,$rope- these indica : tions ha%e been incl$ded in the 3&# criteria endorsed by the #inisterial Conference for the >rotection of &orest in ,$rope 7#C>&,8- and are basically re.ecting the same %iew- incl$ding one more item con : cerning the role of forests as CO . sinks in criterion No. ). 3imilar criteria are $sed in the main certi.cation standards like >,&C 7>an:,$ropean &orest Certi.cation8 or &3C 7&orest 3tewardship Co$ncil8. The thematic elements- the criteria of #C>&,- and the certi.cation standards represent a sort of hierarchy of %al$es for forests and wood

Introd$ction4 &raming the Iss$e

lands. It is easy to note the absence of a real consideration of c$lt$ral %al$es in the list of indicators. We m$st look thro$gh the %ario$s chapters- partic$larly on socio:economic f$nctions- to .nd reference to this iss$e. This problem is well addressed for &3C- 3&I and >,&C by Anderson. The .rst main criteria@e'tent of forests?- which in #C>&, has been modi.ed to @maintenance and appropriate enhancement of forests and their contrib$tion to carbon cycle?- sho$ld probably meet the necessities of co$ntries with scarce forest co%er to increase their e'tent and the general feeling that more forest will mitigate climatic change in respect to global warming. Howe%er- especially in ,$rope- the f$rther e'tension of forest land is probably not the main problem in 3&#- considering the increase occ$rring at least from the second half of the .*th cent$ry. In Italy- forests ha%e increased almost threefold since )0**- b$t it is G$estionable that this increase had a signi.cant effect on mitigating global or local warming since they represent abo$t *..)C*.."M of world forestsF therefore their possible contrib$tion can only be estimated according to this .g$re. On the contrary- the c$lt$ral %al$e of the forest landscape and its contrib$tion to the world?s c$lt$ral heritage wo$ld be probably higher. The rele%ance of c$lt$ral- historical and landscape %al$es in ,$rope co$ld well represent one of the main criteria of 3&#. Aecently the #C>&,according to an initiati%e started by the A$strian go%ernment d$ring the Nienna conference of .**/- has started a re.ection on this iss$e- re.ected by Aesol$tion /. Two international meetings to disc$ss the implementation of c$lt$ral- historical and landscape %al$es in 3&# were organiBed in .**" and .**9in%ol%ing I1&AO- #C>&,- 1N,3CO- WHC- 1N&&- ,$ropean =andscape Con%ention and &AO. After the last meeting in &lorence- a gro$p of e'perts for the enhancement of indicators and g$idelines was created 7Agnoletti et al.- .**98. It has been acknowledged that recogniBing the c$lt$ral origin of ,1 forests cannot be red$ced to the matter of sa%ing partic$lar sites somewhere on the conti nent- b$t acknowledge the c$lt$ral origin of ,1 forests and .nd a way of managing them according to this perspecti%e. In this respect- the recent %ision and strategies of the ,1 &orest Action >lan- are worth comment. In the doc$ment the role of c$lt$re is not really addressed- altho$gh the te't recalls the #C>&, meeting in Nienna of .**/. Therefore- the international acti%ity pre%io$sly mentioned has not been taken m$ch into acco$nt- as well as almost a cent$ry of in%estigations in forest history and c$lt$ral heritage. Concerning the m$ltiple f$nctions of forestry- economic- ecological and social f$nctions are the main themes. Among the en%ironmental f$nctions- landscape is recalled as an element of ecological stability and integrity- b$t the doc$ment seems to refer to nat$ral %al$es rather than c$lt$ral landscapes. It m$st be remembered that more nat$re might also mean deleting c$lt$ral %al$es- e'pressed by traditional practices- like different forms of coppice woods- pollard trees- chestn$t orchards- and wood past$reswhich are going to disappear if left to nat$ral processes. #oreo%er- as in other directi%es- $sing the word @nat$re? to describe c$lt$ral land scapes creates mental associations p$tting landscape management into nat$re conser%ation. This often leads to the erroneo$s ass$mption that by protecting nat$re we always protect landscapes. In the chapter abo$t the @%al$es of forests and forestry?- @social f$nctions? might offer some opport$nities to protect landscapes. ,specially when referred to make r$ral areas attracti%e for li%ingpro%iding recreational opport$nities- b$t also when mentioning that forests represent a c$lt$ral heritage. Concerning the @key actions?- the doc$ment proposes the str$ct$re of the CA> and its many a'es- b$t it is worth noting that c$lt$re and landscape are not mentioned in the ) key actions listed. An important opport$nity- at least for monitoring landscape- co$ld be the implementation of the proposed @,$ropean &orest #onitoring 3ystem? if properly designed. The en%ironmental obDecti%es are recalling the goal to halt the loss of biodi%ersity by .*)* b$t- according to past e'periences- biodi%ersity will probably be mostly referred to species and nat$ral habitats- not to landscape di%ersity. Together with the protection of @integrity? and pre%ention of @fragmentation? of forests- this will probably fa%o$r the f$rther e'tension of forest land- and the strong red$ction of the resid$al landscape di%ersity. These %iews- howe%er- are also a res$lt of the general approach to en%ironmental conser%ation.

.ature Conservation
The ,$ropean 1nion has achie%ed a really important obDecti%e- establishing a network of protected areas for the management of ,$rope?s nat$ral heritage. The ,$ropean Comm$nity has grad$ally been implementing a policy on its territory starting from )0!/. The priorities were established in the .rst Action >rogramme for the ,n%ironment. In the following decades- speci.c financial instr$ments were created for nat$re conser%ation and a long series of directi%es ha%e been enhanced. Among the most interesting ones are the Habitat +irecti%e and the Bird +irecti%e aimed at protecting wildlife species and their habitats. #ember states ha%e identi.ed special areas of conser%ation and sho$ld draw $p man : agement plans combining their long:term preser%ation @with people?s economic and social acti%ities?- to create a s$stainable de%elopment strategy. The directi%es identify some .** types of habitats- .** animals and o%er "** plant species as being of comm$nity interest and reG$iring protection. A scienti.c assessment on a national le%el of each habitat or species of comm$nity interest was made for this p$rpose and protected sites ha%e been identi.ed and proposed in the form of national lists presented to the ,$ropean Commission- now forming the Nat$ra .*** network. Any action not directly connected with the management of the site- b$t likely to ha%e a signi.cant effect- m$st be s$bDected to appropriate assessment in %iew of the site?s conser%ation obDecti%es. Altho$gh the Habitat +irecti%e contains speci.c reference to socio:economic de%elopment and seems to offer a chance for a positi%e integration of the protected areas with c$lt$ral landscapes- the establishment of these areas is presenting contradictions. The need to identify the areas- according to a .'ed list of habitats mainly foc$sed on nat$ral @species? and not on @species? and @spaces? related to land $ses- has created sit$ations in which the c$lt$ral origin of many areas is sometimes neglected presenting nat$ralness where it plays a minor role. &$rthermore- the r$les clearly state that any action that is going to fragment or affect density and composition of these habitats is to be a%oided. Therefore- not only the fragmentation typical of many historical landscape mosaics- b$t also the action of man needed to preser%e these areas can be seen as potentially dangero$s- or e%en forbidden according to the way the @e%al$ation of incidence?- a sort of en%ironmental impact assessment for protected areas- is carried o$t. The potential- b$t in many cases already effecti%e- con.icts that ha%e arisen are the res$lt of a certain %iew interpreting s$stain:ability at global le%el. The original problem probably relates to the approach to s$stain:ability that has been largely affected by the @degradation? paradigm- emphasiBing the negati%e role of man in the en%ironment- as an agent depleting the ideal state of @nat$ral ness?- considered the most desirable for the life of li%ing organisms and the o%erall G$ality of the biosphere. Altho$gh the degradation of the en%ironment is $ndo$btedly a reality and a threat affecting the world- se%eral in%estigations carried o$t in the .eld of forest and woodland history and historical ecology- b$t today generally incl$ded in the wider framework of en%ironmental history- indicated a wide n$mber of cases where man has created %al$able landscapes- not only from a c$lt$ral %al$e standpoint- b$t also from an ecological point of %iew- enhancing biodi%ersity and impro%ing the conditions of the en%ironment. The approach to biodi%ersity has often neglected the di%ersity of spaces- generating a red$cti%e interpretation of nat$re conser%ation and also promoting %iews pertaining only to certain scienti.c gro$ps. The chapter on T$scany in >art I shows that

Introd$ction4 &raming the Iss$e

6 M of the di%ersity has been lost in the last .** years- b$t no agencies are e%al$ating the probleme%en in the monitoring of en%ironmental conditions- or in the management of protected areas. Howe%er- the res$lt of the research presented in this %ol$me has con%inced the ser%ice of nat$re conser%ation in T$scany to promote new g$idelines for the conser%ation and management of landscape in protected areasproposing also to establish a monitoring system for this speci.c problem. There are clearly $ncertainties in the way biodi%ersity sho$ld be managed. Howe%er- it is not s$rprising that many forest and woodland areas are described as ha%ing mostly nat$ral and semi:nat$ral feat$res and how policies descending from this interpretation will apply an ecological approach to their management. There wo$ld be instead the need for promoting proDects for landscape restoration considering that the @combination of h$man inter%ention and nat$ral processes has often created places for $tility and bea$ty- of nat$re and c$lt$re?- as stated by +iamant- #arts and #itchell in their chapter. Howe%er- there is also the need for a dynamic management of c$lt$ral landscapesincl$ding them in the socioeconomic process and not only in special conser%ation areas. In this respect- the chapter abo$t #oscheta and those by Aotherham- =atB- Barbera et al.- #OtailiO and Kohann present approaches and methodologies s$ited for different cases.

Conclusions
Besides the economic aspects- there is also the matter of c$lt$ral sensibility- which still has to be stim$lated for a f$ll $nderstanding of the problem by administrators- scholars and the p$blic. It is often said that the landscape is a percepti%e category- which cannot be obDecti.ed- as if its %al$es were e'cl$si%ely immaterial and co$ld

not .nd their concrete representation in the territory. The limit of s$ch a concept is clearly identi.able in the analogy with the $rban sectorwhere in a not:too:distant past it was not a fore: gone concl$sion that the preser%ation of the architect$ral str$ct$re of a historical city centre had to come .rst. The recognition of the %al$es tied to architect$ral assets was also the res$lt of a c$lt$ral mat$ration- which considers the str$ct$re of a b$ilding as a %al$e to be preser%ed- not different- from a concept$al point of %iew- from that represented by a terracing- a row of maples and %ines or an ancient chestn$t gro%e. An important difference lies in the fact that the r$ral landscape- with its woods- .elds and- thereforeli%ing elements- is often characteriBed by a higher dynamism- whereas both of them can be $sed for economic ends. The desire to li%e in a farmho$se or restore a historic b$ilding in a city centre is certainly not connected with a higher management economy 7if anything it is the contrary8- while the maintenance of an old mi'ed oli%e orchard- a wood past$re- or a hedge cannot be proposed from a perspecti%e which aims at ma'imiBing pro.ts- b$t for the whole range of %al$es they represent. Certainly c$lt$ral landscapes re.ect the e%ol$tion of h$manity and its interrelationships with nat$re- res$lting not only in o$tstanding aesthetic bea$ty- the maintenance of biodi%ersity and %al$able ecosystems- b$t also pro%iding m$ltiple goodsser%ices and G$ality of life- which is a fairly good way of interpreting s$stainability. As recalled by the &AO- it is perhaps time to pay more attention to c$lt$ral landscapes and their contrib$tion to the nat$ral and c$lt$ral heritage of the worldestablishing the basis for their global recognitiondynamic conser%ation and management in the face of economic and c$lt$ral globaliBation.

"eference

&owler- >.K. 7.**/8 ,orld +eritage #ultural Landsca5es. WH papers 9- 1N,3CO WHC- >aris. Agnoletti- #.- >arrotta- K. and Kohann- ,. 7.**98 #ultural +eritage and *ustainable Forest Management; t%e ole of Traditional 'no-ledge. #C>&,- Warsaw.

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>art I

Anal!sis

There are many ways of interpreting and st$dying a landscape. The analysis of single species pop$lating a small plot of land and remote sensing techniG$es analysing entire co$ntries are both common tools a%ailable to the many scholars in%ol%ed in landscape st$dies aro$nd the world- allowing consideration of different geographical and time scales. Indeed- one of the most dif.c$lt things is to combine the approacheschoosing the right combination of methods to p$t into e%idence the comple'ities that landscape reso$rces always represent. The approaches presented in >art I offer a continental perspecti%e for ,$rope- analysing the different roles of h$man in.$ence in shaping the land in two %ery different areas in the north of 3weden and in the #editerranean area. There is an e%ident different degree of c$lt$ral feat$res presented by the two areas- b$t it is important to note that both of them ha%e been- and still arein.$enced by man- altho$gh at different le%els. If the problem in northern 3weden may be the one of sa%ing some of the remaining c$lt$ral e%idence of the indigeno$s pop$lations that once li%ed there- the matter for T$scany and 3pain is rather to preser%e the c$lt$ral %al$es of an entire region threatened by a whole set of changes ind$ced by socio:economic de%elopment and by c$rrent political decisions. The chapter on T$scany is the res$lt of an attempt to de%elop a comparati%e approach- analysing se%eral st$dy areas according to the same

methodology in order to ha%e a better $nderstanding of the trends and also to de%elop e%al$ating tools s$ited to c$lt$ral landscapes. The foc$s on @spaces? was chosen- among other possible ones- to stress the lack of attention to the dramatic red$ction of di%ersity of spaces 76 M8 that has occ$rred in the T$scan territory in the last .** years. By far the most important change occ$rred at regional le%el- b$t was not addressed in speci.c policies in r$ral de%elopment or nat$re conser%ation- which also affects other landscapes in the world. ,%ery c$lt$ral landscape has its own spatial str$ct$re- b$t it is important to st$dy this feat$re in relation to socioeconomic in.$ences in order to identify the c$lt$ral identity represented by the spatial str$ct$re. In this respect- Chapter 6- foc$s: ing on the application of sophisticated tools and techniG$es for assessing land $se- $nderstanding of land $se history and its linkage to eco: biological and socio:c$lt$ral processes- presents a wide n$mber of methods specifically designed for this p$rpose. When caref$lly calibrated- these are powerf$l tools in the hands of planners and managers. A %ery interesting and effecti%e way of analysing c$lt$ral landscapes

>art I4 Analysis

and their role is presented in the st$dy abo$t the Catalan area of 3pain 7Chapter /8. The chapter analyses the anatomy of the landscape by re%ealing its str$ct$re- referring to its physiology rather than its appearance- $sing the social

metabolism approach. Agric$lt$re models that co$ld attain the highest energy yields witho$t relying on a large amo$nt of e'ternal inp$t are therefore presented as a %ery good e'ample of s$stainability- an approach in line with a %ery modern way of assessing traditional c$lt$res and their landscapes- facing the ecological footprint of globaliBation.

% The &evelopment of a 'istorical and Cultural

Evaluation Approach in Landscape Assessment: the &!namic of Tuscan Landscape bet)een %*(+ and +,,#. Agnoletti) 1e5artment of Environmental Forestry *cience and Tec%nology, Universit= di Firen4e, Florence, Italy

Introduction The st$dy of landscape has been largely in.$enced by two main streams of scienti.c thinking- the .rst one dominated by historical st$dies- mostly concentrating on the role of man as a c$lt$ral agent- b$t with a red$ced interest in the str$ct$re and f$nctions of landscape patterns- the second affected by the ecologic approach- interested in e'plaining landscapes at an ecosystem le%el. These different %iews ha%e also de%eloped different methodologies- altho$gh both of them- especially the ecological one- ha%e been largely affected by the theory of @degradationism?- emphasiBing the negati%e role of man in the en%ironment- as an agent depleting the ideal state of @nat$ralness?. As already stressed by se%eral in%estigations carried o$t in the .eld of forest history and ecological history- b$t today generally incl$ded in the wider framework of en%ironmental history- there are a wide n$mber of cases where the theory of degradation d$e to h$man infl$ence cannot be applied- where man has created %al$able landscapes- from both a c$lt$ral and an ecological point of %iew- enhancing biodi%ersity and impro%ing the condition of the en%ironment. In the last fo$r decades ecological planning- by far the leading approach at

world le%el- has clearly taken h$man ab$se of landscape as the dri%ing philosophical concept- while bringing h$man actions into t$ne with nat$ral processes has been the common strategy of almost all the approaches- with little s$ccess in bringing c$lt$re as a main iss$e into planning. On the other hand- ecology has traditionally tried to obtain laws regarding ecosystems- in%estigating en%ironments relati%ely $naffected by man 7#cHarg- )0 )8. This res$lted in an o%er:emphasis on nat$ral processes- not only in planning- b$t also in ecosystem management- altho$gh no systems today are $naffected by man 7Nogt et al., )00!8. ,%en @applied h$man ecology?- considered an alternati%e to ecological planning- did not s$cceed in the attempt to s$ccessf$lly incl$de the role of man and the role of time in planning- not e%en with the de%elopment of landscape ecology 7Nd$bisi- .**.8. Also in co$ntries like Italy- m$ch of the emphasis is still p$t on geomorphology or ecological patterns in e'plaining < CAB International .**9. T%e #onservation of #ultural Landsca5es 7ed. #. Agnoletti8

#. Agnoletti
landscape str$ct$re and planning 7>ignatti- )006F Aomani- )006F &arina- )00 8- with a relati%ely red$ced interest in h$man in.$ence- often res$lting in an arti.cial di%ision between nat$ral feat$res and anthropogenic feat$res of the territory. Therefore- there is still the need to de%elop speci.c methodologies to assess h$man in.$ence- incl$ding modern historical research into landscape analysis- a history no more limited to the $se of written or printed so$rces b$t able to combine different tools and techniG$es 7Agnoletti- .***8. The case presented here proposes an approach taking c$lt$re and history as the central philosophical paradigm to $nderstand landscape changes and de%elop a planning approach.

c2ground: is Landscape in =ood 0hapeK

T$scany is known all o%er the world for the G$ality of its c$lt$ral landscape- a heritage b$ilt thro$gh cent$ries of h$man in.$ence- b$t today also an important economic reso$rce. Altho$gh being a region where s$stainability is the concept on which the most important regional law is based. and en%ironmental directi%es

and landscape protection ha%e greatly de%eloped- there was a growing feeling shared by se%eral scholars and administrators that the G$ality of landscape had degraded in the past decades. This feeling was not only based on the %is$al effects of $rban de%elopment- b$t mostly concerned with the G$ality of r$ral landscape- e%en in protected areas. This impression was not in t$ne with all the reports on G$ality of airwater- soil and biodi%ersity- as well as on certi.cation standards- which showed a fairly good degree of .tness of the regional territory according to

the way s$stainable de%elopment is percei%ed and applied 7Calistri.**.8. In order to ha%e a clearer %iew of this problem- the +I3TA& of the 1ni%ersity of &lorence-/ in collaboration with the regional go%ernment- promoted a research proDect p$tting together se%eral research instit$tions coordinated by the a$thor. The research team in%ol%ed scholars from the fields of historyagric$lt$reforestryeconomy- ecology and geography. The proDect had the main goal of de%eloping a methodology based on the e%al$ation of landscape dynamics- selecting an appropriate spatial and temporal scale- with special attention to factors and processes originating landscape change and the G$ality of the changes. The e'pected res$lt was the prod$ction of a state:of:the: knowledge report enabling identi.cation of the dynamics of landscape- de%eloping a monitoring system for landscape G$ality. Materials and methods Considering the dif.c$lties of $nderstanding a c$lt$ral landscape e%en in its ecological components witho$t a historical perspecti%e 7#otBkin et al., )0098- especially in the #editerranean region 7Na%eh-

)00)F Hro%e and Aackham .**)F Agnoletti- .**"a-b8- history was not considered an option- b$t the central part of the method- aiming to $nderstand the traDectory of land: scape systems- indicating %al$escriticalities- degradations and threats. The methodology de%eloped 7see &ig. ).)8 did not ha%e as its main goal to e'press an ecological e%al$ation- considering the role and the action of man in the ecosystem. In other words- man was not considered one of the elements $s$ally listed in the models $sed to e'plain the relationships among the %ario$s biotic and abiotic elements across the landscape- b$t the @main? actor in the hierarchy of factors and processes affecting and directing e%ol$tion and biodi%ersity. Inside the working gro$p there was an agreement that it wo$ld not be $sef$l to concentrate on past e'periences gi%ing a strong emphasis on geomorphological feat$res- or %egetation models $sed to describe landscape- b$t to foc$s on what was already appearing rele%ant in some of the most interesting st$diesaltho$gh not f$lly addressed 7Nos and 3tortelder- )00.8. Thereforemost of the attention was gi%en to @spaces? linked to land $ses and their changes thro$gh time- by far the most rele%ant iss$e in the historical dynamic of the landscape of T$scanyalso concerning biodi%ersity- b$t not addressed by official in%estigation 7Calistri- .**.8. There is in fact a

clear relationship between biodi%er: sity and land $ses shaping traditional landscapesoften representing %al$able @habitats? for .ora and fa$na 7Wagner et al.- .***F Ata$ri and +e =$cio- .**)F Ortega et al., .**68. Another important aspect of the methodology was the intention to prod$ce a comparati%e st$dyanalysing many different areas with the same method- meeting also the recent recommendations of 1N,3CO for c$lt$ral landscapes 7&owler- .**/8- in order to match the great %ariety of landscapes e'isting in T$scany.

The research meant to co%er the following points4 ). Identi.cation of the nat$ral and h$man factors responsible for landscape changes. .. +e.nition of str$ct$ral typologies and e%ol$tionary patterns. /. +e.nition of the historical and c$lt$ral %al$e. 6. +etermination of the economic %al$e of landscape reso$rces. ># +e.nition of management and protection criteria. To achie%e these goals d$ring a ": year period starting in .***- the proDect selected and analysed )/ st$dy areas co%ering ./-!"/ haappro'imately )M of the regional territory. The selection of the areas was made according to the following criteria4 ). To co%er the main geographical areas of T$scany4 Apennine mo$ntains- central hills- coastal strip. .. To incl$de territories with ongoing agric$lt$ral and forest acti%ities- abandoned areas and areas placed inside the regional network of protected areas. /. To pro%ide e%idence and so$rces to D$stify landscape changes. The areas selected 7&ig. )..8 represent the geography of the region G$ite well. In fact- nine areas are

located in the hilly regionrepresenting 9"M of the whole terri: toryF two are located in the mo$ntains 7."M8- and two on plains along the coast. 3ome of the areas also incl$de plains- res$lting from the selection of limits incl$ding portions of hills and plains. The

#. Ag nol etti
choice of making st$dy areas was preferred to methods applied in monitoring or in%entories$sing remote sensing techniG$es and statistical grids 7&arina- )00 F 2Phl- .**/8. This method allowed the selection of locations and siBes fa%o$ring a good $nderstanding of the str$ct$re of the landscape at the le%el of farming $nitsfacilitating the analysis of the di%ersity of landscape mosaics. This meant the selection of areas incl$ding one or more farming estatesaccording to the traditional sharecrop system feat$red in the T$scan r$ral economy- with an a%erage siBe of )***C.*** ha- facilitated by the a%ailability of written so$rces preser%ed in p$blic and pri%ate archi%es and oral so$rces for recent periods. In order to de%elop a dynamic pict$re of landscape changes- a fairly e'tended time scale was chosen- selecting three historical moments with different kinds of doc$ments a%ailable4 ) /.)0"6- .*** 7see &ig. ).)8. There is an ob%io$sly m$ch longer period that co$ld be analysed- b$t there was the need to stay away from descriptions already e'isting in literat$re 7Hreppi- )00*F Carandini and Cambi- .**.8- b$t with no detailed descriptions of land $ses and their origins. The year ) /. was chosen beca$se of the a%ailability of a detailed s$r%ey represented by the T$scan =and Aegister- the cadastre describing almost all the territory on a scale of )4"***- started by the &rench at the end of the ) th cent$ry and contin$ed by the =orena Hrand +$ke after the restoration of the Hrand +$chy of T$scany. This period probably also represents the age with the highest comple'ity of landscape patterns- d$e to the strong de%elopment of agric$lt$re and demographic growth- altho$gh an e%en higher comple'ity co$ld be registered in the second part of the )0th cent$ry 7Agnoletti- .**.8. The black and white aerial photographs of )0"6 are instead considered the last pict$res of the traditional r$ral T$scan landscape- doc$menting the years before the de%elopment of mechaniBation- the $se of chemical fertiliBers and the abandonment of many

Fig# %#+# =ocation of st$dy areas.

farms d$e to ind$strial de%elopment- the so: called Italian @economic miracle?. The $se of colo$r digital aerial orthophotos of the year .*** allowed $s to analyse the present landscape- b$t their interpretation was accompanied by .eld work to check the data collected. 6 All the

material was digitaliBed incl$ded in a HI3 database.

and

Analyses based on historical photos and cadastral maps ha%e already been de%eloped not only in T$scany 7Nos and 3tortelder- )00.F Agnoletti and >aci- )00 8- b$t also by Iseh for 3weden 7)0 8- &oster et al. in the 13A 7)00 8 and 2nowles 7.**.8. Howe%er- in this proDect a systematic methodology was applied to all the st$dy areas- de%eloping tools to compare different years and specific indices to e%al$ate the historical %al$e of the territory analysed- also described in the chapter abo$t #oscheta. +ifferent so$rces were $sed and integrated 7oral inter%iews- written so$rcessampling plots8 while speci.c in%estigations on economic %al$e and social perceptions were carried o$t by means of inter%iews with residents and to$rists 7see &ig. )./8. The feat$res of the landscape mosaic were st$died in each area detected. 3$r%eys of the indi%id$al stands were also $ndertaken to st$dy the distrib$tion mechanisms of the %egetation. These st$dies co%ered the identi.cation of the str$ct$ral and e%ol$tionary types in abandoned fields- past$res and forests. 3ome transects were also made to $nder: stand the .oristic di%ersities. 3ynchronic comparisons %eri.ed the le%el of .oristic di%ersity between identical types of crops- especially in the presence of secondary s$ccessions. In some areas speci.c st$dies on soil and geology were

carried o$t to s$pport the interpretation of changes in land $se types. In%estigations were also e'tended to s$pply f$rther data in case of specific trends or iss$es- s$ch as the e'tension of conifer forests for afforestation or of %ineyards d$e to recent market de%elopments. +ifferent le%els of analysis were de%eloped. The main dynamics were synthesiBed in graphs- while a more detailed e%al$ation $sed a cross tab$lation

Fig# %#(# The a$thor d$ring an inter%iew with a l$mberman disc$ssing the feat$res of a traditional billhook $sed for pr$ning 7thanks to Hil =atB8.

#. Ag nol
matri' comparing each co$ple of years 7) /.I)0"6C)0"6I.***- ) /.C.***8. =andscape mosaics were confronted and e%al$ated also by $sing some of the indices $s$ally applied in landscape ecology. The categories selected for the legend after the e%al$ation to synthesiBe the main dynamics were4 b$ilt $p- deforestatione'tensi.cation- forestation- intensification- conifer e'pansions- stable. The category @stable? incl$ded the percentage of territory not affected by any change in the main land $se category 7e.g. woods- past$re- .elds- etc.8. This means that general categories s$ch as @woodlands?incl$ding se%eral different kinds of woodsremained @woodlands? in the period consideredb$t might show internal changes related to wood types. The indicator @b$ilt $p? refers mostly to $rban areas and material str$ct$res. In the cross tab$lations col$mns and lines allow one to check the dynamics of a speci.c land $se between the two periods considered 7see Table )..8. The information collected in this way is %ery $sef$l for many different kinds of e%al$ations- s$ch as secondary s$ccessionshydro:geological risk- technological changes- etc. 7Agnoletti- .**"a8- b$t partic$larly for the application of landscape ecology indices- for the constr$ction of the historical inde' 7HI8 and the e%al$ation of integrity- signi.cance and %$l: nerability of landscape 7&owler- .**/8- as well as for restoration p$rposes. 3impli.ed legends were $sed to compare information layers with different G$ality le%els 7e.g. photos of )0"6 and photos of .***8- while more detailed legends were $sed to describe the land $se for each year. This proced$re was also necessary to compare the sit$ation of ) /. presenting many land $sesin the year .***- generally showing a strong red$ction in the comple'ity of landscape mosaic. #aps showing the dynamics of the territory were prod$ced to enhance the $nderstanding of changes and their location in the st$dy area- as already done by &oster 7)00.8 and Nos and 3tortelder 7)00.8- b$t on a smaller scale and $sing HI3. To s$mmariBe- the analysis information on4 Q str$ct$re of the landscapeF

ett i

pro%ided

Q Q

dynamics of the landscapeF

str$ct$re of the indi%id$al landscape patchesF and Q R dynamics of the indi%id$al landscape patches. &or each st$dy area the following items were prod$ced4 Q land $se map ) /.F

Q Q Q

+igital ,le%ation #odel 7+,#8 of ) /. with land $seF graph of ) /. land $seF land $se map )0"6F"

Q +,# of )0"6 7)0 )8 with land $seF Q graph of )0"6 land $seF Q graph of general dynamics ) /.C)0"6F Q map of general dynamics ) /.C)0"6F Q cross tab$lation matri' ) /.C )0"6F Q Q Q land $se map .**6F +,# of .**6 with land $seF graph of .**6 land $seF

Q graph of general dynamics )0"6C.**6F Q map of general dynamics )0"6C.**6F Q cross tab$lation matri' )0"6C .**6F

Q graph of general dynamics ) /.C.**6F Q cross tab$lation matri' ) /.C.**6F Q maps of historical inde' 7land $se and topographic8F Q dominance inde' 73hannon and Wea%er8F Q Q di%ersity n$mber 7Hill8F inde' of 3harpe. The Interpretation of Landscape &!namics One of the most important things that this proDect ta$ght $s is that e%ery area shows its own dynamic pattern and each landscape has its own %al$e- depending on the local conte't. It is not possible in this te't to detail each one of them- altho$gh the area of #oscheta is described in this bookF howe%ersome generaliBations can be made as the trends reported s$rely represent widespread tendencies related to socioeconomic processes affecting the different geographical regions and protected areas. Two st$dies were in fact $ndertaken in protected areas- according to the will of the Nat$re Conser%ation 3er%ice to monitor landscape changes 7Agnoletti- .**"a-b8. &or each period we will gi%e a description of the general changes- mostly referring to reclassi.ed land $ses- so as to present a .rst le%el of interpretation.

The analysis reported here is concentrated on the original )/ areas s$r%eyed- altho$gh in one case the local administration has allowed e'tension of the s$r%ey to the entire territory administered- co%ering a %ery large area. The incl$sion of these data wo$ld ha%e affected the %al$e of a balanced distrib$tion of the st$dy areas in the region- therefore they ha%e been omitted.

The Landscape in %*(+ The data a%ailable for ) /. show the pre%alence of woodlands as the main land $se feat$red by the landscape 7".M8- followed by past$reland 7. M8 and c$lti%ated land 7.*M8 7&ig. ).68. The distrib$tion of the three land $ses is not d$e to the ecological feat$res of the regionbeca$se woodlands are pre%alent mostly on hills and plains- past$res are pre%alent on the mo$ntains and hills- and c$lti%ated areas only on hills. The location of the three main land $ses in the territory is clearly related to the need of man to $se the land according to farming acti%itieswhereas the ecological feat$res are fa%o$ring or hindering them. The landscape in this period shows a wide %ariety of land $ses with little correlation between the dif.c$lties of en%ironmental conditions and the de%elopment of comple' r$ral land: scape mosaic. The highest n$mber of land $ses is fo$nd on the areas placed in the mo$ntains- Cardoso and #oscheta 7see >late ) and Chapter "8- with 9*C9" different land $ses in )*** ha- as well as the highest n$mber of patches 7$p to 9) in )*** ha8 and the minim$m a%erage siBe of patches 7Agnoletti.**"a8. The land $ses e'isting in this period contrib$te to what can be considered one of the most important feat$res of the T$scan landscape- which is the great di%ersity and comple'ity of the

mosaic- made of many patches of small:scale c$lti%ations with trees and shr$bs- partly nati%e and partly introd$ced since Aoman times 7+i Berenger- ) "0F H$ghes- .**/8. On mo$ntains and hills the e'tensi%e $se of

0*** *** !*** 9* ** "* ** ha 6* ** /* ** .* ** )* ** * ) /. )0"6 Sear Fig# %#-# +istrib$tion of woodlands- .elds and past$res in the three periods analysed. .*** Woodl ands >ast$re &ields

#. Agno letti

terracing allows the creation of strips of land for growing cereals and mi'ed c$lti%ation- with %ines bo$nd to oli%e- maple- poplar- and- more rarelyelm trees. This is the typical landscape created by the sharecrop system- where e%ery farmer shares "*M of his crops with the owner- b$t m$st also grow all he needs in his own piece of land- with the help of large families to pro%ide the labo$r needed. Considering the richness of .ora and fa$na and the di%ersity of spaces created by this system- strongly affecting the o%erall biodi%ersity 7Ba$dry and Ba$dry:B$rel- )0 .8- it is perhaps more correct to $se the word @di%ersity? rather than @heterogeneity?- as landscapes are often described 7&arina- )00 8. Boodlands In ) /.- woodlands are the main land $se in se%en st$dy areas4 .%e in the hills and two on the plains. As described for other ,$ropean co$ntries 7Watkins and 2irby- )00 F Agnoletti- .***8 they are at a moment in their history when they are at their lowest e'tent- d$e to a great demographic de%elopment that will res$lt in a do$bling of the pop$lation d$ring the cent$ry- with the e'tension of agric$lt$re e%en onto high mo$ntain slopes. In T$scany there is a strict relationship between farming acti%ities and woodlands. Woodlands are managed $sing a %ery wide n$mber of techniG$es to pro%ide prod$cts ranging from lea%es to n$tsbark and sap- as well as timber for b$ilding or f$elwood. The wood patches in the landscape mosaic are often s$rro$nded by past$res and .elds- altho$gh some large wooded plots can still be fo$nd in some areas in the so$th of T$scany. 1nfort$nately- not all management forms are described in the cadastre- especially the different kinds of coppice woods- the most common management form- as well as the different forms of pollard trees and other forms of c$lt$rally modified trees- so widespread in many traditional r$ral societies of the world 7Arnold and +eewes)00"F Aackham- )00"F A$stad- )0 F 3ereni)00!F Jstl$nd et al.- .**)8.

High forests of oak $sed for acorn prod$ction 7often in the form of past$red woods and therefore low density forests shaped to allow the ma'im$m e'pansion of the canopy to increase acorn prod$ction8 are described as %ery common landscapes- a techniG$e still present in 3pain 7&$entes HonBales- )0068. These woodlands were already the most important landscape form on the hills and along the coast in the ) th cent$ry 7Agnoletti and Innocenti- .***8. #any of the archi%al doc$ments analysed show how the economy of the farms- more often concerned with raising li%estock than cereal prod$ction- depended on the prod$ction of acorns from oaks to feed pigs graBing freely in the woods. They reported the impossibility to sell the pigs in %ery dry seasons- d$e to diffic$lties in weight increase ca$sed by the scarcity of acorns. #ost of woodlands are described as comprising chestn$tsoaks- beech or e%en shr$bs- b$t chestn$t and shr$bs 7mostly heather8 are $s$ally indicated as separate woodland categories. 3hr$blands 7.M8mostly heather- are described in all the st$dy areas- con.rming their f$ndamental role in the economy of farms- pro%iding f$el for domestic o%ens and brick kilns- the raw material for making roofs- charcoal- and drainage systems for %ineyards. They were c$lti%ated as short rotation coppice 76C" years8 and were often maintained and created with .re. The different types of woodland categories reported in the cadastre can represent $p to 6*M of the total land $se di%ersity of se%eral st$dy areas- altho$gh woodlands rarely represent the main land $se type. In the HargonBa st$dy area- on the hills- there are )) different cat: egories of woodlands listed in the cadastre- o$t of a total of .! land $se types. In #oscheta- in the mo$ntains there are )" categories o$t of "0. Hreat attention has been gi%en to chestn$t orchards making $p 6./M of the total woodlands s$r%eyed. They are located in only .%e st$dy areas 7Cardoso- #oscheta- Castagneto- HargonBa3pannocchia8- b$t here they represent a distincti%e feat$re of those landscapes- with an e'tent close to those of past$reland and c$lti%ated areas.

They played a f$ndamental role in the prod$ction of .o$r to feed the pop$lation and co$nter:balance the scarcity of wheat 7>itte- )0 98 and in the prod$ction of timber assortments for many different p$rposes. In fact we .nd these trees in all the different geographic regions4 mo$ntains- hills and coast- e%en at "* m abo%e sea le%el. This con.rms the little rele%ance of soil and climate conditions in $nderstanding the distrib$tion of this species compared to that of the role of man. Almost all farmho$ses had at least a small chestn$t wood. Their management incl$ded allowing graBing of animals- so that the gro$nd wo$ld be cleared of b$shes or lea%es to facilitate the har%esting of n$ts. It is %ery signi.cant that the acco$nt books of the farms had speci.c sections dedicated to chestn$ts in%ol%ing both timber and n$t prod$ction- di%iding plots among different farmers. 3imilar occ$rrences- mostly for $mbrella pines prod$cing n$ts or .rs prod$cing timber- are G$ite rare. 4astures >ast$relands in the reclassified data incl$ded also meadows and characteriBe . M of the total land $se- representing the main landscape in three areas C one in the hills and two in the mo$ntains. An important role was played by wood past$re rep: resenting ))..M of the total land $se- b$t 66."M of the total past$reland. They are a typical feat$re of #editerranean landscapes- offering shelter to animals d$ring the hot season- red$cing the temperat$re of the soil- and prod$cing n$ts- lea%es and wood 7Hro%e and Aackham- .**)8. They made $p most of the coastal forest landscape in the ) th cent$ry in T$scany 7Agnoletti and Innocenti- .***8- b$t are still widespread in co$ntries like 3pain 7&$entes HonBales- )006F Hil et al.- .**/8. In some areas- the different types of wood past$re may represent $p to 0"M of total past$reland di%ersity- d$e to the presence of different trees in the past$re- and $p to ./C.!M of total land $ses- not incl$ding meadows. Trees in past$res are often chestn$t and beech on the mo$ntains- b$t oaks- waln$t- m$lberry and e%en %ines and oli%e trees are fo$nd at lower altit$des. Once again it seems that chestn$t is the tree most often fo$nd in wood past$res- contrib$ting to a large %ariety of landscapes from the coast to the

Apennine ridge. On the other hand- most of the farms st$died based their economy more on li%estock than on crop prod$ction- con.rming the importance of a type of landscape created according to economic needs. Fields The agric$lt$ral c$lti%ations are pre%ailing only in two hilly areas- a clear symptom of the bad conditions of many plains- still co%ered with swamps and often .ooded- b$t also of the pre%alence of li%estock. They are characteriBed by a larger e'tent of bare fields 7!.M8 compared to mi'ed c$lti%ations 7. M8F howe%er- the latter present many different G$alities d$e to the presence of se%eral tree species and c$lti%ation patterns- according to the distrib$tion of terraceshedges- single trees- tree rows etc. 3pecialiBed c$lti%ations- s$ch as %ineyards and oli%e orchards- play a limited role in terms of e'tent 7*./M8- the latter pre%ailing on %ineyards. The most common pattern where %ines and oli%e trees are fo$nd is s$rely the mi'ed c$lti%ation techniG$e- inherited from the ,tr$scans and e'tended by the Aomans 73ereni- )00!8. These c$lti%ations ha%e been detailed for each st$dy area- where different types may represent $p to 0"M of the land $ses classi.ed inside c$lti%ated areas- and .9M of all land $se types- contrib$ting greatly to the di%ersity of landscape in terms of habitats and aesthetic %al$es 7&ig. )."8. One typical pattern- especially on terraced slopesshows the presence of a row at the edge of the .eld or the terrace- incl$ding two or three %ines bo$nd to oli%e trees and maples- more often poplar in the plains- b$t e%en oaks or alder are $sed for this p$rpose. 3ometimes we can find only oli%e or maple 7Acer cam5estris8 to hold the %ines. It is certainly the r$ral part of the landscape creating a

#. Agno letti

showing the richness of mi'ed c$lti%ation shaping the landscape aro$nd Bibbiena. The density of trees co$ld be more than )**Iha.

Fig# %#># A photograph from the late )0th cent$ry

higher di%ersity- in terms of patches and their internal feat$res- compared to the woodlands. In fact- fr$it trees also contrib$te to enrich this landscape- altho$gh the density of trees in the .elds ne%er reaches the le%el of .** trees per hectare noted for the >adana %alley 7CaBBola)0098. +$ring these years terraces- with dry walls or not- ha%e been greatly e'tended in the agrarian landscape- $p to a point that agronomists arg$e that they ha%e also been placed in $nfa%o$rable geological conditions. Certainly they represent an important e'pendit$re in the acco$nt books and are the most common techniG$e to e'tend c$l: ti%ation on the hills 7Agnoletti and >aci- )00 8.

and one on the plain along the coast- while fo$r areas on the hills and one on the plains show more c$lti%ated .eldsF b$t past$res no longer pre%ail in any of the areas st$died. Aeforestation is triggered by abandonment of farming- while the %egetation types are determined by the pre%io$s land $ses and the ecological conditions 7Agnoletti and >aci- )00 F #onser et al., .**/8. This sit$ation shows that the transformation of the r$ral economy has already started before the coming of the great inno%ation affecting Italian society in the following years- altho$gh there is still a traditional form of agric$lt$re dominating most of the areas- despite the agrarian reform. The analysis of the general dynamics of
B $i lt: $ p ) M ,'t ens ion of con ifer w. 0M

The Landscape in %@>The landscape of )0"6 shows the strong increase of woodlands 759*M8 and c$lti%ated areas 75/*M8- while the importance of past$re land has greatly red$ced- co%ering only 6./M. The analysis of this year presented some dif.c$lties d$e to the bad G$ality of aerial photographsF therefore- the identi.cation of the internal G$alities of each patch co$ld not be as acc$rate as the description of the cadastre of ) /.. There is a signi.cant red$ction of the n$mber of land $ses 7C60M8 and landscape patches 7C)!M8- as well as in Hill?s di%ersity n$mber. In this year- more st$dy areas than in ) /. are characteriBed by the pre%alence of woodlands 70 o$t of )/8. Woods are pre%alent in .%e areas on the hills- three on the mo$ntains the period between ) /. and )0"6 7&ig. ).98 shows that 66M of land $ses remained $nchanged- while the most important processes are forestation 7)!M8 and intensi.cation 7)9M8. The growth of forest occ$rs mostly on abandoned past$re and wood past$res- the G$ality of land $se showing the strongest red$ction in the landscape- beca$se of the interr$ption of the practice of letting animals graBe freely on the land 7they are now kept in
1nide ntified *M 3 t a b l e 6 6 M

Intensification )9M

stables8. The e'tension of new agric$lt$ral forms occ$rs mostly on former wood past$res- mi'ed c$lti%ations- past$res and woodlands. New agric$lt$ral techniG$es are s$bstit$ting old mi'ed c$lti%ations and new c$lti%ated areas e'tend on former woodlands or on wetlands in the plains. This is a clear trend along the coast- in +onoratico and Castiglioncello- where the centre of the farming acti%ities mo%ed from the hills to the plains after land reclamation- with the total aban:

donment of farms on the hills 7BeBBini- )0098. Table ).) aids the $nderstanding of some of the changes that occ$rred at regional le%el in this long period of time+efor estati on 0M ,'tensification 6M

&orestation )!M

Fig# %#7# #ain landscape dynamics ) /.C)0"6.

!im$l e .elds Mi'ed cultiv ation (astu es and mead o)s *oodl ands +allo )

%81 ,ot availa-l e .83 %30 //8

" 2 2 / 8 0 % 9 " 2 / 3

.. 3 %% 1 /. . 90 9 13 .

/ . / . . / 1 3 / 8 1 3 2 . .

coming from an elaboration of the original p$blication by 3ereni 7)00!8- b$t probably not taking into acco$nt the different territories incl$ded in the different s$r%eys. +emography played a %ery important role in this long period- as the pop$lation of Italy increased from ..-***-*** to 6!-***-*** inhabitants from ) 9) to )0""- while the ins$f.cient prod$ction of cereals led to a h$ge increase in the importation of this commoditymaking it the second largest import between ) ** and )0**. Also in T$scany the pop$lation grew from )-/*/-*** inhabitants in ) )* to .-/)!-**6 in ) 0 7Agnoletti- .**.8- so the need for new land e'tended c$lti%ation towards the high hills and the mo$ntain slopes- fa%o$r: ing the growth of pop$lation in mo$ntain areas $ntil )0.*C)0/*- with an increase of )"*M 7&ig ).!8. The .rst ind$strialiBation of Italy occ$rred at the end of the )0th cent$ry 7Castrono%o- )00"8 and this- together with the law of ) !!- fa%o$red deforestation of almost )-***-*** ha within "* years- ca$sing the greatest red$ction of Italian forests e%er seen in modern times.
Table %#%# Evolution of the main cultivation in Tuscany 18321929 (ha 1000). Modi .ed f om !e eni (199"). #ultiv ation ty$e 1 8 % 0 & e a 1 9 2 9

1832

19 10

#. Agnoletti
>op$lation
)9** )"** )6** )/** ).** ))** )*** 0** ** ) 9) ) !) ) ) )0*) )0)) )0.) )0/) )0/9 )0") )09) )0!) )0 )

ear

Fig# %#9# >op$lation in the northern Apennine mo$ntains ) 9)C )0 ).

Boodlands Among woodlands the red$ction of shr$b:lands 7C6*M8 is %ery clear. Once c$lti%ated as short rotation coppices and now mostly t$rned into high forests- they s$ffered from the interr$ption of their management d$e to the abandonment of farming. Coppice is now the most important management form- by far the most $sef$l for farming acti%ities and also for the prod$ction of charcoal- comprising ."M of the entire Italian prod$ction. >ast$red woods no longer e'ist beca$se the practice of feeding animals with acorns falls into dis$seF they are now kept in stables. Chestn$t orchards are also red$ced in their e'tent 7C 6M8 d$e to the changes in agric$lt$re and the abandonment of farms on mo$ntains and high hills- slowly red$cing the importance of a method of c$lti%ation more than .*** years old. Almost /*M of them are t$rned into mi'ed woods and coppice- while 6*M are woods where chestn$t is clearly pre%ailing- b$t slowly e%ol%ing towards a mi'ed stand. Chestn$t coppice pro%ides poles for %ineyards and the widest n$mber of timber assortments a%ailable for agric$lt$re and b$ilding on the market- b$t many new coppices are created after debarking of high trees for the prod$ction of tannin. The abandonment of chestn$t c$lti%ation is also fa%o$ring pests affecting these species- often occ$rring after the abandonment of the management of a species planted o$tside its ecological optim$m 7Nos and 3ortelder- )00.8. Conifer forests res$lting from afforestation are a new element appearing in the landscape. They represent almost )9M of the woodlands and )*M of the entire landscape- d$e to the acti%ity of the Italian state in this sector and to pri%ate acti%ity. After the $ni.cation of Italy in ) 9)- the state de%eloped a large programme of afforestation affecting all Italy- b$t $ntil World War II there was little s$ccess in this policy- with only )0!-*** new forests planted 7Agnoletti- .**.8.

The greatest obstacle to afforestation was not only money- b$t also the con.icts with shepherds b$rning plantations to keep past$reland. This con.ict was o%ercome only with the abandonment of mo$ntain areas that occ$rred after World War II- when the pop$lation of the mo$ntains went back down to that of ) 9). Not all the conifer woods ha%e the same signi.cance. The $mbrella pines planted along the coast ha%e prod$ced a %al$able landscape- $sef$l for protecting .elds from sea wind- b$t also prod$cing edible n$ts. The conser%ation of these forests has been opposed by en%ironmentalists preferring a more nat$ral landscape- especially in protected areas 7Agnoletti- .**"b8. The afforestation on the mo$ntains- mostly with black pine 7 &inus nigra8- has introd$ced a degradation in the aesthetic G$ality of the landscape beca$se of the $se of conifers planted in sG$ared plots- typical of arti.cial plantations- in an area dominated by pas: t$res and broadlea%ed species- and was ne%er really incl$ded in the local c$lt$re. #any past$relands e'isting in ) /. 76/M8 ha%e been t$rned into woodlands- 9M d$e to afforestationand .!M into c$lti%ated areas- especially on the plainsF b$t wooded past$res ha%e red$ced in e'tent by almost *M.

Fields On the agric$lt$ral side there is an increase of c$lti%ated land 7566M8- with a %ery strong e'pansion of specialiBed oli%e orchards- almost /. times more than in ) /.. 3pecialiBed %ineyards ha%e also increased from *../ to 6* ha 7see Table )..8. Howe%er- the coming of these specialiBed c$lti%ations is not yet deleting the old mi'ed c$lti%ation- which does not show a signi.cant decrease- b$t are simply adding new elements to the landscape- showing a slight growth. New specialiBed oli%e orchards- added to the traditional patterns with sparse oli%e trees in the .elds- are s$bstit$ting most sowable lands and woodlands- b$t also new specialiBed %ineyards are replacing sowable lands- making T$scany one of the Italian regions where the @wine landscape? is most e'tensi%e 73ereni- )00!8. #i'ed c$lti%ation still remains an important feat$re of T$scany- placing the region somewhere between the larger e'tension of mi'ed c$lti%ations occ$rring in the north and the m$ch lower $se of trees in the fields that characteriBes the so$thern regions. These changes are slowly introd$cing the new trends of r$ral economy in T$scanyhelped by mechaniBation and chemical fertiliBerswhich will concentrate agric$lt$re on the best areas and lead to the abandonment of marginal lands on high hills and mo$ntains C a general trend affecting many other co$ntries in the world in the years after the war 7#cNeill- .***8.

The Landscape in +,,The years between )0"6 and .*** are a cr$cial period for Italy and T$scany. The end of the )0"*s and the beginning of the )09*s marks the transformation of Italy from a r$ral into an ind$strialiBed economy- with millions of people mo%ing from the co$ntryside to ind$strial $rban areas. Agric$lt$re and forestry will be strongly affected by these changes from all %iewpoints. After an initial period of abandonment- the last decades of the cent$ry see a ret$rn of people to the land- not as farmers- b$t as residents interested in the G$ality of life pro%ided by the T$scan co$ntryside. &$rthermoremany foreigners are b$ying properties in T$scany C in some areas in the Chianti region they are

approaching the n$mber of local residents. This new interest in the landscape is rapidly increasing the role of ser%ices like agrito$rism 7Co' et al.)006F Casini- .***8- often replacing prod$ction as the main so$rce of income- and the role of landscape reso$rces- as more and more people in Italy and abroad are b$ying wine or come to T$scany for a holiday. Concerning forestry- the red$ced press$re on forest territory has opened the door to the rise of en%ironmentalism in societyand now forests and woodlands are mostly seen as an e'pression of @nat$re?- with an interesting and rapid deletion from the memory of the p$blic of their c$lt$ral origin. It is the new $rban society replacing the r$ral one which is de%eloping these concepts and creating en%ironmental ideas that will affect the way forests are seen by policy: makers. The landscape in the areas s$r%eyed shows a small increase in the n$mber of land $ses 75)*M8 and the n$mber of patches- a res$lt probably of the more detailed aerial photographs and .eld work a%ailable in these years- b$t also d$e to the new owners b$ying some of the farms s$r%eyed. New capital is now p$t into the co$ntryside- similar to what happened in the Aenaissance when families of merchants like the #edici in%ested money made from trade into big farms 73ereni- )00!8. Howe%er- the f$rther increase in the a%erage s$rface area of patches and in the a%erage %al$e of the dominance inde' clearly indicates a simpli.cation of landscape occ$rring both in forest and agric$lt$ral areas- as the new agric$lt$ral techniG$es are not creating %al$able landscapes as in the #edicean times.

Table %#+# # oss ta-ulation 183219./. #olumns and lines allo) chec0in1 of the evolution of the land uses in the $e iod analysed.

Boodlands Woodlands no longer play a strategic role in terms of charcoal and timber prod$ction- showing a f$rther increase of their e'tension 7&ig. ). 8co%ering 6!M of the region and ""M of the prod$cti%e land- making T$scany the most forested region of Italy 7Aegione Toscana- )00 8. Howe%er- after a decrease lasting $ntil the oil crisis of )0! - there is a new growth of the importance of f$elwood prod$ction for domestic $se- allowing the management of coppice woodsrepresenting !"M of all management forms. Woodlands now co%er 99M of the landscape in the area s$r%eyed- followed by c$lti%ated .elds 7.*M8- while past$relands ha%e slowly increased 70M8. Woods are the most important land $se in ten areasF only three areas C one along the coast and two on the hills in the &lorence district C show the pre%alence of c$lti%ated land- a clear indication of the importance of the abandonment that occ$rred. The feat$res of forest landscape are characteriBed by the pre%alence of mi'ed stands and coppice- b$t the general patterns show simpli.ed typologies- mostly made of densehomogeneo$s forest co%ers- where di%ersity is mostly d$e to the presence of mi'ed species- that do not contrib$te m$ch to the di%ersity of landscape mosaic 7Agnoletti- .**.8. In terms of management forms- simple coppice has now replaced mi'ed coppice with standards- a clear indication of the red$ced amo$nt of timber assort: ments prod$ced- d$e to the change in farming systems- once deeply linked to coppice. #any coppices are G$ite aged- following the interr$ption of c$ttings in areas far from roadsespecially after the end of charcoal prod$ction in the late )0"*s d$e to the introd$ction of new energy so$rces- while pollard trees for fodder or n$t prod$ction no longer e'ist. #ost coppice woods on the highest part of the mo$ntains ha%e been t$rned into high stands by foresters in order to de%elop a protecti%e role- b$t terraced charcoal kilns on mo$ntain slopes are still there- to testify to the former $se of those woodlands. In the high stands there is now a higher proportion of conifers d$e not only to afforestation 7)"."M8- b$t also to secondary s$ccessions on abandoned .elds and past$res. The new law of )0".- .nancing

afforestation with the goal of creating new Dobswas clearly trying to create new forests not only for protection- b$t also to prod$ce more timber. Abo$t **-*** ha of new afforestations were registered in Italy in the following decades. Between )06! and )00! conifer woods ha%e do$bled in area in T$scany and broadlea%ed woods ha%e red$ced- contin$ing a trend already obser%ed in many ,$ropean co$ntries 7Agnoletti.***F Kohann et al. .**6F Brandl- )00.8. #ore than "*M of afforestation since )0"6 is in fact occ$rring on former woodlands- while the rest is occ$rring on .elds- chestn$t woods- past$res and old oli%e orchards. ,%en today- afforestation contin$es with no regard for

,'tension of conifer w. B$ilt: $p .M .M

+eforestation .M ,'tensi fication ))M &orestation 9M Intensification 6M

3 ta b le ! / M

Fig# %#*# #ain landscape dynamics )0"6C.**6.

#. Agn

olett i

the bad G$ality of landscapes created by these plantations- as the art historian- #ario 3almialready pointed o$t to foresters in )09". Howe%er- the elimination of chestn$t orchards by planting conifers is only one of the ca$ses of the dramatic red$ction of these woodsalready noted in the period ) /.C)0"6- b$t f$rther red$ced by "*M in area by the year .***. Oftenmon$mental chestn$t trees /**C6** years old can still be fo$nd 7&ig. ).08- s$rro$nded by beech and hornbeam at higher ele%ations- or by oak at lower altit$des- and sometimes by oli%e orchards at sea le%el. The abandonment has also been fa%o$red by the management policies carried o$t in some protected areas- considering them an arti.cial plantation and a ca$se of hydro:geologic risks$pported also by botanical interpretation 7Ca%alli- )00*8. In )009- a dramatic .ood in the area of Cardoso ca$sed se%eral landslides. The st$dy promoted by the >ark s$ggested that some of the reasons for this was the hea%y weight of chestn$ts. The research carried o$t in a portion of this area has demonstrated that !9M of landslides occ$rred with @abandoned chestn$ts? located on terraces- collapsing beca$se of lack of maintenance 7>late .8. An e'tension of the research has shown e%idence of a strict relationship between hydra$lic risk and land $se changes- especially abandonment- a problem recei%ing little attention by local a$thorities 7Agnoletti- .**"a8. Chestn$t coppice is still managed to prod$ce poles to s$pport %ines- b$t

the $se of steel poles and the little or no s$pport gi%en in r$ral policies to the $se of wooden ones is not fa%o$ring their management. In this respect the analyses made inside two protected areas 7Cardoso and #igliarino8 are both showing the lack of any effecti%e policies to red$ce the loss of traditional landscapes in protected areas. 3hr$blands ha%e seen an increase of .*M in their e'tent as the res$lt of abandonment of .elds and past$re 7Table )./8- b$t also as a res$lt of fire. In any case they ha%e completely changed their role in the landscape- passing from a f$ndamental management form of r$ral economy- to an aspect of nat$ral e%ol$tion. It is %ery signi.cant that the forest in%entory of T$scany 7Aegione Toscana)00 8 describes them as an effect of degradation ca$sed by .re or past$re- with no consideration of their c$lt$ral origin or their meaning in the landscapes.

Fields Concerning agric$lt$re- d$ring the )09*s a large portion of farmland was abandoned and modern c$lti%ations de%eloped on the most fa%o$rable areas- while mechaniBation

Fig# %#@# 3ome mon$mental chestn$t trees are still s$r%i%ing b$t will soon be in%aded by nat$ral regeneration and t$rned into mi'ed stands if not s$bmitted to sil%ic$lt$re.

#. Agnoletti

and chemical fertiliBer are rapidly increasing the amo$nts prod$ced per hectare. #echaniBation fa%o$red the abandonment of terracing and the elimination of trees and hedges- especially in marginal areas- creat : ing large .elds and e'tended monoc$lt$res. In many cases- like in HargonBa and Cardoso 7&ig ).)*8- the forest is today co%ering terraces once shaping hills and mo$ntains 7Agnoletti and >aci- )00 8. New %ineyards ha%e been planted on mi'ed c$lti%ations 76"M8- on .elds 7/*M8 and oli%e orchards 7.6M8- b$t technical e%ol$tion has concentrated its efforts on making large reg$lar plots c$lti%ated $phill- e%en on steep slopes- often ca$sing erosion and degrading the G$ality of the landscape. In some areas the e'tension of the ma'im$m concentration of adDacent %ineyards plots has increased from .9 to ."/ ha- with a strong simpli.cation of landscape patterns forming large s$bsystems with only %ineyards 7&ig ).))8. The de%elopment of new %ineyards is occ$rring only on hills and plains- while on the mo$ntains they ha%e been deleted from the landscape. The decrease of mi'ed c$lti%ations is G$ite significant in the areas st$died 7C99M8 C generally diminished by !"M between )0"" and )0!6 in the whole region 7Agnoletti- .**.8 with a great loss also in the wood species incl$ded- ranging from fr$it trees to woody species. It is worth noting the creation of a new form of @,$ropean? agrarian landscape- d$e to plantations fa%o$red by the ,,C directi%e .* *I0.. The idea of fa%o$ring the designation of large portions of farmland with s$bsidies gi%en to replace e'isting crops with tree species s$ited for timber prod$ction on a .":year cycle has often contrib$ted to a f$rther degradation of the c$lt$ral feat$res of the landscape- speeding $p the abandonment of traditional forms. At the same time this policy has %ery little chance of affecting the timber market in any way. The landscape G$ality of these plantations is not necessarily always bad- b$t it sho$ld be asked why- when decisions like these are made abo$t %al$able landscapes- there is no e%al$ation of their impact or any st$dy to adapt them to the local conte't.

7a8 7b8

Fig# %#%,# >hotograph 7a8 shows a %iew of Cardoso 7Aegional >ark of the Ap$ane mo$ntains8 at the beginning of the .*th cent$ry. It is possible to note that the slopes behind the %illage were all terraced and planted with trees. >hotograph 7b8 shows the same %iew of Cardoso today. The old landscape is now co%ered by forest 7see >lates ) and .8.

Fig# %#%%# Wine monoc$lt$res co%ering entire hill slopes are making landscape more homogeneo$s- creating a sort of @globalscape? typical of many wine regions in the world.

4ublic perception and economic value Besides the sampling plots made to analyse the feat$res of %egetation changes- some of the most interesting in%estigations relate to the perception of the landscape by residents and to$rists. There is not eno$gh space here to present these res$lts 7Casini and &errini- .**.8- as will be done in Chapter " abo$t #oscheta- b$t- con.rming what has already been noted- there is a strong feeling of c$lt$ral identity among the people represented by the landscape 7Bacci- .**.8. It is %ery rele%ant that in areas where o$r in%estigations ha%e indicated the most signi.cant landscape forms- characteriBing them from a scienti.c point of %iew- the inter%iews ha%e con.rmed o$r res$lts. This is tr$e e%en for a %ery interesting aspect regarding the fact that the same element 7e.g. afforestation8 may ha%e a totally different meaning in two different areas. 1mbrella pine plantations along the coast ha%e created historical landscapes appreciated for their bea$ty and recreational feat$reswhile the afforestation of black pine made on the hills and mo$ntains seems to be %al$able only for the foresters who planted them. Another aspect of this in%estigation is the willingness of most of the people to accept a ta' to preser%e landscape- while farmers do not accept it. This is an interesting indication of how r$ral policies ha%e failed to address some of the needs of society 7Agnoletti- .**.8.

A =eneral 3ie) of the %*(++,,- Changes

=andscape changes occ$rring in T$scany o%er the last two cent$ries are d$e to direct socio:economic factors. Their siBe and feat$res are not comparable to any ecological or climate change that occ$rred in the past two cent$ries- or to those foreseen for the ne't. The G$ality of landscape reso$rces re.ects how society de%elops- especially in the way landscape is percei%ed by the p$blic- both when de%elopment is %ery m$ch based $pon local reso$rces- as in the past- or when this is no longer occ$rring. #ost of the changes analysed occ$rred in the period ) /.C)0"6. The following decades con.rm a trend initiated before- altho$gh some processes s$ch as demographic fall in the mo$ntains are s$rely %ery fastb$t comparable to the growth between ) 9) and )0.*. Woodlands and trees in the .elds are both central elements in%ol%ed in the landscape dynamics. &orestation is the most important process occ$rring 7.)M of changes8- followed by intensi.cation in agric$lt$re 7))M8 and again by afforestation d$e to conifer planta : tions 7)*M8. The increase of woodlands 7""M since ) /.- .!M between )0"6 and .***8 is taking place mostly on abandoned

#. Agnoletti

past$res and wood past$res 7"/M8- less on c$lti%ated land 7.*M8. Woodlands ha%e increased their area in ten st$dy areas- sometimes by more than do$ble where abandonment has been stronger- as in the mo$ntains and e%en in the hilly areas. These trends are similar to those reported in se%eral r$ral areas s$bmitted to abandonment for comparable periods of time 7&oster- )00.F &oster et al.- )00 8- b$t in o$r case we ha%e also meas$red o%erwhelming changes in the landscape mosaic 7see >late /8. The e'pansion of woodlands is a process comparable to the general trend reported for Italy in the last )** years- showing that forests ha%e more than do$bled their areawith the e%ident absence of any real threat for them in the last "* years 7&ig. ).).8. It is worth noting that new plantations with conifers are mostly occ$rring on territories pre%io$sly presenting different woodlands or shr$bs 79"M8b$t not den$ded land. As in the rest of Italy- the s$ccess of afforestation is not only d$e to the money spentb$t to the decrease of pop$lation in mo$ntain areas and the red$ction of li%estock farming- or the cessation of the eco

)****

nomic role of former forests- s$ch as chestn$t orchards. &inally a @state landscape? came thro$ghreplacing the former social landscape of the pastand this new landscape is the real legacy of afforestation. In fact- these new conifer forests had no in.$ence on the timber market. They probably had a role in red$cing risk on former past$res and .elds on steep mo$ntain slopes- b$t they de.nitely had an impact on the landscape- lea%ing large sG$ared plots- with little rele%ance to local c$lt$re or ecological conditions 7see >late !8. >ast$relands show a %ery signi.cant red$ctiondecreasing to only ."M of their former e'tent- as do wood past$res 7)"."M8 7&ig. ).)/8F a certain amo$nt of them ha%e been t$rned not only into forest- b$t also into specialiBed c$lti%ations and sowable land. C$lti%ated fields ha%e slightly increased- b$t with a strong growth of sowable land 75 6*!M8. A %ery s$bstantial increase is the one shown by oli%e orchards- which ha%e increased .":fold- and %ineyards- almost non: e'istent as specialiBed c$lti%ations in the past. It is worth noting the increase of specialiBed oli%e

!**** ).*** 9**** "**** *** 6**** 9*** /**** .**** )**** ha T )*** pop$lation T )*** 6*** .***

* ) 9)) 9!) !/) !0) ") 0)) 0!)0*/)0*0)0).)0.0)0/9)0"))09")0!")0 6.**" Sear

Fig# %#%+# ,'tent of the Italian forests and pop$lation growth between ) 9) and .**". The s$bstantial increase after )0 " is mostly d$e to the different ways of considering what is @woodland? by the National &orest In%entory made in )0 " and .**". Ne%ertheless- there is $ndo$btedly a steady growth after World War I d$e to the changing relationship between socio:economic de%elopment and forest reso$rces.

orchards and %ineyards. Both of them also show a strong increase in the siBe of patches- as described for )0"6C.**6- with large portions of land with a repeated monoc$lt$re pattern presented as @typical? elements of traditional landscapes by r$ral de%elopers- b$t clearly presenting the fea:
Fig# %#%(# A wood past$re with beech in the st$dy area of #oscheta 7see Chapter "8. Wood past$res ha%e almost disappeared beca$se of the red$ction of graBing and the ad%ancement of woodlands.

t$res of ind$strial c$lti%ation 7&ig. ).)68. The data also show the strong red$ction of all the categories of mi'ed c$lti%ations described for ) /.- now red$ced to almost one third. 1nfort$nately- only .eld work is able to show that most of those still e'isting are modi.ed and simpli.ed forms- $s$ally 7a8 7b8

Fig# %#%-# The increasing siBe of the .elds in a r$ral mosaic along the Arno Ai%er. =eft4 a photograph taken in )0"6. Aight4 the same area on a photograph of )009.

#. Agnol

etti

linked to fr$it orchards or tree rows at the sides of .elds. One of the most dramatic trends- starting e%en before )0"6- is the great loss of di%ersity in the landscape- with the decrease of many land $ses linked to past$res- .elds and woods and a conseG$ent dramatic red$ction of the di%ersity of spaces d$e to land $ses- by almost 6"M between ) /. and .**6 7see >lates )- . and /8. The biodi%ersity of spaces is a part of general biodi%ersity and a f$ndamental aspect of the G$ality of the c$lt$ral landscape e'isting in T$scany- as well as in the entire #editerranean region 7Ba$dry and Ba$dry:B$rel- )0 .F Na%eh)00 8. This red$ction- related to the n$mber of land $ses- is f$lly e'pressi%e of a red$ced bio: logical di%ersityF %ery di%erse landscapes are more species:rich than indi%id$al habitat components. The red$ction of this di%ersity is s$pported by the trends analysed in other indices. The n$mber of patches is 6M of that e'isting in ) /.- while their a%erage siBe has also increased by ))M 7Table ).68. These data together with the decrease by /9M of Hill?s di%ersity n$mber con.rm the simpli.cation of the landscape mosaic. This red$ction in di%er: sity of patches in relati%ely small areas- according to the siBe of o$r st$dy areas- makes the present di%ersity of the regional landscape mostly based on the feat$res of larger s$bsystems inside the main geographical areas- con.rming the change from a .ne:grained to a coarse:grained landscape 7Angelstam- )00!8. This loss of di%ersity is partic$larly signi.cant from many points of %iew. &irst of all- the di%ersity

of species is probably not the only important feat$re of Italy 7altho$gh G$ite signi.cant in the ,$ropean conte't8- b$t rather its di%ersity of spaces created by man in cent$ries of r$ral and forest practices- also introd$cing many species originally not present in the Italian penins$la before Aoman times. It is also well known that specific forest types- like chestn$t orchards- often present a higher .oristic di%ersity compared to abandoned orchards 7Aomane and Nalerino- )00!8. Another problem is the loss of c$lt$ral %al$es related to r$ral and forest practices e'istent since ,tr$scan times- connected to small:scale prod$ctions creating many small patches in the landscape mosaic- altho$gh this feat$re cannot be generaliBed for the entire region and Italy. &rom this point of %iew- the world:famo$s pict$res of T$scany showing den$ded landscapes with rare cypress trees cannot be considered a common pattern- b$t an element of the general di%ersity of the landscapes in the region.

Conclusions
This proDect has prod$ced a large amo$nt of information on the landscape dynamics occ$rring in the T$scan territory in the last ) * years- only partially presented in this te't- mostly foc$sed on the factors and processes affecting the main dynamics and the red$ction of landscape di%ersity. The decreased di%ersity can be clearly ascribed to some main trends. One is the ad%ancement of a contin$o$s forest layer co%ering

Table %#-# 2ndices detailin1 the chan1es in landsca$e dive sity fo all a eas studied. &ea 1832 19./ 200/ ,um-e of land uses ,um-e of $atches 3ve a1e su face a ea of $atches (ha) 310 1.8 1 " 3 1 . / 9 1 3. 0

183 8 11. %%

1.21 12./ 0

3ve a1e num-e of $atches ha !hannon inde' (mean value) 4ill5s dive sity num-e (mean value)

0.1 " 1.0 9

0.1/ 0.90

0 0. 1 . 1. 1 1 .. 3 0

8.3 0

..00

the former landscape mosaic like a mantle 7see >late /8. Another is the increased siBe of .elds in agric$lt$ral areas. A third is the simpli.cation of the internal str$ct$re of landscape patches. In many cases this trend is not s$stainable- not only for biodi%ersity b$t also for the conser%ation of landscape reso$rces- not to mention the disappear: ance of speci.c woodlands- like chestn$t orchardsand a wide n$mber of traditional management practices. In the areas more affected by this process landscape di%ersity may be only 0M of what it was in ) /.- while the n$mber of patches may be only )6M of that in ) /. 7see >lates ) and .8. In the areas where the farmers are still present instead- this tendency can e%en be in%ertedaltho$gh the internal G$ality of new landscape patches is not always good. The interr$ption of traditional techniG$es like mi'ed c$lti%ationsterraces- wood past$res- tree rows- and hedges that characteriBed farming $ntil the )0"*s has been replaced by e'tended monoc$lt$res created with mechaniBation- allowing $phill c$lti%ation e%en on steep slopes- as in the case of %ineyards. This has often created a landscape where di%ersity and $niG$eness- according to 1N,3CO criteria 7&owler- .**/8- are often gi%en mostly by morphological feat$res- while the mosaic can be compared to other regions in the world. The interr$ption of traditional r$ral practices also has a strong impact on the hydro:geological riskca$sing erosions and landslides affecting especially mo$ntain and hilly areas. In this respect the landscape e'isting in the area st$died $ntil the early )0"*s can probably be compared with the ones still s$r%i%ing in places like ,astern ,$ropean co$ntries- where ind$strialiBation will soon ind$ce the same process. These tendencies are also degrading the economic role of landscape- as an added %al$e for typical prod$cts and to$rism- and decreasing the G$ality of life for citiBens who prefer a more di%erse landscape and feel a %ery strong c$lt$ral relationship with their historical landscapes. It seems that no real policies ha%e been enhanced to change these trends C on the contrarymany ,$ropean 1nion directi%es concerning r$ral de%elopment and nat$re conser%ation are speeding $p these trends. The lack of attention gi%en to the role of landscape reso$rces as an added %al$e for r$ral economy- protecting and fa%o$ring the $pkeep of traditional practices 7&ig. ).)"8- creating markets for typical prod$cts linking them to their landscapes- promoting the role of landscape for

agrito$rism- ha%e been neglected in fa%o$r of other choices. Initiati%es promoting setasideind$strial plantationsand technological inno%ation ha%e denied the fact that de%elopment sho$ld also care for the conser%ation of landscape reso$rces as a c$lt$ral %al$e- for the G$ality of lifeas a factor of competiti%eness. &rom this point of %iew- the s$bsidies gi%en by the ,1 fa%o$ring setaside and plantations ha%e contrib$ted to the disappearance of the typical elements of c$lt$ral landscape. Nery probably these trends will ha%e the same effect in new eastern ,1 co$ntries. Another threat comes from the nat$re conser%ation strategies and a paradigmatic way of considering the role of nat$re and the concept of s$stainability. The network of

Fig# %#%># An old farmer tying %ines to maple trees 7circa )0/*8 in a mi'ed c$lti%ation according to a tradition e'isting in T$scany at least since ,tr$scan times- )*** BC. 3a%ing traditional knowledge is one of the most important iss$es in the conser%ation of c$lt$ral landscapes.

#. Agnol

etti

protected areas and the habitat directi%e- acknowledged by T$scany with a regional law- is enclosing a list of habitats according to the ,1 habitat list- presenting a pec$liar reading of the territory where the protected areas ha%e been established. Areas clearly ha%ing a h$man origin ha%e been described by presenting them as nat$ral or semi:nat$ral. This operation can sometimes be seen as an attempt to offer another @reading? of the ,$ropean territory by denying its c$lt$ral origin- a factor regarding not only #editerranean woodlands b$t also boreal forests 7A'elsson and Jstl$nd- .***8. Another reason for the red$ced attention to landscape G$ality is the perception of managers and a large portion of the p$blic and media that the e'tension of forest land and renat$raliBation is a %ery fa%o$rable process- increasing the %al$e of the territory. This %ision is s$pported also by the c$rrent way certi.cation standards are de%eloped- enabling agencies to gi%e a label of @s$stainability? to a new forest growing on an ancient r$ral pattern. In T$scany- this is also helped by forest legislation saying that an abandoned .eld co%ered by a new forest after )" years is to be considered $nto$chable- $nless the owner pays for a new afforestation of the same siBe. The fact that a forest is @$nto$chable? is %ery representati%e of a hierarchy of %al$es paying little atten:
Table %#># # ite ia and indicato s $ o$osed fo the sustaina-le mana1ement of cultu al landsca$es in Tuscany. # ite ia 2ndicato s 6esc i$tion 1. !i1ni.cance 7ni8ueness 2n the local9 e1ional9 national o inte national conte't Mat i' 2nte nal featu e in te ms of com$le'ity (e sistence of mosaic 4isto ical $e sistence of the st uctu e of landsca$e mosaic !ocioeconomic activities ( actices9 t aditional 0no)led1e9 $ oductions9 to maintain landsca$es (e sistence of land uses 4isto ical $e sistence of sin1le land uses E'tension of land uses Maintenance of the e'tension of each land use 2nte nal featu es of $atches Maintenance of the inte nal st uctu e of $atches Mate ial evidence (e sistence of mate ial evidence in the landsca$e !ocial $e ce$tion !ocial a)a eness of landsca$e values 2. 2nte1 ity E'tension Maintenance of an e'tension suf.cient to ensu e functionality :eomo $holo1ic featu es Maintenance of s$eci.c 1eomo $holo1ic st uctu es 3esthetic Maintenance of aesthetic values Mana1ement $ actices #onse vation of t aditional 0no)led1e and mana1ement fo ms !t uctu e of the mat i' Maintenance of the st uctu e of the landsca$e mat i' !t uctu e of the mosaic !tate of conse vation of landsca$e mosaic !t uctu e of $atches !tate of conse vation of sin1le $atches #ultu al he ita1e !tate of conse vation of a chitectu al assets and mate ial evidence ,atu al he ita1e !tate of conse vation of .o a and fauna #onse vation and esea ch ;esea ch and conse vation activity elated to the a ea 3. <ulne a-ility + a1ility 2nt insic f a1ility of landsca$e st uctu e +a min1 +a min1 activity affectin1 landsca$e +o est y +o est activities affectin1 landsca$e 2ndust ial activity9 inf ast uctu e9 6i ect and elated activities in.uencin1 landsca$e u -ani=ation ,atu al evolution + a1ility of landsca$e to natu al dynamics Tou ism Tou ist activities in.uencin1 landsca$e !ocial st uctu e !ocial featu es affectin1 landsca$e

tion to c$lt$ral landscape and denying the role of spaces in biodi%ersity. 1nder these circ$mstances it wo$ld be worth re.ecting on the way in which s$stainability is concei%ed and applied- and how paradigmatic %isions can red$ce the chance to de%elop an approach more adapted to local sit$ations. The methodology de%eloped in this proDect has been shown to be partic$larly s$ited for the de%elopment of criteria and indicators to assess significance- integrity and %$lnerability of these landscapes- helping to de%elop management- monitoring and restoration- b$t also new ways of managing the network of protected areas 7Table )."8. 3o far- the HC,A methodology has been applied in a wide n$mber of regional proDects ranging from en%ironmental impact assessment to the management of protected areas and $rban and landscape planning- b$t it is c$rrently disc$ssed in the National 3trategic >lan for A$ral +e%elopment and presented also d$ring the work of the #inisterial Conference for the >rotection of &orest in ,$ropededicated to the promotion of historical and c$lt$ral %al$es in s$stainable forest management.

Howe%er- some signs of new trends appearing in r$ral de%elopment- in the ,$ropean forest strategy and important e%ents like the ,$ropean =andscape Con%ention- s$ggest a possible change- hopef$lly taking effect before c$lt$ral landscapes are completely lost 7see >late 68. .otes ) The a$thor is writing as coordinator of the gro$p of researchers in%ol%ed in the s$r%ey. A team of .* researchers was in%ol%ed in the proDect. The international instit$tions incl$ded4 the International 1nion of &orest Aesearch OrganiBations- the American &orest History 3ociety- >ortland 3tate 1ni%ersity and the American 3cience &o$ndation. . =aw n$mber one- the #anagement of the Territory- n. " of )009- now re%ised as n. ) of .**". / +epartment of ,n%ironmental &orestry 3cience and Technology- &ac$lty of Agric$lt$re. 6 The proDect lasted for " yearsF the interpretation of the photographs of the year .*** was accompanied by .eld work carried o$t in .**)- .**.- .**/.**6 and .**"- according to the different areas s$r%eyed. " &or two areas photographs of )0 ) were $sed. Howe%er- the res$lt was incorporated in the data regarding )0"6- since the comparison between the two years did not show signi.cant changes in the trends. "eferences Agnoletti- #. 7.***8 Introd$ction4 factors and process in the history of forest research. In4 Agnoletti- #. and Anderson- 3. 7eds8 Forest +istory; International *tudies on *ocioeconomic and Forest Ecosystem #%ange. CAB International- Wallingford- pp.)C)0. Agnoletti- #.- 7.**.8 Il 5aesaggio agro/forestale toscano, strumenti 5er lFanalisi la gestione e la conserva4ione. AA3IA- &irenBe.

Agnoletti- #. 7.**"a8 Landsca5e c%anges, biodiversity and %ydrogeological ris3 in t%e area of #ardoso bet-een 6@7? and ?99?. Aegione Toscana- Tipogra.a Aegionale- &irenBe. Agnoletti- #. 7.**"b8 T%e evolution of t%e landsca5e in t%e Migliarino Estate bet-een t%e 6>t% and t%e ?9t% century. Aegione Toscana- Tipogra.a Aegionale- &irenBe. Agnoletti- #. and Innocenti- #. 7.***8 Caratteristiche di alc$ni popolamenti di farnia e ro%ere presenti l$ngo la costa toscana alla metU del settecento. In4 B$cci- H.- #inotta- H. and Borghetti- #. 7eds8 A55lica4ioni e 5ros5ettive 5er la ricerca forestale italiana . Atti del II congresso 3I3,&- Bologna. Agnoletti- #. and >aci- #. 7)00 8 =andscape e%ol$tion on a central T$scan estate between the eighteenth and twentieth cent$ries. In4 2irby- 2.K. and Watkins- C. 7eds8 T%e Ecological +istory of Euro5ean Forests. CAB International- Wallingford- pp.))!C).!. Angelstam- >. 7)00!8 =andscape analysis as a tool for the scienti.c management of biodi%ersity. Ecological Bulletins 69- )6*C)!*. Arnold- K.,. and +eewes- >.,. 7)00"8 Tree management in farmer strategies. O'ford 1ni%ersity >ress- O'ford. Ata$ri- K.A. and +e =$cio- K.N. 7.**)8 The role of landscape str$ct$re in species richness distrib$tion of birds- amphibians- reptiles and lepidopterans in #editerranean landscapes. Landsca5e Ecology )9-)6!C)"0.

#. Agnoletti A$stad- I. 7)0 8 Tree pollarding in western Norway. In4 Birks- H.- BirksH.K.B.- 2aland- >.,. and #oe- +. 7eds8 T%e cultural landsca5es. &ast 5resent and future. Cambridge 1ni%ersity >ress- Cambridge- pp. ))C/*. A'elsson- A. and Jstl$nd- =. 7.***8 Aetrospecti%e gap analysis in a 3wedish boreal forest landscape $sing historical data. Forest Ecology and Management "..0- )C)6. A'elsson- A.- Jstl$nd- =. and Hellberg- ,. 7.**)8 1se of retrospecti%e analysis of historical records to asses changes in decid$o$s forests of boreal 3weden ) !*sC)000. Acta Universitatis Agriculturae *ueciae, *ilvestria ) /. Bacci- =. 7.**.8 LFim5atto del turismo nellFeconomia regionale e locale della Toscana. IA>,T- &irenBe. Ba$dry- K. and Ba$dry:B$rel- &. 7)0 .8 =a mes$re de la di%ersitO spatiale. Aelation a%ec la di%ersitO spOci.G$e. 1tilisation dans les O%al$ations d?Impact. Acta Ecologica, Lecol. A55lic. /- )!!C0*. BeBBini- =. 7)0098 *toria di #astagneto Bolg%eri e 1onoratico dalle origini al 6>:8. Bandecchi V Ni%aldi ,ditori. Brandl- H. 7)00.8 ,ntwickl$ngen $nd tendenBen in der &orstgeschichte seit ende des ) . Kahrh$ndert. Mitteilungen der Forstlic%en )ersuc%s und Forsc%ungsanstalt Baden/,uerttemberg- &reib$rg. Calistri- ,. 7ed.8 7.**.8 Environmental *ignals in Tuscany. ,di.r&irenBe. Carandini- A. and Cambi- &. 7eds8 7.**.8 &aesaggi dFEtruria; valle dellFAlbegna, valle dFLro, valle del #%iarone, val le del Tafone ; 5rogetto di ricerca italo/britannico seguito allo scavo di *ette .nestre. ,diBioni di storia e letterat$ra- Aoma. Casini- =. 7.***8 2uove 5ros5ettive 5er uno svilu55o sostenibile del territorio. 3t$dio ,ditoriale &iorentino- &irenBe. Casini- =. and &errini- 3. 7.**.8 =e indagini economiche. In4 Agnoletti- #. 7ed.8 Il 5aesaggio agro/forestale toscano, strumenti 5er lFanalisi la gestione e la conserva4ione. AA3IA- &irenBe- pp. 60C9 . Castrono%o- N. 7)00"8 *toria economica dellFItalia.1allFLttocento ai giorni nostri. ,ina$di- Torino. Ca%alli- 3. 7)00*8 Costr$Bione della nat$ra. In4 Hreppi- C. 7ed.8 Quadri

ambientali della Toscana- Nol. I- II- III. #arsilio ,ditori- NeneBia- pp. )*)C)) . CaBBola- &. 7)0098 +isboscamento e riforestaBione ordinata nella pian$ra del >o4 la piantata di alberi nell?economia agraria padana- secoli (N:(I(. *toria Urbana- ((- n. !9C!!- /"C96. Co'- =.K.- Hollyer- K.A. and =eones- K. 7)0068 =andscape ser%ices4 an $rban agric$lt$ral sector. Agribusiness )*- )/C.9. +i Berenger- A. 7) "0C) 9/8 1ellFantica storia e giuris5ruden4a forestale in Italia. Tre%iso e NeneBia. &arina- A. 7)00 8 &rinci5les and met%ods in landsca5e ecology. Chapman V Hall- =ondon. &oster- A.&. 7)00.8 =and:$se history 7)!/*C)00*8 and %egetation dynamics in central New ,ngland- 13A. .ournal of Ecology *- !"/C!!.. &oster- +.A- #otBkin- H. and 3later- B. 7)00 8 =and:$se history as long:term broad scale dist$rbance4 regional forest dynamics in central New ,ngland. Ecosystems )- 09C))0. &owler- >.K. 7.**/8 ,orld +eritage #ultural Landsca5es 6>>?D?99? . 1N,3CO- >aris. &$entes HonBales- C. 7)0068 La encina en el centro y suroeste de Es5ana. 3er%antes- 3alamanca. Hil- =.- #an$el- C. and +iaB &ernandeB- >. 7.**/8 La transformation %istorica del 5aisaCe forestale en las islas baleares. ,graf- #adrid. Hreppi- C. 7ed.8 7)00*8 Quadri ambientali della Toscana, Nol. I- II- III. #arsilio ,ditori- NeneBia. Hro%e- A.T. and Aackham- O. 7.**)8 T%e 2ature of Mediterranean Euro5e. An Ecological +istory. Sale 1ni%ersity >ress- ,hrhardt. H$ghes- +. 7.**/8 ,$rope as cons$mer of e'otic biodi%ersity4 Hreek and Aoman times. Landsca5e esearc% . 7)8- .)C/). Iseh- #. 7)0 8 Air photo interpretation and comp$ter cartography:tool for st$dying the c$lt$ral landscape. In4 Birks- H.- Birks- H.K.B.- 2aland- >.,. and #oe- +. 7eds8 T%e #ultural Landsca5es. &ast &resent and Future. Cambridge 1ni%ersity >ress- Cambridge- pp.)"/C)96. Kohann- ,.- Agnoletti- #.- A'elsson- A.=. et al. 7.**68 History of secondary Norway spr$ce in ,$rope. In4 3piecker- H.- Hansen K.- 2limo- ,.3ko%sgaard- K.>- 3terba- H. and %on Te$ffel- 2. 7eds8 2or-ay *5ruce conversion. L5tion and consePuences. ,&I research report ) . Brill=eiden- pp. ."C9..

2nowles- A.2. 7ed.8 7.**.8 &ast Time, &ast &lace. !I* for +istory . ,3AI >ress- Aedlands. 2Phl- #. 7.**/8 New approaches for m$lti reso$rce forest in%entories. In4 Corona- >.- 2Phl- #. and #archetti#. 7eds8 Advances in Forest Inventories for *ustainable Forest Management and Biodivesity Monitoring. 2l$wer Academic >$blisher+ordrecht- pp. )C) . =amdin- ,.&. and Heist- H.H. 7.**)8 Hlobal land $se and co%er change4 What ha%e we learned so farW !lobal #%ange 2e-sletter 69- .!C/*. #cHarg- I. 7)0 )8 H$man ecology planning at >ennsyl%ania. Landsca5e &lanning - )*0C).*. #cNeill- K. 7.***8 *omet%ing 2e- Under t%e *un. >eng$in Books- =ondon.

#onser- 1.- Albani- #. and >i$ssi- >. 7.**/8 Woodland recoloniBation of abandoned farmland in the D$lian pre:Alps 7&ri$li- Italy8. !ortania ."- .*!C ./). #otBkin- H.- &oster- +.- Allen- A.- Harrod- K. and Boone- A. 7)0098 Controlling site to e%al$ate history4 %egetation patterns of a New ,ngland sand plain. Ecological Monogra5%s 997/8- /6"C/9". Na%eh- X. 7)00)8 #editerranean $plands as anthropogenic pert$rbation dependent systems and their dynamic conser%ation management. In4 Aa%eraO.A. 7ed.8 Terrestrial and APuatic Ecosystems, &erturbation and ecovery. ,llis Horwood- New Sork- pp. "66C""9. Na%eh- X. 7)00 8 C$lt$re and landscape conser%ation4 A landscape:ecological perspecti%e. In4 Hopal- B. et al. 7eds8 Ecology Today; An Ant%ology of #ontem5orary Ecological esearc%. International 3cienti.c >$b: lications- New +elhi- pp. )0C6 . Nd$bisi- &. 7 .**.8 Ecological &lanning. Kohns Hopkins- Baltimore. Ortega- #.- ,lena Aossello- ,. and Harcia del Barrio- K.#. 7.**68 ,stimation of plant di%ersity at landscape le%el4 a methodology approach applied to three 3panish r$ral areas. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 0"0!C))9. Jstl$nd- =.- Xackrisson- O. and HPrnberg- H. 7.**.a8 Trees on the border between nat$re and c$lt$re C c$lt$rally modi.ed trees in boreal 3candina%ia. Environmental +istory !7)8- 6 C9 . Jstl$nd- =.- Xackrisson- O. and HPrnberg- H. 7.**.b8 Trees on the border between nat$re and c$lt$re C C$lt$rally modi.ed trees in boreal 3candina%ia. Environmental +istory !7)8- 6 C9 . >ignatti- A. 7)0068 Ecologia del &aesaggio. 1tet- Torino. >itte- K.A. 7)0 98 Terres de #astanide. &ayard- Y%re$'. Aackham- O. 7)00"8 Trees and ,oodlands in t%e Britis% Landsca5e. Weidenfeld and Nicholson- =ondon. Aegione Toscana 7)00 8 Inventario Forestale. Tipogra.a Aegionale- &irenBe. Aomane- &. and Nalerino- =. 7)00!8 Changements d$ paysage et biodi%ersitO dans les chZtegnairaies cO%enoles 7s$d de la &rance8 . Ecologia Mediterranea ./ 7)I.8- ).)C).0. Aomani- N. 7)0068 Il &aesaggio; teoria e 5iani.ca4ione . #ilano- &ranco Angeli. 3ereni- ,. 7)00!8 7reprint of .rst edition )09)8 +istory of t%e Italian Agricultural Landsca5e. >rinceton 1ni%ersity >ress- >rinceton. Nogt- 2.A.- Hordon- K.C. and Wargo- K.>. 7)00!8 Ecosystems. 3pringer- New

Sork. Nos- W. and 3tortelder- A. 7)00.8 )anis%ing Tuscan Landsca5es. Aegione Toscana- &irenBe. Wagner- H.H.- Wildi- O. and ,wald- 2.C. 7.***8 Additi%e partitioning of plant species di%ersity in an agric$lt$ral mosaic landscape. Landsca5e Ecology )"- .)0C..!. Watkins- C. and 2irby- 2.K. 7)00 8 Introd$ction C historical ecology and ,$ropean woodland. In4 2irby- 2.K. and Watkins- C. 7eds8 T%e Ecological +istory of Euro5ean Forests. CAB International- Wallingford- pp. i'C '%.

+ Cultural Landscapes in .orthern Forests Time/ 0pace and Af#liation to the Land

=. Jstl$nda and I. Bergmanb

a

1e5artment of )egetation Ecology, *-edis% University of

b

Agricultural *ciences, UmeO, *-eden and *ilvermuseet, ArCe5log, *-eden

Introduction
The en%ironmental impact of h$man s$bsistence and land $se in s$b:Arctic forest areas is more comple' and comprehensi%e than pre%io$sly recogniBed. An increasing body of knowledge s$ggests that the relationships between h$man acti%ities and northern ecosystems are %ery intricate- and is re%ealing how c$lt$ral landscapes ha%e formed o%er the last few tho$sand years. The history of northern forest landscapes m$st be deciphered in other ways than those c$stomarily $sed in temperate regions with a long history of

agric$lt$ral land $se. Traditional methods and interpretations applied to landscape st$dies do not necessarily apply to northern regions- since the forests ha%e formed dominant landscape feat$res thro$gho$t the b$lk of their history- and there has been %ery little arable land 7&ig. ..)8.

The history of agric$lt$re is relati%ely short- in contrast to the long history of

Fig# +#%# =arge forest landscape at TDeggel%as forest reser%e. Old:growth forest interspersed with larger and smaller lakes. No road constr$ction and no forestry operations ha%e taken place in this area. #any traces of preind$strial land $se occ$r within this landscape. >hoto by =ars Jstl$nd. < CAB International .**9. T%e #onservation of #ultural Landsca5es 7ed. #. Agnoletti8

C$lt$ral =andscapes in Northern &orests

indigeno$s h$nting: and fishing:based economies and reindeer pastoralism. In large parts of interior northern &ennoscandia- farming was not established $ntil the ) th and )0th cent$ries. In contrast- the 3ami ha%e s$stained themsel%es in the interior forests and mo$ntains for millenniamaking signi.cant marks on the landscape. This setting pro%ides $niG$e opport$nities- with certain limitations- to st$dy ancient c$lt$ral landscapes that ha%e not been s$perimposed by many later c$lt$ral layers as in more densely settled regions of ,$rope. Climatic conditions- %egetation and soil properties set the $ltimate limits of the carrying capacity of boreal ecosystems to which h$man s$bsistence strategies ha%e adD$sted. The strong seasonal changes ha%e had a decisi%e effect on s$bsistence logistics and technology. ,ach economic mode and s$bsistence strategy had a $niG$e set of inter:relationships with the physical en%ironment. Howe%er- the concept of landscape incl$des m$ch more than the mere rationalities of proc$rement strategies and reso$rce e'ploitation. Cogniti%e aspects s$ch as concepts of time- space and socialI religio$s order ha%e had a signi.cant effect on landscape perception and land $se. In this respect- landscapes form arenas where c$lt$ral differences ha%e clashed thro$gho$t history. Today- perhaps the most e'plicit con.ict in the e%al$ation of forest landscape G$alities is that between the economic perspecti%es of modern forest ind$stries and reindeer herding- and also the desire of the general p$blic to maintain a rich and attracti%e li%ing or recreational space. Conser%ation- of both the nat$ral and c$lt$ral heritage- has an intermediate perspecti%e and if it is to s$cceed sho$ld seek ways to bridge this con.ict of interests. The aims of this chapter are to describe the characteristics of forested landscapes in northern 3weden and to highlight important feat$res. We present the physical setting and a brief historical backgro$nd of h$man land $se with special emphasis on the nati%e 3ami people and their $se of forests and trees in this region. In addition- we present o$r methods of st$dy and disc$ss the problems and prospects of preser%ing important landscape G$alities for posterity.

=eograph! and Ecolog! of Boreal 0)eden

,cologically- boreal 3weden can be characteriBed as the northern conifero$s forest region 7&ig. ..)8. Appro'imately ""M of the land area is co%ered by forests- wetlands comprise )"M- arable land incl$ding past$re comprises only .M and the rest consists primarily of mo$ntains abo%e the timber line 72empe et al.- )00.8. The forest is dominated by the tree species 3cots pine 7 &inus sylvestris =.8 and Norway spr$ce 7&icea abies =. 72arst88. Together- these two species acco$nt for appro'imately *M of the standing timber %ol$me in the forests today. Other important tree species are the broadleaf birches 7Betula spp.8- aspen 7&o5ulus tremula8- grey alder 7Alnus incana8 and rowan 7*orbus aucu5aria8- b$t they only form a minor component of the forests. >alaeoecological and historical data show that this species composition has been pre%alent for at least the last )*** years. Boreal 3weden is physically dominated by the Caledonian mo$ntain rangewhich separates 3weden from Norway. &rom this range the co$ntry grad$ally slopes eastward towards the H$lf of Bothnia. The large ri%erswhich generally r$n in a so$th:eastern directiondraining the 3candes mo$ntain range and the forest land- are characteristic feat$res of the landscape. The large ri%ers together with their smaller trib$taries pro%ide a dense network of waterways thro$gho$t the forestland. N$mero$s lakes- of %ario$s siBes- are also important feat$res of the landscape. The climate is sharply seasonal. The s$mmers are relati%ely shortF the growing season ranges from abo$t )"* days in the so$th at low ele: %ations to aro$nd )** days in the far north at the highest altit$des 7Helmfrid- )0098. The winters are long and snow co%ers the gro$nd for more than )** days in the so$th- and $p to .." days in the north 7Helmfrid- )0098. The generally cold climate strongly

=. Jstl$nd and I.

Bergman

in.$ences biological processesF tree growth and decomposition of woody material are typically slow- or %ery slow- in these areas. 3cots pines can reach ages e'ceeding ** years and Norway spr$ces can reach ages of $p to "** years 7&ig. ...8.

4eople/ 0ubsistence and Landscapes

H$nting- fishing and collecting edible plants formed the economic basis of northern &ennoscandian societies thro$gho$t prehistory and into historical times. 3ince the first h$nter: gatherer comm$nities established soon after deglaciation 7abo$t )*-*** B>8- s$bsistence and settlement patterns ha%e $ndergone signi.cant changes o%er time. Within the h$nter:gatherer framework- different forms of reso$rce $tiliBation e%ol%ed- all setting characteristic marks on the landscape. +$ring the .rst milleni$m A+ reindeer pastoralism de%eloped among the indigeno$s 3ami pop$lation- leading to new forms of land $se. Altho$gh the archaeological records gi%e e%idence of stock:breeding and c$lti%ation in the Atlantic and Bothnian coastal regions d$ring the .rst milleni$m B> 7Kohanssen- )00*F Ba$do$- )00.F =iedgren- )00.F ,dgren and TPrnblom- )00/8h$nting and .shing remained cr$cial to s$bsistence. In northern 3weden- farming was .rmly established d$ring the first cent$ries A+altho$gh e'cl$si%ely restricted to coastal areas 7Ba$do$- )00.8.
Fig# +#+# +etail of old:growth pine forest in TDeggel%as forest reser%e. Trees with ages e'ceeding 6** years are common in this forest. &orest str$ct$re is shaped by rec$rrent forest .res and low intensity h$man $se. >hoto by =ars Jstl$nd.

s$bsidiary acti%ities to both farmers and reindeer herders $ntil the )0"*s. Today- e'tensi%e reindeer herding still pro%ides a li%elihood for many 3amiwhile the economic signi.cance of h$nting and .shing has fallen. &arming has dramatically declined since the )09*s and %ery few farmsteads are still acti%e. Aecent types of landscape $se incl$de hydro:power e'ploitation- ind$strial forestry and mining. The %ery .rst mining enterprises in the 3wedish mo$ntain region started as early as )9** A+. Altho$gh of short d$ration- mining had a large: scale en%ironmental impact- mainly d$e to the e'tensi%e logging of wood to prod$ce the charcoal reG$ired by the smelting:ho$ses. Altho$gh the central points of different ecological niches may ha%e %aried between different economies- reso$rce areas o%erlapped to a great e'tent. H$nter:gatherer and pastoralist economies- as well as farming- were $ltimately delimited by the seasonal changes characteriBing boreal areas. ConseG$entlye'ploitation strategies and settlement patterns were logistic in character- foc$ssing on the seasonal occ$rrences of reso$rces and the storage of s$pplies.

In the ) th and )0th cent$ries farming was slowly and s$ccessi%ely established in the interior regions of northern 3weden. The so:called @settlers? were either 3wedish farmers immigrating from the coastal areas- or of 3ami origin. To the 3ami- stock:breeding and c$lti%ation- mainly of potatoes and barleypresented either alternati%e or complementary s$bsistence acti%ities to reindeer herding. H$nting and fishing remained eG$ally important as

C$lt$ral =andscapes in Northern &orests

Trade has also made a contin$o$s economic contrib$tion to northern pre:ind$strial societies. Trade and the e'change of gifts occ$rred thro$gho$t their history- c$tting across ethnicling$istic- social and religio$s bo$ndaries and connecting societies thro$gh e'tensi%e networks. Trade relations formed one of many arenas where %al$es and conceptions of the world metprompting re.ections and altering perceptions of landscape disposition- $se and meaning. The economic and c$lt$ral dimensions str$ct$ring northern landscapes are to a large e'tent intact and disting$ishable. Aecent s$bsistence enterprises ha%e not consistently altered or erased traces of ancient economies and- conseG$ently- northern 3wedish landscapes present optim$m conditions for st$dying the interactions between people and their physical en%ironment. Apart from pro%iding the bases for economic interests and reso$rces to e'ploit- landscapes constit$te ideological constr$ctions where c$lt$rally conditioned %al$es materialiBe in the form of settlements- migration ro$tes- sacri.cial sites- etc.- and c$lt$ral differences are e'pressed in the signi.cance and meaning attrib$ted to the landscape. To the 3ami- c$lt$ral identity is deeply rooted in the landscape. #o$ntains- bo$lderslakes- brooks and other nat$ral formations constit$te signi.cant and s$bstantial elements that tell of s$bsistence and settlement history- social and religio$s spaces- important e%ents- family history and prominent persons. 1ntil abo$t "* years ago- mo%ements between settlements were cond$cted either by foot- boat or on skis. &amily members mo%ed together and the pace of mo%ement facilitated the transmission of e'periences and knowledge from one generation to the other. By ascribing identity to places they became important points of reference. It was cr$cial to the people?s s$r%i%al to obtain detailed knowledge of the landscape. Also- information embodied in oral traditions and place:names ser%ed as an instr$ment of enc$lt$ration and reinforced c$lt$ral identity 7Bergman and #$lk)0098. The media whereby landscape information is transferred ha%e changed d$ring the past "* years- mainly d$e to changes in the mode of reindeer herding. The contin$o$s Do$rneys by foot or ski between seasonal settlements ha%e been

replaced by G$ick trips from one settlement to another by helicopter- snowmobile or other motoriBed %ehicles. ConseG$ently- landscape perception has dramatically altered.

Methods and 0ources to Interpret 4ast and 4resent Cultural Landscapes

A %ariety of methods can be applied in st$dying and interpreting past h$man impact on boreal forest landscapes. Howe%er- more general approaches ha%e often pro%en to pro%ide data that are too limited to be of great %al$e- while detailed case st$dies with caref$lly chosen methods are far more fr$itf$l 7Hellberg- .**68. In order to $nco%er the comple' and intrinsic str$ct$res of the dialectics between ecosystem processes and h$man land $se- an interdisciplinary approach is reG$ired. 3$ch an approach offers the best possibilities to $nderstand landscape change and to e'plain the dri%ing forces behind changes 7Jstl$nd and Xackrisson- .***8. &or instance- written information on traditional 3ami land:$se is sparseand detailed maps are totally lacking. The only possible means of analysing feat$res s$ch as settlement patterns and the s$bsistence history of sites older than )** years is by a combination of historical- ecological and archaeological records and methods. In o$r e'perience- prod$cti%e case st$dies necessitate close cooperation between scholars in the .eld. Inter:disciplinary disc$ssion in the .eld allows discipline:speci.c perspecti%es to be confronted and to con%erge in theory and practiceand th$s realiBe the f$ll potential of landscape analysis. The archaeological record In northern 3weden- the deglaciation of the Weichselian ice forms the terminus 5ost Puem of the archaeological and palaeoecological records. Aecent inter:disciplinary archaeological and ecological research

=. Jstl$nd and I. Bergman

foc$sing on early post:glacial pioneer coloniBation in interior northern 3weden- has %erified the establishment of a h$nter:gatherer society in 9** B> 7$ncalibrated date8 7Bergman et al., .**/8. ,'ca%ations ha%e re%ealed a di%erse settlement pattern- incl$ding different types of sites- and indications of logistic proc$rement strategies. >alaeoecological data from close canopy sites 7in mires8 ha%e %erified an early h$man en%ironmental impact 7HPrnberg et al.- .**"8. The settlement sites- incl$ding the immediate s$rro$ndings- were deliberately deforested to open $p a pleasant li%ing space. Altho$gh proc$rement strategies and settlement patterns changed thro$gh time- h$nting- fishing and gathering still remained the main economic acti%ities thro$gho$t a period spanning almost *** years. 3ettlement sites are disting$ished by their location close to the shores of lakes and waterco$rses. The composition and G$antity of artefacts and feat$res- as well as the spatial e'tent of acti%ity areas- are indicati%e of the f$nction and stat$s of a site within the o%erall settlement pattern 7Bergman- )00"8. The same repertoire of feat$res- incl$ding cooking pits- pit hearths and heaps of .re:cracked stones occ$r on sites dating from 9** B> to ) A+. +$ring the first cent$ries A+- the h$nter:gatherer societies of interior northern 3weden $nderwent s$bstantial changes. 3ettlements were no longer located close to shores- b$t in forested areas at a distance from larger lakes and waterco$rses. The archaeological record dating from "** A+ onwards is disting$ished by large n$mbers of hearths 7i.e. .replaces made of stones8 forming the most common elements of the prehistoric 3ami landscape. The hearths are the only remaining str$ct$res of 3ami type h$t dwellings 7&igs ../ and ..68 and generally appear in pairs or gro$ps of /C". 3ometimes hearths display a signi.cant spatial pattern- incl$ding rows of $p to )*C.* hearths spaced at a reg$lar distance 7"C)* m8. Altho$gh there is generally great %ariation in the siBe of the hearths- those arranged in rows are %ery homogeneo$s 7Bergman- )00)8. Hearth rows are interpreted as reflecting a social str$ct$re incl$ding related families- each hearth representing a family ho$sehold. In a corresponding manner- h$t fo$ndations in the high mo$ntain regions- dating to "**C).** A+- are arranged in rows of /C!. The h$ts represent the e'pansion of settlements to an ecological niche close to the tree:limit that had not pre%io$sly been systematically e'ploited. Altogether- the obser%ed changes in settlement location re.ect a profo$nd shift in the s$bsistence basis- probably d$e to the emergence of reindeer pastoralism.
Fig# +#(# >artly e'ca%ated hearth of 3ami Rrran type- Adam%alta- ArDeplog- 3weden- with stone constr$ction $nco%ered. The hearth was placed in the centre of an 7))th cent$ry8 h$t dwelling- now completely decomposed. >hoto by =ars =iedgren.

Fig# +#-# 3ami h$t dwelling- Aebra$re- ArDeplog parish- 3weden. The h$t was probably b$ilt in the )0th cent$ry and abandoned in the early .*th cent$ry. This type of log constr$ction is typical of the forest 3ami in the ArDeplogKokkmokk and Ar%idsDa$r areas. >hoto by =ars =iedgren.

C$lt$ral =andscapes in Northern &orests

+$ring the following period- aro$nd ).**C)"** A+- reindeer herding $nderwent changes with regard to management and land $se- re.ecting changes in social organiBation and settlement patterns. Herding was cond$cted with a high degree of mobility between past$res- and the nomadism recogniBed from later periods e%ol%ed. At the same time- large cooperati%e gro$ps split into smaller social $nits. 3ami settlement sites dating to )"** A+ and later are characteriBed by h$ts in %ario$s degrees of decomposition- the oldest being completely decomposed- b$t with remaining hearths 7&igs ../ and ..68. 3ite str$ct$re and composition %ary with respect to season and s$bsistence. Henerally- two or three dwelling h$ts occ$r at most sites. In addition- there may be other h$ts with %ario$s f$nctions C for e'ample h$ts for keeping goats- or for smoking meat and .sh. &$rthermore- the sites host the remains of a n$mber of storage b$ildings of %ario$s types of constr$ction. The oldest standing storage b$ildings date to the end of the )9th cent$ry- b$t at sites where storage b$ildings ha%e either decomposed- or ha%e been remo%ed for secondary $se at other places- their original locations can be discerned from remaining sills and postholes. 3ettlement sites incl$ded profane as well as religio$s spaces. 3e%enteenth and ) th cent$ry so$rces mention wooden sacri.cial platforms as reg$lar elements at 3ami settlement sites 7HPgstrPm- )!6!F 3cheffer$s- )0"9F Aheen)0 /F Tornae$s- )0 /8. Also- trees in the %icinity of settlements co$ld be s$bDected to religio$s prac: tices 7Aheen- )0 /F Hraan- )0 /F HPgstrPm- )!6!F Ni$reni$s- )0 /8. No standing platforms ha%e been preser%ed- b$t in old forest stands sacri.cial trees may still be fo$nd. Biological archives 3ince forests co%er entire landscapes and trees can reach great ages- dendrochronology is an important tool for analysis of past land $se 7Niklasson)00 8. +endrochronological st$dies related to landscape history ha%e primarily foc$sed on fire history 7Niklasson and HranstrPm- .***8- forest str$ct$re 7Jstl$nd and =indersson- )00"F A'elsson et al., .**.8 and nati%e peoples? impact on forest

ecosystems 7Xackrisson et al., .***F Jstl$nd et al., .**., .**68. The potentially great age of the dominant tree species pro%ides opport$nities to analyse e%ents in the forests related to h$man acti%ity far back in time 7see &ig. ...8. It is also possible to connect chronologies from li%e trees with s$b:fossil wood from snags- down:logs and trees s$bmerged in lakes or peat. In drier habitatssnags can stand for many cent$ries and down:logs can also reach %ery great ages. Changes in water le%els of lakes and peat acc$m$lation in mires ha%e often preser%ed s$bmerged trees for tho$sands of years 7Jstl$nd et al., .**68. #arks or blaBes on trees ha%e recei%ed partic$lar attention recently 7see #obley and ,ldridge- )00.F Jstl$nd et al., .**.8. 3$ch trees- often called c$lt$rally modi.ed trees- can be $sed to analyse forest $se far back in time at their act$al location and with precise dating. Typical c$lt$rally modi.ed trees incl$de border trees- trees marking paths and bark:peeled trees 7&ig. .."8. The maDor limitation affecting this reso$rce is the fact that most of the forests ha%e been logged since the end of the )0th cent$ry- and most of the old trees ha%e been remo%ed since that time 7,ricsson et al., .**/F Andersson and Jstl$nd.**68. This highlights the importance of forest reser%es and remaining old:growth forests along the Caledonian mo$ntain range. In these forests there are better opport$nities to st$dy past land $se than in the forest landscape affected by modern forestry. This creates a problem- howe%er- since the protected areas are mostly located in the western areas at relati%ely high:altit$de- low: prod$cti%ity sites- th$s prod$cing a skewed o%erall pict$re of past land $se. Traditionally- reconstr$ctions of long:term %egetation history and agric$lt$ral history ha%e depended on pollen analysis. Negetation changes in relation to h$man acti%ities and climate change ha%e been st$died in many areas in northern 3candina%ia 7see- for instance- ,ngelmark- )0!9F

=. Jstl$nd and I. Bergman

Fig# +#># 3cots pine with typical 3ami bark:peeling scar. >hoto by =ars Jstl$nd.

3egerstrPm- )00*F ,man$elsson- .**)8. While these st$dies pro%ide good e'amples of large:scale changes in %egetation and land $se- they seldom gi%e detailed information abo$t indi%id$al forest stands or abo$t how they were $sed. Aecentlymore refined methods ha%e been promotedincl$ding palaeoecological st$dies of @closed canopy sites? 7Bradshaw- )0 8. 1sing these techniG$es it is possible to get a detailed record of a partic$lar forest or forest stand 7Bradshaw and Xackrisson- )00*F HPrnberg et al., )0008. This approach is of partic$lar interest in northern 3weden- where it is possible not only to $se lake: sediments and peat- b$t also- d$e to the slow decomposition of organic matter- mor h$m$s in the forests. 'istorical records In northern 3weden- forest history and agric$lt$ral history can be st$died by the $se of historical records dating back to the )/th cent$ry. 3ome of the oldest records are the law:rolls from the different co$nties of 3wedense%eral of which were written in the period )."*C )/"*. The general law that applied to the coastal and sparse inland settlements in northern 3weden was @H[lsingelagen? 7Holmb[ck and WessOn)0!08. Other medie%al so$rces incl$de deeds of gifts- ecclesiastical ta' books- ta' records 7notably the ta' record of )6)/8 and records of tithes. The records can be $sed to con.rm the year of establishment and land area as well as the de%elopment of the %illages in the coastal region of northern 3weden d$ring medie%al times 7seefor instance- =$ndholm- )0 !8. The creation of a strong centraliBed go%ernment d$ring the )9th cent$ry- $nder the reign of H$sta%$s Nasa- led to administrati%e meas$res designed to register all landed property and to establish a system of indi%id$al ta'ation as opposed to the pre%io$s collecti%e system. &rom that time the ta' records gi%e more detailed and coherent information abo$t the agric$lt$ral acti%ities in northern 3weden 7see

#yrdal and 3Pderberg- )00)8. +$ring the )!th cent$ry many new records were created- which are of great importance for the interpretation of the land:$se history of agric$lt$ral land as well as forest land adDacent to the older %illages in northern 3weden. In )9. the National =and 3$r%ey Board came into being. One of the .rst tasks for this a$thority was to prod$ce geometric maps of %illages and parishes in the co$ntry 7>eterson:Berger- )0. 8. #ost of the a%ailable records prior to the )0th cent$ry deal with the agric$lt$rally de%eloped coastal parts of northern 3weden- and only a few gi%e information abo$t the m$ch more sparsely inhabited inland parts of this region. In the )!th and ) th cent$ries most of the inland region was $sed by 3ami comm$nities- which paid ta'es for their e'cl$si%e $se of the nat$ral reso$rces. The territory was organiBed into large ta'ation $nits- in 3wedish @lappskattelands?- within which the families mo%ed aro$nd on a yearly basis- $tiliBing different parts at different times. 1s$ally the borders between the @lands? were marked in the forest by blaBed trees 7H$ltblad- )09 8.

C$lt$ral =andscapes in Northern &orests

The ) th cent$ry was also a period of e'ploration of the less familiar northern parts of the co$ntry. Altho$gh people had tra%elled earlier in this part of the co$ntry and described their e'periences- for e'am: ple Ola$s #agn$s in )"""- 3cheffer$s in the )9!*s 73cheffer$s- )0"98 and A$dbeck in the )90*s 7%on 3ydow- )09 C)0908- a new wa%e of tra%el acco$nts were written down and in some cases p$blished d$ring the ) th cent$ry. #ost famo$s was of co$rse the acco$nt by the yo$ng =innea$s tra%elling in the far northern parts in )!/. 7%on >laten and %on 3ydow- )0!!8. His description of the pro%ince of =apland is of great %al$e from an ecological perspecti%e. Not only was he interested in botany- b$t also in different kinds of nat$ral history as well as local c$stoms and economic acti%ities. The tra%els and work of =innae$s stim$lated followers and many important descriptions from different parts of northern 3weden were p$blished in the ) th cent$ry. While many important records emerged d$ring the ) th cent$ry- the rapid economic de%elopment in the following cent$ry prod$ced an immense n$mber of detailed records. By the .rst decades of the )0th cent$ry many l$mber companies were established in northern 3weden- these later became %ery large and ha%e dominated the l$mber market $p to the present time. ,specially important reso$rces in the forest company archi%es are the forest s$r%eys. The .rst s$r%eys in northern 3weden were carried o$t d$ring the late )0th cent$ry- $s$ally as simple stem co$nts- incl$ding only the n$mber and diameter of the large%al$able trees 7=inder and Jstl$nd- )00 8. =ater- smaller trees- dead trees and other %ariables were incl$ded in the s$r%eys- and management plans were also prod$ced. The e'ploitation and the following debate and concern o%er forest reso$rces res$lted- inter alia- in new forest legislation in )0*/ 73tDernG$ist- )0!/8- more detailed company s$r%eys and a national forest s$r%ey starting in )0./ 7NordstrPm- )0"08. In order to $nderstand the maDor changes that ha%e taken place in the boreal forest landscape- it is possible to $se maps and corresponding descriptions from the delineation process- which was carried o$t primarily d$ring the ) th and )0th cent$ries. The p$rpose of the delineation was to con.rm the property rights o%er the forest land of the 3wedish state and the northern farmers. The maps and descrip tions from the period following ) !/ are %al$able since the work was carried o$t e'tensi%ely o%er the two northernmost co$nties- N[sterbotten and Norrbotten- and beca$se they were prod$ced according to detailed speci.cations 7AlmG$ist- )0. 8. &or these reasons- they pro%ide interesting details of the forest landscape o%er large areas and allow regions which at that time were in.$enced by h$man acti%ities to %arying degrees to be compared. The detailed scale of the maps and the accompanying descriptions make it possible to st$dy landscape elements as small as *." ha. The information pro%ided incl$des- inter aliadata on tree species composition- time since forest .res and graBing G$ality 7which can be $sed to interpret the density of the forest8.

Interpretation of 4ast and 4resent Landscapes 0patial 4atterns and Cognitive Aspects
The long:term relationship between people and forest ecosystems has created dynamic landscape patternswhich can be interpreted with appropriate tools. +ifferent reso$rces were $tiliBed at different locationswith differing intensities and at different inter%als in the landscape. This in t$rn created spatial patterns in the forest- affecting %ariables s$ch as forest age str$ct$re- the openness of the forests and species composition. On a larger scale- patterns of @c$lt$ral islands? in a forest matri' can be recogniBed 7,ricsson.**)8. One s$ch e'ample from the so$thern boreal Bone is the system of s$mmer farms scattered in the forests aro$nd %illages. The distance between a s$mmer farm and the corresponding permanent settlement co$ld e'ceed "* km. This system facilitated the $se of graBing reso$rces o%er large areas and allowed s$rpl$s prod$ction. ,ach part of

=. Jstl$nd and I. Bergman

the forest landscape in s$ch a system- where some areas were $sed for cattle graBing- others for winter:fodder prod$ction- and still others for h$nting and .shing- generally e'hibits typical characteristics. &ire was $sed speci.cally in graBing areas to impro%e graBing conditionswhich in t$rn created large areas of open- pine: dominated forests in the areas between permanent settlements 7,ricsson- )00!F ,ricsson et al., .***8. There were also gradients with increasing n$mbers of large- dead and old trees from the permanent settlements towards areas $sed less intensi%ely 7Jstl$nd- )00/8. 3emi:permanent settlements $sed by the nati%e 3ami in northern 3weden represent another e'ample of c$lt$ral islands in a forest matri'. ,ach 3ami family practising intensi%e reindeer herding in the forest area $sed C)* settlements d$ring different parts of the year- each with speci.c graBing lands. A typical pattern aro$nd a settlement incl$ded a small area 7co%ering a few hectares8 that was almost deforested or co%ered by yo$nger forest which was $sed for .rewood 7Jstl$nd et al., .**/8. Within this area fences for penning reindeers were constr$cted- and within the corrals %ery large and old pines were sa%ed in order to pro%ide shade for the animals. In the ne't- e'terior- Bone the trees were generally older and some 3cots pine trees were $sed as so$rces of inner bark- which was an important staple food for the 3ami people 7Xackrisson et al., .***8. Howe%er- not all trees of a s$itable age were $sed. Other factors appear to ha%e in.$enced the n$mber of trees being peeled for food in any gi%en area. +ead trees were also characteristic feat$res of this e'terior forest. Old trees with and witho$t the characteristic bark: peeling scars died of nat$ral ca$ses- b$t the 3ami also intentionally killed some trees by girdling to increase the a%ailability of .rewood. The res$lting e'terior forest aro$nd 3ami settlements- an $ne%en- sparse old:growth mi'ed conifero$s forest- was th$s partly a nat$ral forest and partly in.$enced by people. At a f$rther distance- trees were blaBed to show borders aro$nd the settle: ment. >aths thro$gh the forest led to the ne't settlement a few or se%eral kilometres away. This pattern was repeated across the forest landscapecreating a landscape mosaic of more intensi%ely

$sed forest aro$nd settlements interspersed with lightly affected forest co%ering most of the land 7Jstl$nd et al., .**.8. Set another aspect of 3ami land $se that added to the en%ironmental impact was their $tiliBation of seasonal settlements. ,ach site represented a short period of habitation- co%ering a time:span of )C6 weeks- and had limited effects on forest stands and graBing. Howe%er- there was a s$ccessi%e and c$m$lati%e en%ironmental impactleading e%ent$ally to the abandonment of sites. In generalaccess to .rewood was the limiting factor setting the lifetime for each site. ConseG$ently- a consistent feat$re of 3ami settlement patterns is the s$ccession of sites. At any gi%en point in time the landscape encompassed settlement sites and site catchment areas in %ario$s stages of abandonmentdecomposition and en%ironmental reco%ery. 3ettlement history- as represented by the concrete remains of dwelling h$ts- storage b$ildings and %isible traces of land $se- formed a key element in the cognition of landscape meaning and ser%ed as a medi$m for transmitting traditions and family his: tory. Today- place names 7if still remembered8 re.ect aspects of ancient ways of attaching importance to landscape elements. &orest history- and speci.cally c$lt$rally modi.ed trees- pro%ide other means of interpreting past cogniti%e landscapes- howe%er fragmentary. The collection of inner bark was one of the decisi%e elements str$ct$ring time and spaceand bark:peelings pro%ide data on site location- the spatial e'tent of reso$rce areas- social organiBation and seasonal logistics in%ol%ed in the peeling. \$antitati%e estimates of e'ploitation press$re re.ect the importance of inner bark in the reg$lar diet and the weighing of landscape G$alities with regard to access to inner bark. The siBe- form and direction of peeling scars re%eal $nderlying norms and standards to which the 3ami adhered in ancient times. Also- peeling was cond$cted with attention to rit$al practice and strict beha%io$ral

C$lt$ral =andscapes in Northern &orests

r$les- thereby e'pressing religio$s aspects of the relationship between people and nat$re 7Bergman et al., .**68. The economic importance of pine inner barkas well as the social and ideological implications of peeling- clearly ill$strates the fact that af.liation to land cannot be defined p$rely by rational choices and foraging efficiency. ConseG$ently- the interpretation of past and present landscapes sho$ld incl$de a tr$ly conte't$al and dialectic approach- recogniBing landscapes as comple' mosaics that e'ceed the s$m of their parts.

in%ariably protected for their nat$ral G$alities and for biodi%ersity reasons- rather than for their c$lt$ral %al$es. Inaccessible forests at high ele%ations and small patches of old forest that ha%e not yet been logged may also contain important traces of past land $se.

Conclusion
&or the f$t$re we belie%e that remaining traces of the c$lt$ral heritage in the forests m$st be protected from the impact of forestry operations. 3$ch traces incl$de archaeological remainsadDacent forest stands and c$lt$rally modi.ed trees. The most important action to take is to ed$cate people in the forestry sector and make them aware of the %al$e of these reso$rces. #odi.ed forestry practices- with less impact- m$st also be de%eloped. New laws protecting speci.c feat$ress$ch as c$lt$rally modi.ed trees- may also be needed. A second important meas$re is to incl$de protection for %al$able c$lt$ral sites together with nat$re conser%ation efforts. High c$lt$ral %al$es in a forest add $niG$e G$alities- and make forest reser%es more- not less- %al$able. This idea m$st permeate f$t$re conser%ation work and reG$ires new cooperation between different a$thorities. Aecent inter:disciplinary research into ancient land $se in northern boreal landscapes stresses the importance of detailed case st$dies in attempts to attain a general $nderstanding of the intrinsic and comple' processes in%ol%ed in landscape de%elop: ment. In analysing 3ami landscape G$alitiesfactors other than meas$rable en%ironmental data ha%e been taken into acco$nt. Cogniti%e aspects ha%e also been considered- reinforcing the interpretati%e and e'planatory frameworks. The res$lts facilitate the de%elopment of new preser%a: tion strategies- and data on the speci.c characteristics of each in%estigated area can

4reservation and 4rotection of Cultural Landscapes in .orthern Europe

The land $se practised by farmers and nati%e people shaped the forests and landscapes in characteristic ways for millennia $p $ntil the late )0th cent$ry. The methods $sed shifted- and the intensity of the land $se grew s$ccessi%ely o%er time- b$t many landscape elements were constant o%er long periods of time. +$ring the )0th cent$ry a maDor transition in land $se occ$rred. =arge:scale ind$strial forest e'ploitation and- more recentlymodern forest management was introd$ced across the entire region and carried o$t regardless of earlier land $se. The .rst wa%e of forest e'ploita: tion targeted the oldest and largest 3cots pine trees. In s$ccessi%e wa%es of the timber:frontier- smaller trees of all species were logged for $se as wood p$lp. This dramatic change in land $se has erased earlier landscape patterns and speci.c traces of earlier land $se. The landscape pattern in the north:western part of the boreal forest created by semi:permanent 3ami settlements in a forest matri' has been totally eradicated o%er most of the forest landscape. 3ingle:species forest stands in different age classes with no really old forest ha%e replaced the old mi'ed conifero$s forests with dead trees and many c$lt$rally modi.ed trees. #echaniBed soil scari.cation on clear:c$ts has destroyed hearths that showed the locations of historic and pre:historic 3ami settlements. The same de%elopments in other regions in the boreal forest ha%e destroyed other c$lt$ral landscapes. Howe%er- some areas still retain the c$lt$ral heritage within the landscape. These incl$de forest reser%es and national parks- which are almost

=. Jstl$nd and I. Bergman

be immediately applied. +etailed case st$d:preser%ation in practice. 3$ch st$dies will ies not only add to o$r general theoretical pro%ide tools for selecting landscapes for knowledge of landscape genesis- b$t also conser%ation- and pro%ide methods for pre:constit$te methodological e'amples of ser%ing and restoring landscape f$nctions.

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HPgstrPm- >. 7)!6!8 Bes3rifning (f-er de til *-eriges 3rona lydande La5mar3er. 3tockholm. Holmb[ck- ^.- and WessOn- ,. 7)0!08 *vens3a lands3a5slagar. *(dermannalagen oc% +Slsingelagen . AlmG%ist V Wicksell- 1ppsala- 3weden. HPrnberg- H.- Bohlin- ,.- Hellberg- ,.- Bergman- I.- Xackrisson- O.- Olofsson- A.- Wallin- K.,. and >]sse- T. 7.**"8 ,ffects of #esolithic h$nter:gatherers on local %egetation in a non:$niform glacio:isostatic land $plift area- northern 3weden. )egetation +istory and Arc%aeobotany )"- )/C.9. HPrnberg- H.- Jstl$nd- =. and Xackrisson- O. 7)0008 The genesis of two >icea:Cladina forests in northern 3weden. .ournal of Ecology !- **C )6.

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H$ltblad- &. 7)09 8 J%erg]ng fr]n nomadism till agrar bos[ttning i Kokkmokks socken. Acta La55onica (IN. AlmG%ist V WiksellIHebers.- 3tockholm. Kohanssen- O.3. 7)00*8 *yns5un3ter 5O Cernalderens Cordbru3ssamfunn i 2ord/2orge. 3tencilserie B- nr. .0- Instit$tt for samf$nns%itenskap- 1ni%ersitetet i Troms_- Norway. 2empe- H.- ToetH.- #agn$sson- >.:H. and Bergstedt- K. 7)00.8 i3s3ogstaMeringen 6>@7D@A D *3ogstillstOnd, tillvSMt oc% avver3ning. No. "). Instit$tionen fPr skogsta'ering- 3%eriges lantbr$ks$ni%ersitet- 1me]- 3weden. =iedgren- =. 7)00.8 H$s och g]rd i H[lsingland. *tudia Arc%aeologica Universitatis Umensis .. 1me] $ni%ersitet- 1me]- 3weden. =inder- >. and Jstl$nd- =. 7)00 8 3tr$ct$ral changes in three mid:boreal 3wedish forest landscapes) "C)009. Biological #onservation "- 0C)0. =$ndholm- 2. 7)0 !8 3taten blir till C ett nordskandina%iskt e'empel. Bebyggelse%istoris3 Tids3rift- )6- )/!C)"*. #obley- C.#. and ,ldridge- #. 7)00.8 C$lt$rally modi.ed trees in the >aci.c Northwest. Arctic Ant%ro5ology .00)C))*. #yrdal- K. and 3Pderberg- K. 7)00)8 'ontinuitetens dynami3. Agrar e3onomi i 6899/talets *verige . AlmG%ist V Wiksell International- 3tockholm. Niklasson- #. 7)00 8 1endroecological *tudies in Forest and Fire +istory. 3wedish 1ni%ersity of Agric$lt$ral 3ciences- 3il%estria. Niklasson- #. and HranstrPm- A. 7.***8 N$mbers and siBes of .res4 =ong:term spatially e'plicit .re history in a 3wedish boreal forest landscape. Ecology )- )6 6C)600. Ni$reni$s- O.>. 7)0 /8 La55land eller bes3rivning (ver den nordis3a tra3t, som la55arne bebo i de avlSgsnaste delarne av *s3andien eller *verge . BerSttelser om samerna i 6B99/talets *verige. 2$ngl. 3kytteanska 3amf$ndets Handlingar- Nr .!- 1me]- 3weden. NordstrPm- =. 7)0"08 3kogsskPtselmetoder och skogslagstiftning. In4 Arpi- H. 7ed.8 *veriges s3ogar under 699 Or. 2$ngl +om[nstyrelsen- 3tockholm- pp. .6)C.9.. Jstl$nd- =. 7)00/8 ,'ploitation and str$ct$ral changes in the north 3wedish forest ) **C)00.. >h+ thesis- +epartment of &orest Negetation ,cology- 3wedish 1ni%ersity of Agric$lt$ral 3ciences- 1me]- 3weden. Jstl$nd- =. and =indersson H. 7)00"8 A dendroecological st$dy of the e'ploitation and transformation of a boreal forest stand. *candinavian .ournal of Forest esearc% )*- "9C96. Jstl$nd- =. and Xackrisson- O. 7.***8 The history of the boreal forest in 3weden C and the so$rces to pro%e it` In4 Agnoletti- #. and Andersson- A. 7eds8 Met%ods and A55roac%es in Forest +istory . CAB InternationalWallingford- 12. Jstl$nd- =.- Xackrisson- O. and HPrnberg- H. 7.**.8 Trees on the border between nat$re and c$lt$re C C$l t$rally modi.ed trees in boreal 3candina%ia. Environmental +istory !7)8- 6 C9 . Jstl$nd- =.- ,ricsson- 3.- Xackrisson- O. and Andersson- A. 7.**/8 Traces of past 3aami forest $se C an ecological st$dy of c$lt$rally modi.ed trees and earlier land:$se within a boreal forest reser%e. *candinavian .ournal of Forest esearc% ) - ! C 0. Jstl$nd- =.- Bergman- I. and Xackrisson- O. 7.**68 Trees for food C a /*** year record of s$barctic plant $se. AntiPuity ! - .! C. 9. >eterson:Berger- ,. 7)0. 8 =antm[teriets kartogra.ska %erksamhet. In4 *vens3a LantmSteriet 6B?@D6>?@. 3tockholm- pp. ."0C.0!. Aheen- 3. 7)0 /8 En 3ortt elation om La55arnes Lef-erne oc% *ed%er, -iCd*3ie5ellsser sam5t i mOnga *tyc3en !rof-e -ildfarellsser. BerSttelser om samerna i 6B99/talets *verige. 2$ngl. 3kytteanska 3amf$ndets Handlingar- Nr .!- 1me]- 3weden. 3cheffer$s- K. 7)0"98 =appland. Acta La55onica )III. 2ordis3a Museet. AlmG%ist V Wiksells- 1ppsala3weden. 3egerstrPm- 1. 7)00*8 The nat$ral holocene %egetation de%elopment and the introd$ction of agric$lt$re in northern Norrland- 3weden. 3t$dies of soil- peat and especially %ar%ed lake sediments. >h+ thesis- 1ni%ersity of 1me]3weden. 3tDernG$ist- >. 7)0!/8 La-s in t%e Forest. Blom- =$nd- 3weden. Tornae$s- K. 7)0 /8 BerSttelse om La5marc3erna oc% 1eras TillstOnd . BerSttelser om samerna i 6B99/ talets *verige. 2$ngl. 3kytteanska 3amf$ndets Handlingar- Nr .!- 1me]- 3weden. Non >laten- #. and Non 3ydow- C.:O. 7eds8 7)0!!8 #arl Linnaeus La55landsresa Or 6A7? . WahlstrPm V Wid:

strand- 3tockholm. Non 3ydow- C.:O. 7)09 C)0908. udbec3 d.y.;s dagbo3 frOn La55landsresan4 #ed inledning och anm[rkningar I. 3%enska =innOs[llskapets ]rsskrift. AlmG%ist V Wicksell- 1ppsala- 3weden. Xackrisson- O.- Jstl$nd- =.- 2orhonen- O. and Bergman- I. 7.***8 Ancient $se of 3cots pine innerbark by 3aami in N. 3weden related to c$lt$ral and ecological factors. .ournal of )egetation +istory and Arc%aeobotany 0- 00C )*0.

( Energ! Balance and Land 1se: the Ma2ing of

an Agrarian Landscape from the 3antage 4oint of 0ocial Metabolism 5the Catalan 3all6s Count! in %*7,8%*9,:%
,. Tello-a A. Harrabo$b and (. C$ssab
a

1e5artament dF+istGria i Institucions EcGnomiPues, Facultat de #iences EconGmiPues i Em5resarials, Universitat de Barcelona,
b

Barcelona, *5ain, and 1e5artament dFEconomia i dF+istGria EconGmica, Universitat AutGnoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, *5ain

=andscape can be seen as the territorial e'pression of the metabolism that any gi%en society maintains with the nat$ral systems s$staining it. One way of $nderstanding when and why the h$man shape of the territory changes consists of analysing the path of social metabolism that lea%es its ecological footprint on its s$rro$ndings. Approaching this analysis of the e'change of society?s energymaterials or waste with its s$staining so$rces reG$ires- at the same time- a broadening of the window $sed for obser%ing reality. And this broadening of o$r .eld of %ision can only be achie%ed thro$gh a trans:disciplinary dialog$e among different areas of knowledge within the social and nat$ral sciences- all of which are capable of adopting a common historical perspecti%e. 0ocial Metabolism 2arl #ar' was the .rst to introd$ce the concept of social metabolism in the realm of economics and history. Based on the notion of metabolic e'change de%eloped in his day by the .eld of biology- #ar' characteriBed h$man labo$r as the intentional mod$lation of that metabolism- and in one of the few occasions on which he categorically speci.ed what he %iewed as socialism- he de.ned it as

the conscio$s organiBation of an e'change between h$man beings and nat$re @in a form cond$ci%e to f$ll h$man de%elopment? 7#ar'- )0!9 b) 9!c- p. )6)8. Ne%ertheless- D$st as Koan #artdneB Alier has e'plained- #ar' and ,ngels reDected the proposition set forth by 3ergei >odolinsky to analyse the social metabolism in an operational way %ia the calc$lation of energy .ows 7#artdneB Alier and 3chlepmann- )00)F #artdneB Alier- )00"F &ischer:2owalski- )00 8. On the one hand- the theory of %al$e:labo$r polemically tied them to the liberal economists of the time. On the other hand- the rigid Hegelian dialectic schema led them to blindly belie%e in the @growth of prod$cti%e forces? as the f$lcr$m of social change. #ar' belie%ed in an ine'orable historical process4 @the destr$ction of the p$rely spontaneo$s original conditions of that e'change between h$man beings and nat$re? 7see < CAB International .**9. T%e #onservation of #ultural Landsca5es 7ed. #. Agnoletti8

,nergy Balance and =and 1se 3acristfn- )00.F &oster- .***8. This shortcirc$ited consideration of the en%ironmental G$estion in the .*th cent$ry #ar'ist traditions- while the ecological leanings of other a$thors s$ch as Herbert 3pencer- 3tanley Ke%onsWilhelm Ostwald- =eopold >fa$ndler- ,d$ard 3acher- >atrick Heddes and &rederick 3oddy s$ffered the same fate in the mainstream of economic thinking. The need to confront the socialCen%ironmental crisis of o$r time has enabled the concept of social metabolism to be resc$ed. The de%elopment of economic ecology- based on the work by Nicholas Heorgesc$:Aoegen- has gi%en it a new energy and materials to acco$nt for the biophysical flows of h$man societies 7Heorgesc$:Aoegen- )0!)F &ischer:2owalski and Hettler)000F #artdneB Alier and Aoca K$smet- .***F Haberl- .**)a-b8. This emerging approach re%i%es the task initiated years ago by pioneering a$thors s$ch as +a%id >imentel- Herald =each- Nacla% 3mil- KosO #an$el Naredo- >ablo Campos and #ario Hiampietro- who constr$cted the energy balances of di%erse agrarian systems 7>imentel and >imentel- )0!0F Campos and Naredo- )0 *a- bF =each- )0 )F Hiampietro and >imentel- )00)F Hiampietro et al.- )006F 3mil)006- .**)- .**/8. 3econdly- ecological economics research is generating speci.c alternati%es to the e'cl$si%e $se of macro:economic indicators $sed in national acco$nting %ia the de%elopment of a parallel system of national biophysical acco$nts. Thirdly- William Aees and #athis Wackernagel ha%e proposed the territorial translation of the most signi.cant headings of those biophysical .ows %ia the estimate of their ecological foot5rint 7Aees and Wackernagel- )009a-bF &ernfndeB- )000F CostanBa et al.- .***F Haberl et al..**)F Carpintero- .**.- .**"8. Ecological Footprints: From Local to =lobal This opens $p a %ery interesting bridge spanning the st$dy of socio: ecological .ows and the e%ol$tion of the territory- on both a local and global scale.. Combining the different approaches and their respecti%e methods or tools- we can relate the geographical and historical st$dy of the landscape with the analysis of the path of the social metabolism that has led to the replacement of m$ltiple local ecological footprints- imprinted on the territory by the land reG$irements corresponding to each partic$lar way of $sing the reso$rces- by an e%er more global- $niform ecological footprint which is f$rther remo%ed from the perceptions of those who originate it 7Norgaard- )00!F &ischer:2owalski and Amann- .**)8.

O$r research proDect aims to st$dy the transformation of the agric$lt$ral land: scapes in the northwest #editerranean- and lies precisely on this bridge spanning two maDor a%en$es of research. &irst- it is inspired by the famo$s inter:disciplinary symposia held in )0"" and )0 ! on the transformation of the ,arth by h$man actions- which ha%e pa%ed the way in recent years for the international proDect- =and Co%er C =and 1se Change 7Thomas et al.- )0"9F T$rner- )00*- )00"F Boada and 3a$rd- .**.8. 3econd- and coinciding with a maDority of the inno%ati%e approaches emerging from the +epartment of 3ocial ,cology at the Instit$te for Interdisciplinary 3t$dies at the 1ni%ersity of Nienna 7I&&8- we belie%e that in the long term- the dri%ing forces of change in land $ses obey the transformations e'perienced by the social metabolism of h$man acti%ity with the nat$ral en%ironment. &ollowing the approach spearheaded by the A$strian researchers from the I&&- a methodological key to $nderstanding the e%ol$tion of the territory lies in a cross between the analysis of the energy and material .ows which $nderlie a certain pattern of cons$mption- the forms of land $se that shape the landscape- and the balances of the $se of time or the working capacity of the pop$lation that cons$mes those prod$cts and inhabits the same land in order to meet its needs 7&ischer:2owalski- )00 F &ischer: 2owalski and Hettler- )000F Haberl- .**)a- bF 2ra$smann- .**)F 3chandl and 3ch$ltB- .**.8. We start from the %ery simply form$lation that is similar to the working method of

,. Tello et al.
agrarian economic historians4 the land rePuirement by unit of 5roduct and in%abi/ tant. 1sing the con%entional yields or prod$cti%ity rates- we can estimate how m$ch agric$lt$ralforested or li%estock graBing land was needed to obtain each $nit of food and energy cons$mption. Then- comparing the territorial capacity that was tr$ly a%ailable with the historical increase of land reG$irements- we can identify the sit$ations or moments of r$pt$re which led different h$man societies to change the shape of the c$lt$ral landscapes they had inherited. This dynamic approach implies taking into acco$nt the different aptit$des of the soils- the social norms of territorial management- property rights and other reg$lations on land access- and the a%ailability of networks for more far:reaching trade e'changes- in order to identify those moments of crisis and transformation that led people to modify agric$lt$ral $ses thro$gh the acti%ation of h$man labo$r $sing the range of tools and knowledge at their disposal. This places some of the main iss$es tra: ditionally analysed by economic historians C s$ch as the role of the demographic dynamictechnological change and market networks C into a broader frame of reference which enables the corresponding biophysical .ows- as well as their ecological footprint- to be incl$ded in the analysis. agrarian str$ggles- the landowners who held the poly:c$lt$ral agric$lt$ral farms that were characteristic of the mid:northeast of Catalonia organiBed themsel%es into compact $nits aro$nd a r$ral dwelling 7called masies8- and grad$ally gained control of the access rights to the main reso$rces thro$gh a comple' and con.ict:ridden transition from fe$dalism to agrarian capitalism 73erra- )0 F Harrabo$ and Tello- .**68. &ig$re /.) shows the distrib$tion of the soil te't$res described in the Estudio AgrTcola del )allIs- an anonymo$sly written man$script s$bmitted in ) !6 to the Barcelona ,conomic 3ociety of &riends of the Co$ntry- which is the main so$rce of o$r analysis 7Harrabo$ and >lanas)00 8. The Estudio established se%en kinds of soil characteriBed by their te't$re 7Table /.)84

). .. /.

Case 0tud!: the 3all6s ;riental Count! in Catalonia 50pain: in %*7,8%*9,

The .rst st$dy area where we ha%e applied this methodology is located in the region known as NallLs Oriental- a small plain sit$ated in a tectonic basin between Catalonia?s littoral and pre:littoral mo$ntain ranges- whose di%ersity of geological s$bstrata- together with abo%e:a%erage rainfall for the #editerranean- ha%e led to the de%elopment of a considerable %ariety of soils with a greater range of agric$lt$ral possibilities than in more arid areas 7Aodrdg$eB Nalle- .**.8. The pro'imity to Barcelona C between " and ). h on horseback according to a timetable map from ) * C) *0 C meant that the NallLs was connected %ery early on with the commercial dynamics of Catalonia?s demographic and $rban centre of gra%ity 7Nilar)09.8. 3tarting from the end of the late medie%al

6.

".

9.

Those composed of slate and shale- sit$ated in mo$ntaino$s areas and slopes generally co%ered in woodland or scr$b. Clayey:calcareo$s- with a certain proportion of limestone and .ne matter- s$itable for cereals. Clayey:sandy- with a large proportion of clay- %ery hea%y to work with d$e to its compacted nat$re and water retention- b$t which co$ld be made into good fertile land with a certain amo$nt of in%estment in fer: tiliBer and labo$r. Compact calcareo$s- sit$ated on steeply sloping land and only e'ploitable for forestry or for planting %ines with a great deal of terracing work. 3andy:calcareo$s- thin soil on slopes located in areas where the tectonic basin had contact with calcareo$s o$tcrops- also e'ploited for %ines and forestry. Those described as sandy:clayey- made $p of sands and .ood silts which gi%e them good drainage and good water:retaining capacityeasy to work and %ery fertile for growing cereals or leg$mes.

,nergy Balance and =and 1se

Fig# (#%# Area of st$dy and main types of soil. 3o$rce4 Aodrdg$eB Nalle 7.**.8.

9# 3andy:G$artB- formed from the decomposition of granite which emerges along both sides of the fa$lt- shallow and with a low water:retaining capacity- largely de%oted to %ines or forestry e'ploitation. The @$nknown? category corresponds to areas with s$ch a %ariety of o$tcrops that it pro%es dif.c$lt to .t them into the ) !6 classificationlocated in areas that are scarcely or not at all c$lti%atable.

The Estudio AgrTcola del )allIs reprod$ced the s$mmary of the $se of land and li%estock for each m$nicipality in the ) 9*C) 9" ta' assessments 7Tables /..- /.6 and /."8. &rom thisand by assigning each crop rotation to the type of soil- we ha%e estimated the total prod$ction by applying the a%erage yields per hectare. Altho$gh some local %ariations can be seen- for the o%erall st$dy area the s$rface area estimated by the ) 9*s assessments %aries little

Table (#%# Classi.cation of soils and types of e'ploitation. Type of te't$re Ha M #ain soil $se aro$nd ) 9*C) !* 3hale ))-/09.! )0.) Woodland- scr$b or past$re Clayey:calcareo$s )-***.! ).! Cereals and fodder 7witho$t fallowing8 Clayey:sandy )!-)00.6 . .0 Cereals and leg$mes 7witho$t fallowing8 Compact calcareo$s /*0.. *." Nines or scr$b and past$re 3andy:calcareo$s .- 96.6 6. Nines or woodland- scr$b and past$re 3andy:clayey )9-/!0./ .!." =eg$mespotatoes- cereals- fodder 3andy:G$artB -9/9. )6." Nines or woodland- scr$b or past$re 1nknown )- )/.6 /.* 7Woodland- scr$b or past$re8 Total "0-9**.* )**.*
3o$rce4 Harrabo$ and >lanas 7b) !6c)00 8F Aodrdg$eB Nalle 7.**.8.

,. Tello et al.

from the "0-9** of.cially registered at present4 ".-*.* ha- )..!M less. A large part of the difference lay in mo$ntaino$s m$nicipalities and corresponded to e'tensi%e barren or forested areas. The reliability of the agric$lt$ral s$rface area meas$rement seems to be reasonably good./

3$btracting the /6*6 ha declared to be $nprod$cti%e C some 9C!M of the total e'panse $sed C o$r analysis will refer to the 6 -9)9 ha that in aro$nd ) 9* made $p the $sef$l agrarian area- with /9M of it arable. The then:c$lti%ated area of ) -6!9 ha was s$bstantially more than what is c$rrently $nder c$lti%ation. Once areas gi%en o%er to ho$sing de%elopment ha%e been s$btractedand especially taking into acco$nt the abandonment of the co$ntrysidewhich has left a great deal of land which is $ndergoing an e'tensi%e process of reforestation $ne'ploitedthe $sef$l agric$lt$ral land area registered in the last agric$lt$ral cens$s from )000 comes to less than /*-*** ha- less than )*-*** of which are c$lti%ated. Between )!) and ) 9*- the pop$lation m$ltiplied by a factor of ..9- going from ." to 96 inhabitantsIkm.. The a%ailable land area was red$ced from 6 to ).9 haIinhabitant- and the c$lti%ated land from )../ to *." haIinhabitant 7Table /..8. In an organic:based economy in which the people still li%ed mainly from the land- satisfying their basic needs obliged them to increase the land $se to a ma'im$m. At the same

time as agric$lt$ral- li%estock and forestry e'ploitation reached their ma'im$m e'tentthe lower a%ailability of land per inhabitant reG$ired an increase in the amo$nt of energy from each land $nit directed towards h$man $se. This challenge led to the de%elopment of a speci.c #editerranean form of ad%anced organic agric$lt$re. It is signi.cant that the a%erage pop$lation density between ) 9* and )0** remained at the same le%el of 9/ inhabitantsIkm.despite the e'istence of signi.cant local %ariations. #o$ntain areas became depop$lated as their role as s$ppliers of timber and .rewood was red$ced- while the pop$lation came to be concentrated in the lowland ind$strial centres. Land Cover and Land 1se As a res$lt of demographic growth and the intensification of e'changesthere was transference of woodland and past$re land into c$lti%ated landpartic$larly %ineyards. According to the assessments from the mid)0th cent$ry- the 6 -9)9 ha of agric$lt$ral land $sed were distrib$ted in G$ite similar proportions between wooded areas and c$lti%ated land- with a lesser area of $nc$lti%ated land set aside for past$res. &ifty:.%e percent of the c$lti%ated area was being $sed for cereals and leg$mes- with . M for %ines- 6M for oli%e trees and other fr$it trees- and

)/M for %egetable gardens and irrigation. The ./** irrigated hectares represented little more than one:ninth of the total area- yet they corre: sponded to one:fifth of the available
>op$lation density Inhabitants ) ! ) ) ! .*-*") ! ) 9 * ) 0 * * ) 0 / * ) 0 9 * / -/0* 9/./* )."" *.6 / -/6. 96.6) )."" *.6 //.96 ..0! *.0. inhab.I km. .".)9 Area a%ailable per inhabitant 7haIinhab.8 Total C$lti%ata ble /.0 )../

)6-00/

"9-)))

06.)"

).*9

*.//

!!-*/0

).0..9

*.!!

*..6

3o$rce4 A$thors? own table- taken from data in p$blished cens$ses and from www.idescat.es. The estimate for c$lti%atable land area is based on that act$ally c$lti%ated in ) 9*C) !*.

,nergy Balance and =and 1se

=and classi.cation in hectares 1se s Cro ps Wo odl and >as t$re 1n pro d$c ti%e Tot al )st clas s ..6. ). .-" 9. 9/ .-! 6/. 9 C -) "6. 6/ .nd clas s "-6 .!. ") "-) "9. .* /6/. .6 C )66.9 .0" /st clas s )*/). .!0 )*..0 .9* 6-0 0. *! C .""/) .69

Total e'isti ng hectar es ) -6! "."6 ) -"9 6.6/ )-"!". 00 /-6*6. /" ".-*. *./)

M / ". " / ". ! . .. / 9. " ) * *. *

Total a%ail able hecta res ."-/0 ..9" ) -"9 6.6/ ))-"! ".00

""-"/ /.*!

3o$rce4 @Aes$men del ,stado demostrati%o de la riG$eBa rgstica del NallOs?- Harrabo$ and >lanas 7)00 8.

c$lti%ated area- taking into acco$nt m$ltiple ann$al crops. According to the ) !6 Estudio and the #artillas Evaluatorias 7,%al$ation Handbooks8 p$blished by the Catalan Agric$lt$ral Instit$te of 3an Isidro 7IAC3I8- the practice of lea%ing land fallow had practically disappearedand the predominant rotations in the non:irrigated areas combined wheat and maiBe with r$nner beans- broad beans and peas- fodder or potatoes. 6

On irrigated lands- two or three crops were obtained ann$ally- alternating between growing hemp and leg$mes or potatoes with wheat- other late: ripening fr$it and fodder. On the best non:irrigated lands- wheat was sowne'cept in the %ery cold areas at the foot of the #ontseny mo$ntainwhere it was replaced by rye- while on the worst lands- %ario$s mi'ed bread:making wheats were obtained. A%erage cereal yields .$ct$ated between )* and ) hectolitres per ha-

th$s m$ltiplying the seed by between "." and )* times. The increasing importance of %ines sho$ld be stressedwith their presence contin$ing to rise $ntil the grape%ine fe%er of the .nal decades of the )0th cent$ry- sp$rred on by the high wine prices ca$sed by &rench %ineyards being affected by the phyllo'era plag$e. Taking into acco$nt the agronomic capacities e%al$ated in Table /./- we ha%e estimated the area where more than one ann$al crop was obtained as )"M of the c$lti%ated land. Hi%en these intensi%e crop rotations witho$t fallowing- and the fact that in irrigated areas or a certain percentage of non:irrigated areas se%eral ann$al crops were obtained-

the c$lti%ated area that was tr$ly a%ailable came to aro$nd ."-*** ha. With a pop$lation of / -/6. inhabitants in ) 9*- the $sef$l agric$lt$ral area .$ct$ated between )..! haIinhabitant- not co$nting do$ble crops- and )./9 haIinhabitant if these are incl$ded. If we take c$rrent meas$rements and do not dis: co$nt $nprod$cti%e lands- this le%el wo$ld rise to )." haIinhabitant. The land area c$lti%ated per person in aro$nd ) 9* was between *.6 and *.9" ha- depending on whether we take into acco$nt do$ble crops or not. These are %al$es that were lower than the . haIinhabitant estimated by >aolo #alanima for more densely pop$lated parts of ,$rope towards the middle of the ) th cent$ry- or the ..6 that &ridolin 2ra$smann calc$lates for the whole of A$stria in ) /*C) "*. While the woodland area per inhabitant was still close to #alanima?s le%els- the land set aside for past$re was m$ch less 7*./ ha against a range of between *." and ) ha per inhabitant in Western ,$rope- and *.! in A$stria in aro$nd ) /*C) "*8. The amo$nt of a%ailable agric$lt$ral land was also less 7*."C *.! in the NallLs- against *. C) ha per person in ,$rope on the e%e of the Ind$strial Ae%ol$tion8." The highest energy o$tp$t per hectare 7Table /.68 was obtained in the forested area- altho$gh )!M of woodland prod$ction was lea%esgrasses or woodland $ndergrowth species that were of limited h$man $se. Timber- .rewood and other

h$man e'tractions came to . .! HKIha of woodland- slightly below the agric$lt$ral .0.0 HKIha. Adding other e'tractions- the o%erall forest .nal o$tp$t amo$nted to .0 HKIha and acco$nted for 6..9M of the primary

,. Tell o et al.
Area a%ailable 7ha8 Total prod$c tion 7kg8 ,nergy %al$e of the prod$ct 7TK8 O$tp $t per haIye ar 7HK8 O$tp$ t per inhabi tantIy ear 7HK8

C r o p s W o o d s > a s t $ r e T o t a l

) -6! "."6 ) -"9 6.6/ ))-"! ".00 6 -9) ".09

!"-.0!*.6 "9-)*/0! .*-)*!"6) )")-"* -"6/

"").0 9/ ." !..9 )-.9/.*

.0.0 /6.6 9./ .9.*

)6.6 )9.! ).0 /..0

3o$rces4 C$ssa et al. 7.**98. We ha%e $sed the yields in the ) !6 ,st$dio and the ) !0 IAC3I ,%al$ation Handbooks- completed with the data on past$re land and woodland from Naredo and Campos 7)0 *a- b8 and the ,cological and &orestry In%entory of Catalonia

8- #oreiras:Narela et al. 7)00! 8- and Naredo and Campos 7)0 *a- b8. Con%ersion4 ) 2cal i 6) 9. KF ) #K i )* KF ) HK i )* KF ) TK i )* K. An a%erage h$man being needed an energy intake of /." HKIyear.
7CA,A&- .***8. The caloric transformation was performed from #atai' Nerdg 7.**/ 6h
/h 9 0 ).

agro:forestry con%ersion. A comparison with some initial estimates p$t forward by classic a$thors s$ch as 3acher and >odolinsky leads to certain di%ergences- yet o$r data is consistent with that obtained by >ablo Campos and KosO #an$el Naredo- &ridolin 2ra$smann- and #an$el

HonBfleB de #olina 7Campos and Naredo- )0 *aHonBfleB de #olina et al.- .**.F 2ra$smann- in press8.9

Need- and also the opport$nities arising from the intensi.cation of

e'changes- led to the de%elopment of a specific #editerranean form of ad%anced organic economy 7Wrigley)0 - .**68 between ) 9* and )0**. Taking into acco$nt the fact that the NallLs Oriental was a r$ral area close to Catalonia?s main $rban system- it may be s$rprising that the .nal agric$lt$ral prod$ction was not greaterF b$t o$r res$lts are consistent with the agric$lt$ral statistics for prod$ction and cons$mption from the Hranollers administrati%e area in ) 9.C ) 96- which endorse the e'istence of a small de.cit of cereals compensated for by wine e'portation 7>lanas- .**/8. In caloric terms- the high water content of %ineyard prod$ction in%ol%ed a low energy prod$ction per s$rface area4 only 6.6 HKIha- against ))." for cereals or )..9 for potatoes 7Table /."8. Ne%ertheless- the higher relati%e prices for wine allowed the acG$isition of a greater caloric eG$i%alent thro$gh imported cereals. Nines were planted in poor soiland e'cept at the time of initial planting- no man$re was applied. A partial wine:growing specialiBation allowed c$lti%ators to concentrate man$re on the better land de%oted to %egetable gardens- cereals- leg$mes or hemp. Nineyard pr$ning and green shoots e%en went towards fertiliBing other crops- either directly as compost or indirectly as fodder. These were responses to the challenge of feeding a pop$lation that had do$bled between )! ! and ) 9* $sing an organically based intensi%e

agric$lt$re on a land s$bDect to the water restrictions typical of the #editerranean en%ironment- where keeping li%estock and obtaining fer: tiliBer became se%erely limiting factors 7HonBfleB de #olina- .**)ab8. #arket insertion allowed more to be made of the area?s ecological possibilities- and pa%ed the way for a red$ction in the bottleneck when obtaining organic fertiliBers. Energ! Balance and Land 1se The energy balance described in &ig. /.. allows $s to note the intensi%eand at the same time integratednat$re of the agroecosystem 7C$ssa et al.- .**9a-b8. The integration between cropping- li%estock breeding and forestry e'plains why the caloric eG$i%alent of the final agrarian prod$ct still represented "0M of the solar energy .'ed by photosynthesisaltho$gh losses from li%estock con%ersion and re$se cons$me 6)M. In )0"*C)0")- the .nal 3panish agrar: ian prod$ction only acco$nted for / M of

,nergy Balance and =and 1se

A r e a a % a i l a b l e 7 h a 8 1n it ene rgy %al $e ,nergy %al$e of the total prod$ction HKIinhabI

>hy sical yiel d

Total prod $ctio n

7kg or lIha8

7kg or lIyear

7# KIk g8

TK Iy ea r

H KI h a

y e a r

Cereals 7kg8 -* .. ) 0.".!0 !-6 .-0 6.! )..69 0/.. ))." ..6 =eg$mes 7kg8 "-6*). 6 99..*0 /-"!9-"*6.. )..09 69./ .9 ).. Wine 7l8 6-009. 0 )-/6"..) 9-!.)- 99.6 /..! ...* 6.6 *.9 Oil 7l8 !!).). )0".0* )")-*9..6 /!.*) ".9 !./ *.) >otatoes 7kg8 )-6.0.". 6-***.** "-!) -* *.* /.)6 ) .* )..9 *." &odder 7kg8 /-. 0."0 /-6! ./. ))-66.-.69.! /."" 6*.9 )../ ).) Others 7kg8 )-0!*. ) j j j .!. )6.) *.! Total ."-/0..9" j j j ."/." )/.! 9.9 * . ! ) . ) 6 . 0

3eeds

.".

). 6 ) .. / ) *. )

&odder

6*.9

&inal prod$ct for h$man cons$mption

) !.)

3o$rce4 C$ssa et al. 7.**9a8

the energy contained in the biomass- while the other 9.M went toward re$ses and transformation losses. In )0!!C)0! - in spite of the replacement of animal traction and man$re by tractors and chemical prod$cts- 9 M of the primary agro: forestry con%ersion contin$ed to be de%oted to li%estock con%ersion. The energy %al$e of the .nal agrarian prod$ct acco$nted for 6!M of the primary o$tp$t- d$e in reality to imported foodst$ffs whose caloric total was eG$i%alent to ))M of the solar energy .'ed by photosynthesis in 3pain 7Naredo)009F 3iman &ernfndeB- )000F Carpintero- .**"F

Carpintero and Naredo- in press8.

From 0ocial Metabolism to the Ma2ing of an Agrarian Landscape

The analysis of social metabolism aids $s in $nderstanding the anatomy of the landscape by re%ealing its str$ct$re. Howe%er- based on that we cannot ded$ce the f$nctional logic of its %ario$s parts or elements C what we co$ld refer to as its physiology C nor the appearance of its speci.c

a%ailability in the territory 7its phenology8. C$lt$ral landscape is always a social constr$ction. In order to $nderstand it beyond its basic f$nctional shape- any e'planation m$st also incl$de the role of instit$tional factors- the economic logic behind the f$nctioning of its b$ilders- and the resol$tion of social conflicts related to access rights to reso$rces 7Tello- )000F Harrabo$ and Tello- .**68. As an e'ample- we shall see the HI3:based reconstr$ction of the cadastral plot map dating from ) "/ from the m$nicipality of Caldes de #ontb$i 7&ig. /./8. We ha%e also e%al$ated thro$gh HI3 the s$itability of land or soil characteristics for the main agric$lt$ral $ses 7grain- fodder- %ineyards- oli%e and almond orchards8 considering the then: pre%ailing different land $ses and agrarian techniG$es in the NallLs co$nty. Altho$gh the best soils tended to be $sed for cereal crops- while on mediocre soils grape%ines were grown and inferior lands were co%ered with $nc$lti%ated woodland for graBing- the correspondence between land $se and the G$ality of the soil was anything b$t linear. In spite of the e'pected high correspondence between the main agrarian $ses and the agrological soil capabilities- we ha%e fo$nd that /6M of the %ineyards and ./M of the area with cereal crops were located on non:s$itable or poorly s$itable land for these $ses. This means that to $nderstand that land:$se pattern we need to analyse the pre%ailing entitlement r$les- and the economic goals or options of socially different farm $nits.

,. Tello et al.

Fig# (#+# 3$mmary of the ann$al energy .ows of the agrarian system. 7Originally p$blished in Ecological Economics " - 60C9"8.

,nergy Balance and =and 1se

* 660CC*6C*/.

Fig# (#(# Original cadastral map from ) "/ and organiBation of plots. 3o$rce4 a$thors? compilation %ia HI3 by #arc Badia for o$r research proDect 3,C.**/C

The owners of the masies that e'erted control o%er the territory $s$ally opted for poly: c$lti%ation in the organiBation of their farmswhich enabled them to e'tract the ma'im$m market ad%antages witho$t ha%ing to depend on it for their reprod$ction 7>asc$al- )00*- .***8. &or the masies located on .atlands one of those inp$ts was .rewood- and this e'plains why they main: tained forested tracts or coppices on prime G$ality soils within the poly:c$lti%ation agrarian mosaic that was still predominant in the NallLs in the mid: )0th cent$ry. At the same time- this land:owning class tried to take economic ad%antage of their least s$itable land for maiBe by leasing it in small plots to a new s$b:peasant class of winegrowers 7called rabassers in Catalan- or @slash and b$rn growers?8. These new specialiBed s$b:peasants were mostly labo$ring immigrants coming from the >yrenees mo$ntains or non:inheriting descendants. By leasing them small plots- the owners of the masies also tried to pre%ent f$rther social con.ict with them. This may e'plain why in ) "/- in the %illage of Caldes- "M of the cereal .elds were set on slopes of less than .*M- while /*M of the %ineyards were placed on slopes of more than /*M- and sometimes e%en 9*C!*M. 3lopes protected with stone terraces occ$pied abo$t !** ha- 6/M of the o%erall c$lti%ated land- and *M of that area was then $sed for %ineyards. B$ilding of those terraces- which were generally small and were mainly $ndertaken on relati%ely soft geological materials 7m$dstone and sandstone8- may ha%e needed ).*-*** work days. #ost of those %ineyards grown in the poorest soils of NallLs Co$nty were abandoned after the phyllo'era crisis- and the terraces are now left behind co%ered by woods. Ironically- they still help to pre%ent deeper soil degradation when this

,. Tello et al.

abandoned forest or br$shwood catches .re- b$t there are no p$blic or pri%ate initiati%es to preser%e them for the f$t$re. These res$lts show that land characteristics in.$ence land:$se decision making and long:term historical landscape changes. The e'tension of agric$lt$re to non:s$itable land in ) "/ also re.ects the e'istence of other economic goals and deeper social con.icts which e%entf$lly led to a %ast labo$r in%estment in soil conser%ation to grow %ineyards by the poorest r$ral classes.

&riving Forces to)ards .onsustainabilit!

Towards the end of the ) th cent$ry- se%eral reports were written ad%ocating coal imports in order to preser%e the #ontseny forests that were considered o%ere'ploited at that time 7Caresmar 7)! *8 and Comes 7)! 98- G$oted in #artd ,scayol- .**.8. Altho$gh we do not ha%e eno$gh historical data on timber and .rewood c$tting to con.rm that trend- photographs taken in the NallLs co$nty d$ring the .rst half of the .*th cent$ry did show a pict$re of intense deforestation and reD$%enation apparent in the s$r%i%ing forest. !

We also s$spect that o%er:graBing or e'ploitation of the $ndergrowth reinforced the effects of deforestation. The scarcity of fertiliBer is yet another clear res$lt of o$r reconstr$ction of the energy balance of the agrarian system in the NallLs co$nty d$ring the second half of the )0th cent$ry. The ) !6 Estudio tells $s of the e'istence of many different local enterprises which attempted to recycle all types of h$man and animal waste matter- and of ind$strial by: prod$cts that co$ld be re$sed as fertiliBer. It also mentions the appearance of small amo$nts of g$ano- which we ha%e not been able to incl$de in o$r balance. In order to meet the incessant demand for n$trients- there were two other possibilities4 increasing the transh$mant li%estock and increasing the compost e'tracted from forests or scr$b to make the %egetable fertiliBers $sed in the crop lands. >lanting grape%ines pro%ided a replacement for the .rewood and past$res %ia the re$se of %ineyard pr$nings- oli%e tree pr$nings- and the $se of green shoots as fodder. Howe%er- the %ineyard option reG$ired a maDor in%estment in labo$rmainly pro%ided by tenants 7rabassers8 with %ery little or no land of their own who depended on the planting contracts offered by the masie owners. Aises in the relati%e prices of wine- s$ch as that bro$ght abo$t by the oidi$m plag$e in ) 6*C) "*- enco$raged planting contracts 7rabassas8 to be hired. >erhaps we sho$ld also take into acco$nt the %al$e of the by:prod$cts s$ch as pr$ning or fodder in enco$raging these plantings- which initially tended to be located o%er old forested and scr$b areas. A second wa%e started in ) 9! when the phyllo'era plag$e hit &rench %ineyards- ca$sing relati%e prices for Catalan wine to soar. This grape%ine disease s$ddenly displaced poly:c$lti%ation- pro%oking the .rst episode of

en%ironmental and economic globaliBation that linked the fate of that area to the international %al$e of a single e'port prod$ct. This ended abr$ptly with the arri%al of the disease in the NallLs co$nty in ) /. By ) 0* it had killed the old %ines- and the region?s agric$lt$re sw$ng towards the prod$ction of fresh milk and %egetables for daily deli%ery to the nearby cities. The widespread $se of coal and petrole$m p$t an end to the role of the #ontseny mo$ntains as s$ppliers of .rewood and charcoal- altho$gh d$ring the &irst World War and the 3panish Ci%il War the demand for forestry prod$cts enDoyed a short:li%ed increase. The new model was consolidated circa )0/*- when the a%ailable land had been red$ced to ) ha per inhabitant- with only one:third of it arable. +$ring the .rst half of the .*th cent$ry- the land reG$ired for cons$mption by the pop$lation had already o$tstripped local a%ailability. 3ince then- the globaliBation of economic networks has been s$stained by the growing globaliBation of social metabolism and its ecological footprint. It is interesting to note that e%en in s$ch a globaliBed conte't- the ecological footprint of 3panish food in the second half of the .*th cent$ry

4late %# The 36 ima1e sho)s the land use of 1832 in the study a ea of #a doso9 in the ;e1ional (a 0 of the 3$uane Mountains in Tuscany. 2n this yea the e a e %. land uses in an a ea of 1000 ha9 fo min1 a mosaic of %18 $atches. The 1 een colou efe s to )oodlands9 the o an1e to $astu es9 the $in0 to meado)s and the yello) to a a-le land. The violet colou e$ esents vineya ds. 3ll the slo$es a e te aced as sho)n in the $hoto1 a$h of the a ea in 1900. (!ee #ha$te 1.)

4late +# The 36 ima1e sho)s the land use of 2002. 2n this yea the e a e only 18 land uses9 fo min1 a mosaic of only 8/ $atches. *oodlands have mo e than dou-led thei e'tension9 e$lacin1 the fo me mosaic of land uses. The ed a eas sho) landslides occu in1 on the a-andoned te aced chestnut o cha ds. (!ee #ha$te 1.)

4late (# The o-lite ation of a t aditional landsca$e o$e ated -y natu al fo estation. 2ma1e (a) sho)s a $o tion of a te ito y mana1ed unde the sha e c o$ system9 )ith smallscale $ oduction involvin1 )oodlands9 cultivated fields and $astu es. *e can note chestnut o cha ds9 $astu ed )oods9 )ood $astu es9 te aces9 fields9 $olla d t ees and d y stone )alls. 2ma1e (-) sho)s the same landsca$e afte seve al decades of total a-andonment> the com$le'ity due to cultu al influence has disa$$ea ed. (!ee #ha$te 1.)

4late -# + a1mented landsca$e mosaics9 made of many $atches lin0ed to small?scale $ oduction and mi'ed cultivation a e -ecomin1 8uite a e. The diffusion of la 1e monocultu es and the e'tension of )oodland on a-andoned fields and $astu es a e emovin1 them f om the landsca$e. (!ee #ha$te 1.)

4late ># @ to$hoto of the yea 2000 on a 6EM sho)in1 the -ounda ies of the Moscheta study a ea. (!ee #ha$te ..)

4late 7# <ie) of the a ea of the Moscheta $ oAect f om the slo$es of Monte +ellone facin1 )est. (!ee #ha$te ..)

4late 9# 3ffo estation nea the a--ey of Moscheta. 2t is evident that this $lantation is not inte1 ated into the landsca$e of the a ea9 even f om an aesthetic $oint of vie). (!ee #ha$te ..)

4late *# 36 ma$ of the land use of Moscheta in the yea 1832. (!ee #ha$te ..) 4late @# 36 ma$ of the land use of Moscheta in the yea 19./. (!ee #ha$te ..) 4late %,# 36 ma$ of the land use of Moscheta in the yea 2000. (!ee #ha$te ..)

4late %%# 36 ma$ sho)in1 the futu e land use of Moscheta afte the esto ation $ oAect. (!ee #ha$te ..)

,nergy Balance and =and 1se

remained practically the same as for the NallLs co$nty circa ) 9*C) !*4 *." ha per inhabitant. 3ince then- the main difference from the earlier ad%anced organic economy is the considerable energy footprint res$lting from the comb$stion of fossil f$els 7Carpintero- .**.- .**"8. c$lt$ral landscapes. Ongoing research $ndertaken by se%eral landscape ecologists intends to %erify the hypothesis we ha%e p$t forward that a serio$s red$ction of the territorial ef.ciency- which is related to a signi.cant landscape transformation$nderlies the obser%ed loss of energy ef.ciency e'perienced by the agrarian systems d$ring the last )"* years 7#ar$ll et al.- .**98. A str$ct$ral and f$nctional analysis of the changes e'perienced by the agrarian landscape in fi%e m$nicipalities of the NallLs co$nty has been made thro$gh HI3- applying an inno%ati%e methodology that combines two indicators from the landscape ecology 7co%er di%ersity and ecological fragmentation8 with two new socio:en%ironmental inde'es recently de%eloped by some of the a$thors 7ecolandscape str$ct$re and ecological connec: ti%ity8. The preliminary res$lts do show an increase in co%er di%ersity- ecological frag: mentation and anthropogenic barriers- as well as a growth in landscape heterogeneity which is associated with a s$bstantial red$ction of the ecologically f$nctional areas- and its ecological connecti%ity. These transformations res$lted in a se%ere loss of landscape f$nctionality and territorial ef.ciency in the st$dy area. All these changes happened at the same time as a sharp red$ction in the energy agric$lt$ral ret$rns to energy inp$ts- s$ggesting the need for a deeper trans:disciplinary dialog$e between nat$ral and social sciences- in a common historical backgro$nd- to de%elop new criteria and methods in order to $ndertake a more s$stainable type of land $se planning 7#ar$ll et al.- .**98.

Conclusions
3t$dying past landscapes as organic ad%anced agric$lt$res that co$ld attain the highest energy yields- witho$t relying on a high amo$nt of e'ternal inp$ts- may help in achie%ing a better $nderstanding of the two sides that ha%e led to a lower energy performance after the so:called @green re%ol$tion?4 7i8 the inDection of an e'ternal energy s$bsidy coming mainly from fossil f$elsF and 7ii8 the f$nctional disconnection between the agric$lt$ral- past$re and forestry spaces within the agrarian ecosystem that bro$ght abo$t the h$man abandonment of a h$ge portion of o$r territories and a m$ch more inef.cient land $se from an ecological standpoint 7Agnoletti- .**.F +daB >ineda et al.- .**.8. Both sides are worth disting$ishing- beca$se the sol$tions to o%ercoming their ecological effects are necessarily different. An energy s$bsidy that replaces animal work power- or helps to make h$man labo$r less painf$l- sho$ld not be considered a problem in itself if pro%ided by clean- local and renewable so$rces. The tr$e problem is that at present it comes from fossil or n$clear f$els- and o%ercoming the past dependency on biocon%erters has led to a dysf$nctional and ecologically $nso$nd land $se that is ca$sing serio$s en%ironmental pathologies 7Naredo- .**)F Naredo and >arra- .**.8 and also contrib$ting to the ecological degradation of old

.otes

). This work has comes from the proDect 3,C.**/:* 660:C*6 of the 3panish #inistry of 3cience and Technology. #arc Badda- &ernando =. Aodrdg$eB and Oscar #iralles ha%e de%eloped the cartography and the HI3:based treatment. We also wish to thank +a%id #olina for his help in the cartography- kscar Carpintero for his $sef$l comments on energy balances and ecological footprints- and especially KosO #an$el Naredo and >ablo Campos for their ad%ice on processing en%ironmental acco$nts and de%eloping inde'es.

,. Tello et al.

.. To disting$ish between the global @ecological footprint?- calc$lated according to Aees and Wackernagel?s method by e'amining a%erage agric$lt$ral yields on a worldwide scale- and the local footprint of social metabolism calc$lated based on local historical prod$cti%ity- in o$r st$dy we prefer to refer to the latter as the land reG$irement by $nit of prod$ct or inhabitant. The meaning of this term is identical to the third method proposed by Haberl- ,rb and 2ra$smann to calc$late the biocapacity and the ecological footprint $sing local yields 7.**)8. /. +$ring the ) "*C) 9* years a cadastral plot map had been drawn $p in se%eral m$nicipalities of the NallLs Oriental Co$nty 7see #$ro et al.- )009- .**. and .**/8. We ha%e made a HI3 st$dy of the ) "*s- )0"*s and present cadastral map of Caldes de #ontb$i and other fo$r m$nicipalities. 6. The ) !6 Estudio describes %ario$s rotations of non:irrigated land- adapted to each type of soil- in which there was no fallowing and one or two crops were obtained ann$ally. Th$s- for e'ample- in clayey soils- three crops were prod$ced in two years- in the .rst leg$mes- and in the second year another two of cereals or late leg$mesF or alternati%ely- one of potatoes the .rst year- and the second year another two of cereals and maiBe- fodder or beans 7Harrabo$ and >lanas- )00 8. ". >aolo #alanima belie%es between )" and .*-*** 2calIinhabitantIday 7...0 to /*.9 HKIinhabitantIyear8 were obtained on some . haIinhabitant in the more densely pop$lated parts of ,$rope- coming from "**C ** g of cereals per person- . kg of timber- and the traction pro%ided by one o'- m$le or horse for e%ery si' inhabitants 7#alanima- )009- .**)8. 9. At the end of the )0th cent$ry- ,d$ard 3acher e%al$ated the energy from the wheat .elds and forests of A$stria and >r$ssia at ) ' )*9 2cal-

or !" HKIhaIyear. 3ergei >odolinsky red$ced this .g$re to .)

and 9.6 ' )*9 2cal- or //.0 to .9. HKIhaIyear for wheat and past$re in &rance 7#artdneB Alier and 3chlepmann- )0 !F #artdneB Alier- )00"8. &ridolin 2ra$smann estimated %al$es in aro$nd ) /*C) "* of between .9 and /0 HKIhaIyear for the crops in %ario$s A$strian %illages- between /6 and 66 HK in the forests- and between )! and /9 in past$reland 72ra$smann- in press8. &or all crops- and incl$ding fallow land- HonBfleB de #olina et al. obtain 9.) ' )*9 2cal or ."." HKIhaIyear in ) "9 for the Hranada plain of 3anta &e 7.**.8. In the co$ntryside aro$nd the H$adalG$i%ir Ai%er- >ablo Campos and KosO #an$el Naredo obtain a mean %al$e of ".0 ' )*9 2cal or ." HKIhaIyear 7corresponding to 9./ HK in the fallow past$re- .). HK in the seeded fallow land- and 69.) HK in that of wheat8. The energy %al$e of past$reland $sed here 7).60! ' )*9 2cal or 9..9 HKIhaIyear8 comes from Campos and Naredo- )0 *a. !. This e'plains why we ha%e had to apply a red$ction in both .rewood and timber e'tractions to o$r historical so$rces in order to get s$stainable forestry energy .ow. . We ha%e ded$ced the n$mber of transh$mant li%estock by the difference between the capacity of past$res- fodder and feeds and the reG$irements of the e'isting li%estock which appears in the ) 9" li%estock cens$s. All the transh$mant contracts were orally settled- and there are no written records. "eferences Agnoletti- #. 7.**.8 Il &aesaggio Agro/forestale Toscano. *trumenti 5er lFAnalisi, la !estione e la #onserva4ione. ArsiaIAegione Toscana- &lorence- Italy.

Boada- #. and 3a$rl- +. 7.**.8 El #ambio !lobal. A$bes- Barcelona- 3pain. Campos- >. and Naredo- K.#. 7)0 *a8 =a energda en los sistemas agrarios. Agricultura y *ociedad )"- )!C))6. Campos- >. and Naredo- K.#. 7)0 *b8 =os balances energOticos de la agric$lt$ra espamola. Agricultura y *ociedad )"- )9/C."9. Carpintero- O. 7.**.8 =a economda espamola4 el @dragan e$ropeo? en .$Dos de energda- materiales y h$ella ecolagica- )0""C)00". EcologTa &olitica ./"C).". Carpintero- O. 7.**"8 El Metabolismo de la EconomTa Es5aUola. ecursos naturales y %uella ecol$gica H6>88D?999J. &$ndacian COsar #anriG$e- =anBaroteI#adrid- 3pain. Carpintero- O. and Naredo- K.#. 7in press8 3obre la e%ol$cian de los balances energOticos de la agric$lt$ra espamola- )0"*C.***. +istoria Agraria. CostanBa- A.- Ayres- A.1.- +e$tsch- =. et al. 7.***8 &or$m4 The ecological footprint. Ecological Economics /.- /6)C/06. CA,A& 7.***8 Inventari EcolGgic i Forestal de #atalunya. egi$ Forestal ). +epartment of the ,n%ironment of the Heneralitat de Catal$nya- Barcelona- 3pain. C$ssa- (.- Harrabo$- A. and Tello- ,. 7.**9a8 3ocial metabolism in an agrarian region of Catalonia 73pain8 in ) 9*C!*4 .ows- energy balance and land $se. Ecological Economics " - 60C9". C$ssa- (.- Harrabo$- A.- Olarieta- K.A. and Tello- ,. 7.**9b8 Balances energOticos y $sos del s$elo en la

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+istoria Ambiental en Es5aUa. Icaria- Barcelona- 3pain. HonBfleB de #olina- #.- H$Bmfn Casado- H. and Ortega 3antos- A. 7.**.8 3obre la s$stentabilidad de la agric$lt$ra ecolagica. =as ensemanBas de la Historia. Ayer 69- )""C) ". Haberl- H. 7.**)a8 The energetic metabolism of societies. >art I4 Acco$nting concepts. .ournal of Industrial Ecology "7)8- )*!C)/9. Haberl- H. 7.**)b8 The energetic metabolism of societies. >art I4 ,mpirical e'amples. .ournal of Industrial Ecology "7.8- "/C!*. Haberl- H.- ,rb- 2.H. and 2ra$smann- &. 7.**)8 How to calc$late and interpret ecological footprints for long periods of time4 The case of A$stria- )0.9C )00". Ecological Economics / - ."C6". 2ra$smann- &. 7.**)8 =and $se and ind$strial moderniBation4 An empirical analysis of h$man in.$ence on the f$nctioning of ecosystems in A$stria ) /*C)00". Land Use &olicy ) - )!C.9. 2ra$smann- &. 7.**98 =a transformacion de los sistemas centroe$ropeos de $so del s$elo4 $na perspecti%e biolisica de la moderniBacian agricola en A$stria des de ) /*. +istoria Agraria. =each- H. 7)0 )8 EnergTa y &roducci$n de Alimentos . #inistry of Agric$lt$re and &isheries- #adrid- 3pain. #alanima- >. 7)0098 Energia e crescita nellFEuro5a 5re/industriale. =a N$o%a Italia 3cienti.ca- Aome. #alanima- >. 7.**)8 The energy basis for early modern growth- )9"*:) .*. In4 >rak- #. 7ed.8 Early Modern #a5italism. Economic and social c%ange in Euro5e, 6:99D6@99. Ao$tledge- =ondon. #artd ,scayol- #.A. 7.**.8 Indgstria- medicina i G$dmica a la Barcelona de .nals del segle (NIII. ,l tintatge i la introd$ccia del carba mineral des d?$na perspecti%a ambiental. ecerPues 66- "C.*. #artdneB Alier- K. 7ed.8 7)00"8 Los &rinci5ios de la EconomTa Ecol$gica. TeMtos de &. !eddes. *. A. &odolins3y y F. *oddy . &$ndacian ArgentariaINisor- #adrid- 3pain. #artdneB Alier- K. 7ed.8 7)00 8 La EconomTa Ecol$gica como EcologTa +umana. &$ndacian COsar #anriG$e- #adrid. #artdneB Alier- K. and Aoca K$smet- K. 7.***8 EconomTa Ecol$gica y &olTtica Ambiental. &ondo de C$lt$ra ,conamicaI1nited Nations ,n%ironmental >rogramme- #e'ico. #artdneB Alier- K. and 3chlepmann- 2. 7)00)8 Ecological Economics. Energy, Environment and *ociety. Basil Blackwell- O'ford- 12.

#ar$ll- K.- >ino- K.- Tello- ,. and #allarach- K.#. 7.**98 Anflisis estr$ct$ral y f$ncional de la transformacian del paisaDe agrario en el NallLs d$rante los gltimos )"* amos 7) "/C.**684 relaciones con el $so sostenible del territorio. Vreas ."- )*"C).9.

,. Tello et al. #ar'- 2. 7)0!98 El #a5ital. Libro 5rimero Hvolumen ?J - O#,:6). 7Originally p$blished ) 9!8. HriDalbo- Barcelona- 3pain. #atai' Nerdg- &.K. 7ed.8 7.**/8 Tabla de #om5osici$n de Alimentos. Instit$to de N$trician y Tecnologda de AlimentosI1ni%ersidad de HranadaHranada- 3pain. #oreiras:Narela- O.- Car%aDal- A. and Cabrera- =. 7)00!8 Tablas de #om5osici$n de Alimentos. >irfmide- #adrid. #$ro- K.I.- Nadal- &. and 1rteaga- =. 7)0098 !eografTa, EstadTstica y #atastro en Es5aUa. ,d. del 3erbal- Barcelona- 3pain. #$ro- K.I.- Nadal- &. and 1rteaga- =. 7.**.8 &iscal Tensions and Cadastral Cartography in the >ro%ince of Barcelona 7) 6"C) 0"8. (IIIth Congress of the International ,conomic History Association- B$enos Aires. #$ro- K.I.- Nadal- &. and 1rteaga- =. 7.**/8 =ocal 3tr$ct$res and Cadastral Cartography in 3pain4 a Case 3t$dy of the >ro%ince of Barcelona- Catalonia 7) 6 C) !*8. Comm$nication to the .*th International Conference on the History of Cartography- Cambridge 7#assach$setts8 and >ortland 7#aine8. Naredo- K.#. 7)0098 La Evoluci$n de la Agricultura en Es5aUa H6>:9D6>>9J. >$blicaciones de la 1ni%ersidad de Hranada- Hranada- 3pain. Naredo- K.#. 7.**)8 =a moderniBacian de la agric$lt$ra espamola y s$s reperc$siones ecolagicas. In4 HonBfleB de #olina- #. and #artdneB Alier- K. 7eds8 2aturale4a Transformada. Estudios de +istoria Ambiental en Es5aUa. Icaria- Barcelona- 3pain. Naredo- K.#. and >arra- &. 7eds8 7.**.8 *ituaci$n 1iferencial de los ecursos 2aturales Es5aUoles. &$ndacian COsar #anriG$e- #adrid. Norgaard- A. 7)00!8 HlobaliBacian e insostenibilidad. In4 1ni%ersitat >olitOcnica de Catal$nya 7ed.8 W*ostenibleX TecnologTa, 1esarrollo *ostenible y 1esePuilibrios. Icaria- Barcelona- 3pain. >asc$al- >. 7)00*8 Agricultura i Industrialit4aci$ a la #atalunya del *egle "I". Crdtica- Barcelona. >asc$al- >. 7.***8 Els Torell$. Una Familia Igualadina dFAdvocats i &ro5ietaris. II. Un estudi sobre la crisi de lFagricultura tradicional H6@:6D6>79J. &$ndacia 3al%ador Ni%es i CasaD$anaBarcelona. >imentel- +. and >imentel- #. 7)0!08 Food, Energy, and *ociety. ,dward

Arnold- =ondon. >lanas- K. 7.**/8 Cooperati%isme i associacionisme agrari a Catal$nya4 els propietaris r$rals i l?organitBacia dels interessos agraris al primer tern del segle ((. +octoral thesis- 1ni%ersitat A$tonoma de Barcelona- Bellaterra. Aees- W. and Wackernagel- #. 7)009a8 =a h$ella ecolagica4 poblacian y riG$eBa. EcologTa &olTtica ).- .!C"*. Aees- W. and Wackernagel- #. 7)009b8 Lur Ecological Foot5rint. educing +uman Im5act on t%e Eart%. New 3ociety >$blishingHabriola Island- >hiladelphia. Aodrdg$eB Nalle- &.=. 7.**.8 Identi.caci$n de las #lases de Tierra segYn el ZEstudio AgrTcola del )all0s H6@A:J[. 3,C.**/:* 660:C*6 research proDect. 1ni%ersitat de Barcelona- Barcelona- 3pain. Aodrdg$eB Nalle- &.=. 7.**/8 Evaluaci$n agrTcola de cinco munici5ios del )allIs en la situaci$n actual e %ist$rica de .nales del siglo "I" . ,scola d?,nginyeria Agronoma- 1ni%ersitat de =leida- =leida- 3pain. 3acristfn#. 7)00.8 >olitical ecological considerations in #ar'. #a5italism, 2ature*ocialism /7)8- /!C6 . 3chandl- H. and 3ch$ltB- N. 7.**.8 Changes in the 1nited 2ingdom?s nat$ral relations in terms of society?s metabolism and land:$se from ) "* to the present day. Ecological Economics 6)- .*/C..). 3erra- ,. 7)0 8 &agesos i *enyors a la #atalunya del *egle ")II. Baronia de *entmenat, 68>9D6A?>. Crdtica- Barcelona. 3iman &ernfndeB- (. 7)0008 ,l anflisis de sistemas agrarios4 $na aportacian econamico:ecolagica a $na realidad compleDa. +istoria Agraria )0- ))"C )/ . 3mil- N. 7)0068 Energy in ,orld +istory. West%iew >ress- O'ford- 12. 3mil- N. 7.**)8 EnergTas; una !uTa Ilustrada de la Biosfera y la #ivili4aci$n. Crdtica- Barcelona. 3mil- N. 7.**/8 Alimentar al Mundo. Un reto del siglo ""I . 3iglo ((I#adrid. Tello- ,. 7)0008 =a formacian histarica de los paisaDes agrarios mediterrfneos4 $na apro'imacian coe%ol$ti%a. +istoria Agraria )0- )0"C.)). Thomas- W. Kr.- 3a$er- C.O.- Bates- #. and #$mford- =. 7)0"98 ManFs ole in #%anging t%e Face of t%e Eart% . The 1ni%ersity of Chicago >ressChicago- Illinois. T$rner- B.=. 7ed.8 7)00*8 T%e Eart% as Transformed by +uman Action . Cambridge 1ni%ersity >ress- Cambridge.

T$rner- B.=. 7ed.8 7)00"8 !lobal Land Use #%ange. C3IC- #adrid. Nilar- >. 7)09.8 La #atalogne dans lFEs5agne Moderne. I. 3,N>,N>aris. Wrigley- ,.A. 7)0 8 #ontinuity, #%ance and #%ange. T%e #%aracter of t%e Industrial evolution. Cambridge 1ni%ersity >ress- Cambridge. Wrigley- ,.A. 7.**68 &overty, &rogress, and &o5ulation. Cambridge 1ni%ersity >ress- Cambridge.

- Earth ;bservation Techni<ues and =eographic Information 0!stems as Tools for Assessing Land 1se8Cover Changes in a Landscape Conte$t

H. Chiricia- >. Coronab and #. 2Phlc geoLAB D Eco!eoFor D Laboratory of Ecology and Forest !eomatic, 1i5artimento di *cien4e e Tecnologie 5er lFAmbiente e il Territorio, University of Molise, Italy\ 1i5artimento di *cien4e dellFAmbiente Forestale e delle *ue isorse, University of Tuscia, )iterbo, Italy\ and 1e5artment of ,ood *cience, ,orld Forestry, University of +amburg, +amburg, !ermany
c b a

Introduction The terrestrial landscape consists of mosaics of different land co%erI$se types. Hence- land co%er and $ses cannot be satisfactorily described as isolated feat$res4 they need to be framed within the landscape conte't. The need for spatial information- s$ch as maps- in planning and management has long been recogniBed. This reG$ires G$anti.cation of the spatial distrib$tion of land co%erI$se patches at the landscape le%el. A patch is de.ned as a nonlinear s$rface area differing in appearance from its s$rro$ndingsF in addition- patches are often embedded in a s$rro$nding area or matri' that has a different composition 7&orman and Hodron- )0 98. In order to achie%e ef.cient monitoring systems that foc$s on the $nderstanding of land $seIco%er history and of their linkage to eco:biological and socio:c$lt$ral processes- a thoro$ghly detailed spatial knowledge of the landscape is needed. ,fforts to G$antify spatial str$ct$re of landscapes date back to the )0 *s 7e.g.- Aomme- )0 .F 2r$mmel et al.- )0 !8- b$t ha%e in recent years accelerated in s$ch a way that there are at present h$ndreds of indicators that allow some sort of G$anti.cation of %ario$s aspects of spatial characteristics at the landscape le%el 7e.g.- #cHarigal and #arks- )006F #cHarigal et al.- .**.8.

=andscape str$ct$re is dri%en by the physical template 7i.e. topography- climatesoil8- as well as nat$ral dist$rbances and h$man in.$ences. One of the main obDecti%es of landscape analysis is to de%elop G$antitati%e methods to describe and monitor the str$ct$re of the landscape. This is not only from the perspecti%e of assessing- reconstr$cting and modelling the history of land co%erI$ses- b$t also with the %iew 7and with the ass$mption8 that ecological and anthropogenic processes are linked to and can be predicted by patterns that are e'hibited by coarse spatial scales 7H$stafson- )00 8. The le%el at which we can work will de.ne the identi.cation of patterns that will in tandem pro%ide a decision framework that best describes $nderlying processes. In this chapter the methodological framework and the technical tools are o$t: lined to e%al$ate the land $seIco%er < CAB International .**9. T%e #onservation of #ultural Landsca5es 7ed. #. Agnoletti8

H. Chirici et al.
changes- e'amine different landscape patternsanalysis of the connection between m$lti:temporal dynamics and en%ironmental factors and to model and foresee its f$t$re e%ol$tion. created by $pdating the initial mapF or R a parallel approach based on the creation of maps on independent data. The .rst method minimiBes the risk that geometrical discordances between maps are wrongly considered as land $seIco%er changes. The two land $seIco%er maps created at two different occasions can be intersected thro$gh HI3 analysis 7see later in this chapter8 to create a change map- where the dynamics in land $seIco%er are reported. The theoretical n$mber of change classes is eG$al to the prod$ct of the n$mbers of classes at the .rst occasion and the second occasion. In order to better interpret the res$lt- the change classes are $s$ally aggregated in change types- whose n$mber and feat$res depend on the p$rposes of the proDect at hand. =and $seIco%er maps can also be analysed by spatial inde'es in the HI3 en%ironment to $nderstand changes of landscape str$ct$res and to in%estigate if relationships in space and time e'ist between s$ch trends and other ecological or social factors. In the ne't paragraphs more details are gi%en regarding both remote sensing and HI3 proced$res to implement these kinds of proced$res.

Methodological Frame)or2 for Monitoring Landscape Change

Once the geographical area of interest and the map scale ha%e been de.ned- the acG$isition of the digital land $seIco%er maps at two different points in time 7occasions8 is the .rst step to assess land $seIland co%er changes. If the st$dy has the .nal aim of modelling possible f$t$re changes- it will be better to consider at least three different occasions. Commonly 7b$t not mandatory8- one of the occasions is the c$rrent point in time. #apping is generally carried o$t by aerial photo interpretation- by polygon delineation and digitiBing or by classi.cation of m$lti:spectral remotely sensed images 7characteriBed by a geometric resol$tion congr$ent with the nominal scale le%el of the analysis8. A possible alternati%e is to monitor the de%elopment o%er time of special phenomena $sing directly m$lti:temporal remotely sensed images. In these special cases- the analysis is not foc$sed on the de%elopment of the entire landscape- b$t D$st on a speci.c e%ent- and a complete land $seIco%er mapping proDect is not necessary. &or instance- s$ch a methodology is applied to monitor forest .res- coastal erosion$rban de%elopment- or deserti.cation processes. &or these kinds of proDects- ad%anced methods of elaboration of m$lti:temporal remotely sensed data ha%e been de%eloped 7Hillesond and 2iefer8. The analysis of m$lti:temporal land $seIco%er maps is the main methodology $sed for the historical analysis of a landscape. &rom a practical point of %iew- two main approaches can be adopted4 R a serial approach based on the prod$ction of s$ccessi%e maps for the different occasions4 i.e. at the .rst occasion- a land $seIco%er map by the most acc$rate a%ailable proced$re is created 7for instance- by digitiBing a digital orthophoto8F maps for s$ccessi%e occasions are

Earth ;bservation Tools

The map format deri%ed from remotely sensed images is the main tool that can be $sed to describe the $seIco%er type and associated spatial %ariations. ,arth obser%ation 7,O8 techniG$es are an ideal tool for e'tensi%e s$r%eys- as they pro%ide geo:referenced information at relati%ely low cost. Available t!pes of remotel! sensed images =and $seIco%er data can be analysed by %ario$s types of remotely sensed images.
Fig# -#%# An e'ample of the $se of aerial photography for monitoring land $seIco%er changes. =eft4 the image of a landscape in central Italy from an aerial photo taken in )0"6. Aight4 the same landscape from an aerial image taken in )009. The e'tension of woodland can be easily detected.

3atellite images may be a%ailable for the analysed st$dy area and can be $sed if s$itable for the considered map scale and thematic system of nomenclat$re. 3atellite imagery may be $sed for historical st$dies too4 for instance- =andsat images ha%e been a%ailable since )0!.- and 3>OT images a%ailable since )0 9. Howe%er- in generalhistorical landscape analysis is based on aerial photographs 7&ig. 6.)8 or old maps. ,O data can be classi.ed on the basis of se%eral properties4

%ector4 the type of platform on which the sensor instr$ment is mo$nted- basically satellite or aerialF Q sensor technology4 passi%e if the sensors are scanners sensiti%e to the solar radia tion re.ected by the earth?s s$rface or acti%e if the system emits radiation- whose reflection is detected by the sensor 7e.g. radar or =I+AA8F Q spectral resol$tion4 n$mber of sensors and wa%elength of radiation to which they are sensiti%eF Q geometric resol$tion4 dimension at the gro$nd of the image pi'el 7&ig. 6..8F Q time resol$tion4 freG$ency in the acG$i: sition of images o%er timeF Q price4 ranging from free to %ery e'pen: si%e datasets. In Table 6.)- characteristics of some of the most freG$ently $sed digital sensors are described.

Fig# -#+# +ifferent resol$tion of remotely sensed images for the same area. =eft4 \$ick Bird image 7pi'el of

.. m8. Centre4 3>OT (3 7pi'el of )* m8. Aight4 =andsat ! ,T#5 7pi'el of /* m8. All images are compositions of AHB 6/. in grey:scale palette.

H. Chirici et al.

,ame of Ty$e of Ty$e of :eomet ic !$ect al Time the senso vecto senso 1 ound esolution esolution f e8uency B a n d s a t " E T M C ,3! 3 Mult i? s$ec t al 30 m in multi? s$ect al " -and s f om 19 day s

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4re processing techni<ues The $se of digital remotely sensed images to prod$ce geocoded thematic maps reG$ires se%eral pre: processing steps. 3ome of them ha%e to be done in all cases while others are reG$ired D$st in speci.c sit$a : tions. To deri%e a geocoded map of land $seIco%er- raw images ha%e to be corrected geometrically in order to proDect them in the desired geographic system of coordinates4 this proced$re is called georeferencing. 3e%eral methods can be implemented b$t nearly all of them reG$ire the acG$isition of a n$mber of gro$nd control points 7HC>8 where both the row and col$mn coordinate of the raw image and the geo graphical coordinate are known. In s$ch a way it is possible to create a mathematical relationship between the two coordinate systems that is then applied to each pi'el of the raw image to create a new resampled geocoded image. 3e%eral options are a%ailable4 if the mathematical relationship is b$ilt taking into consideration the geometric distortion ind$ced by orography- then the process is an orthocorrectionF if geographical coordinates are acG$ired on the basis of another geocoded image- the process is called co:registration. While georeferencing is a mandatory geometric pre:elaboration- other processes implemented to spectrally correct the image are needed D$st for some speci.c applications. Topographic normaliBation is needed in mo$ntain areas to correct the effect of slope and aspect. Atmospheric correction is needed when images ha%e to be transformed into a G$antitati%e dataset of physical meaning 7e.g.- to meas$re s$rface temperat$re or re.ected radiance8- red$cing the .ltering effect of atmospheric haBe. Other simple and %ery common techniG$es are applied to transform a set of grey:scale m$lti:spectral images into colo$r images. This is achie%ed by assigning one spectral band to each basic colo$r channel 7red- green and bl$e8 in order to prepare a more $nderstandable image for photo intepreters.

Change detection methods As mentioned- two main approaches can be $sed to transform raw data from remote sensing into $sef$l information for historical landscape st$dies. The .rst is to classify images according to a de.ned reference scale and a de.ned system of nomenclat$re of land $seIco%er classes- and then to intersect maps with HI3 analysis. The second is to analyse directly m$lti:temporal images in order to enhance speci.c land:co%er changes

From remotely sensed images to ma5s It is possible to map land $seIco%er from a digital remotely sensed image with two main con%entional approaches4

Change:detection techniG$es are applied to m$lti: temporal remotely sensed images to identify and G$antify speci.c phenomena. They are $s$ally applied to map e%ents that ha%e transformed an area $nder consideration in a %ery fast way- while the remaining part of the landscape- not s$bDect to any e%ents- remains more or less $nchanged. On the basis of s$ch ass$mptions- at least two images m$st be acG$ired4 one before and one after the e%ent. A constraint is that the time inter%al between the acG$ired images has to be as short as possible. The analysis is based on the hypothesis that areas s$bDect to the phenomena of interest ha%e a %ery different spectral beha%io$r in the image spacewhile $naffected areas show a similar spectral response. Typical applications are mapping .oodsforest .res 7&ig. 6./8- deforestation and logging.

photo interpretation4 delineating poly: gons by man$al digitiBation and then assigning each polygon to one of the classes of the selected system of nomenclat$reF Q R classi.cation4 analysing by speci.c algorithms the raw image in order to assign each single pi'el or gro$p of pi'els to one of the classes of the selected system of nomenclat$re. The feasibility of classi.cation can be increased by4 Q decreasing the geometric resol$tion of imagesF

Advances Fusion tec%niPues >romising possibilities are offered by a new generation of satellite:based prod$cts- orthoimages and f$sion images which are analysed by speci.c application software 7e.g.- for change detection8and enable the $ser to take ad%antage of the information coming from different so$rces. Indeed- data f$sion may signi.cantly impro%e the resol$tion 7spectral- spatial8 of satellite images. The f$sion between m$lti:spectral and panchromatic data aims at the preser%ation of the geometric feat$res of panchromatic images and the spectral content of m$lti:spectral images. 3o$nd data merging may impro%e the %is$al interpretability of the images- prod$cing a m$lti: spectral image with a higher le%el of geometric detail 7&ig. 6.68. The f$sion of m$lti:spectral and radar

Q Q

increasing the n$mber of spectral bands of the imagesF increasing the amo$nt of ancillary infor: mation a%ailable to g$ide the classi.erF Q R decreasing the landscape comple'ity in terms of orography and land:co%er mosaics. When the images are not digital- s$ch as traditional aerial photos- then two main proced$res are a%ailable4 Q acG$iring aerial photographs by high res ol$tion scanner- transforming them into digital orthophotos by geocoding with the $se of +,# 7digital ele%ation model8. The orthophoto is then $s$ally imported into a HI3 and photointerpreted on screenF R $sing traditional man$al photointerpretation methods- and then digitiBing the polygons delineated on the photos. #%ange detection

H. Chirici et al.

Fig# -#(# An e'ample of change:detection analysis for forest .re monitoring by =andsat ! ,T#5 imagery. =eft4 a pre:.re image. Aight4 a post:.re image. Both images are prod$ced $tiliBing band 6 7near infra red8. The circle in the right:hand image indicates the b$rnt area.

Fig# -#-# An e'ample of image f$sion of \$ick Bird data. =eft4 an image from m$lti:spectral bands 7AHB 6/. in grey:scale palette- resol$tion .. m8. Aight4 the same image f$sed with panchromatic band

7resol$tion *.! m8.

data may ha%e two goals4 the preser%ation of the m$lti:spectral content of the optical imagery and of the radar:deri%ed information- or the integration of the radar data as an additi%e band of the m$lti:spectral image. &$t$re research effort will foc$s on testing the performances of a%ailable f$sion algorithms 7based for e'ample on IH3 transform m$lti:resol$tion analysis and wa%elet transform- principal component analysis- arithmetic techniG$es- colo$r normaliBing techniG$e- simple band s$bstit$tion- local regressions8 and on the design of new ones. Whate%er the data:f$sion techniG$e- the best res$lts are e'pected when $sing merged data collected d$ring the same day- or with a time inter%al of a few days. Ne% ertheless- not all data:f$sion methods work properly $nder each condition. The IH3 merger- for e'ample- is based on the ass$mption that m$lti:spectral and panchromatic bands co%er the same spectral range. If not- the incl$sion of the panchromatic band will modify the colo$r composition res$lts of original m$lti:spectral bands4 s$ch a res$lt can be $sef$l when the image is photo:interpreted- b$t not where the image has to be a$tomatically classi.ed- d$e to the fact that its spectral content is altered.

The information content of maps based on remotely sensed data can be increased by combining .eld assessments and remote sensing imagery. This approach is especially $sef$l when maps are reG$ired that ha%e to show the spatial pattern of attrib$tes that are either not directly assessable in remote sensing imagery or that cannot be assessed with appropriate acc$racy. *egmentation 3egmentation is a techniG$e $sed to limit the original pi'el %ariability of remote sensing imagery. Original images are in fact sets of raw data. To s$pport land management or ecological st$dies- images ha%e to be considered as base data $sef$l to elaborate geographical datasets- $s$ally in mapped format. A land $seIco%er map is a %ector model 7see p. 9!8 of the original remotely sensed image. 3egmentation is a methodology able to create a$tomatically a %ector model of a m$lti:spectral remotely sensed image 7&ig. 6."8. Its distincti%e aim is to process image obDects separated according to homogeneity criteria. The segmentation proced$re separates parts of landscapes as long as they appear signi.cantly to contrast with each other on the analysed image 7Hiannetti et al..**/8. This proced$re s$bstantially red$ces the n$mber of $nits to be handledF the following image classi.cation is then based on the attrib$tes of image obDects rather than on the attrib$tes of indi%id$al pi'els 7see below8. In most common segmentation algorithms- pi'els of the image are aggregated in polygons on the basis of their spectral similarity 7colo$r8. 3hape and dimension of desired polygons can be determined by changing dri%ing %ariables of the segmentation process. >olygons then ha%e to be classi.ed on the basis of the chosen system of nomenclat$re by man$al 7photo:interpretation8- a$tomatic or semi:a$tomatic systems 7obDect:oriented classi.cation8 7>ekkarinen and T$ominen- .**/8. LbCect/oriented classi.cation This techniG$e is based on a %ector model of a remotely sensed image de%eloped man$ally by photo: interpretation or a$tomatically by segmentation. In pi'el:oriented methods the $nderlying concept is the possibility to de.ne a @spectral signat$re? of each class of land $seIco%er acG$iring a consistent n$mber of pi'els representing each class. &or s$ch @training areas? the spectral signat$re is acG$ired. Then all the pi'els of the image are assigned to the most spectrally similar class. The methods to

Fig# -#># 3egmentation of remotely sensed data. =eft4 part of a =andsat ! ,T#5 image 7/* m resol$tion- AHB 6/. composition in grey:scale palette8. Aight4 the same image after segmentation C note the black bo$ndary polygons a$tomatically generated.

H. Chirici et al.

e%al$ate s$ch similarity are manifold and $nder contin$o$s de%elopment. ,ach approach res$lts in a classi.ed raster map. In obDect:oriented methods the target of the classi.cation is not a pi'el b$t a polygon 7obDect8. There are two bene.ts of s$ch an approach 7BenB et al.- .**684

the .nal prod$ct of the classi.cation is in %ector format instead of the raster format of a pi'el:oriented approachF and Q the %ector format is already a cartogra: phy oriented map and ready to be implemented in =I3 7land information system8 7&ig. 6.98. A larger n$mber of descripti%e parameters can be associated with an obDect rather than indi%id$al pi'els. Only the spectral signat$re can be de%eloped for a pi'el- while a h$ge n$mber of attrib$tes can be deri%ed for polygons4 st$dying the distrib$tion of spectral %al$es of pi'els incl$ded in the polygon- the shape of the polygonthe type and n$mber of contacts between polygons- the absol$te position of the polygon and its relati%e position to other polygons- etc. 3$ch properties enable a better characteriBation of land $seIco%er classes and th$s an easier classi.cation. &inally- after an a$tomatic classi.cation a .nal man$al re%ision is possible. 322 and s5ectral unmiMing 3ince the )00*s- two methods ha%e been described that facilitate the operational $se of remote sensing e%en at the local le%el4 the kNN method and spectral $nmi'ing. The @k nearest neighbo$r? 7kNN8 method relates terrestrial samples to the spectral information of pi'els 7Tomppo- )00/F Chirici et al.- .**/8. &or the entire set of pi'els witho$t associated gro$nd assessments- the k nearest neighbo$rs in the spec: tral image space are determined among those pi'els which coincide with the location of .eld samples. The %al$es of attrib$tes assessed on the gro$nd at the location of the k nearest pi'els are weighted by the distances in the spectral image space and assigned to the respecti%e pi'els for which no gro$nd information is a%ailable. >i'el estimates are plotted to prod$ce maps that show

the spatial distrib$tion of attrib$tes assessed on the gro$nd in the resol$tion of the remote sensing data 72Phl- .**/8. #ost ecosystems show small:scale het: erogeneity- which res$lts in a large amo$nt of mi'ed pi'els by the c$rrently a%ailable m$lti: spectral sensors and their spatial resol$tions. By $tiliBing hyperspectral remote sensing sensorsimage data are collected in an enormo$s n$mber 7i.e.- from /* to more than .**8 of narrow and adDacent spectral bands. +espite the fact that hyperspectral imagery is an e'tension of m$lti: spectral imagery- the tools applied for image analysis and interpretation differ from the well: known approaches in m$lti:spectral image analysis. A hyperspectral scene can be seen as an image with a spectr$m of grey %al$es- which are a%ailable for each pi'el. &or a gi%en geographic area the data can be %iewed as a c$be- ha%ing two dimensions that represent the spatial position and one that represents wa%elengths. The image spectra can be compared with known spectra from .eld or laboratory e'periments and enable detection and mapping of the spectral signat$res of obDects. This techniG$e is known as spectral analysis and $tiliBes the information of the entire spectral image space and searches for characteristics of spectra that are similar to the known spectra of obDects 72Phl- .**/8.

Fig# -#7# >i'el: %s. obDect:oriented classi.cations. =eft4 an image acG$ired by \$ick Bird satellite 7..! m resol$tionAHB 6/. composition in grey:scale palette8. Centre4 an e'ample of raster pi'el:oriented classi.cation- each grey le%el corresponding to a land $seIco%er class. Aight4 %ector obDect:oriented classi.cation- each grey le%el corresponding to a land $seIco%er class.

An alternati%e techniG$e for analysing hyperspectral data is called spectral $nmi'ing. 3pectral $nmi'ing ass$mes that the re.ectance of a pi'el in an indi%id$al spectral band is a linear combination of the spectral re.ectance of different obDects or- in the nomenclat$re of hyperspectral image analysis- endmembers. The res$lting spectra are th$s a composite of the endmembers or p$re spectra of obDects in a pi'el- weighted by their area proportion. 2Phl and =a$tner 7.**)8 fo$nd for a test site in the Ore #o$ntains 7Hermany8 that spectral mi't$re analysis pro%ided good res$lts for the assessment of mi't$re proportions of decid$o$s and conifero$s trees. Classi.cation of stand types- $sing the ma'im$m likelihood algorithm- pro%ided good res$lts especially for f$rther differentiation of tree species gro$ps and for mapping age classes.

feat$res s$ch as roads and streamsF and polygons are employed to designate areas s$ch as lakes or forest stands and are bo$nded on all sides by a series of straight:line segments 7A%ery and B$rkhart- .**.8.

&ata entr! #%ange detection on classi.ed ma5s The base dataset for the analysis of change detection within a geographic information system is a m$lti:temporal land $seIco%er database. 3$ch a dataset is $s$ally de%eloped by intersection of two land $seIco%er maps acG$ired on two different occasions for the same area. The maps sho$ld be consistent both from a geometrical and thematic point of %iew. They sho$ld ha%e the same resol$tion 7same scale and same siBe of the minim$m mapping $nit8 and sho$ld be de%eloped with the same system of nomenclat$re. Howe%er- freG$ently s$ch prereG$isites are not satis.ed beca$se original mapping proDects ha%e been de%eloped with independent proced$res and obDecti%es. In s$ch cases a standardiBation operation has to be performed. &rom a geometrical point of %iew the most common choice is to raster: iBe all co%erages with a resol$tion 7pi'el

Anal!sis Based on =eographic Information 0!stems

A geographic information system 7HI38 is a system for the capt$re- storage- retrie%almanip$lation and %is$aliBation of geocoded datasets. A geocoded dataset is a set of data that has- as one of its main descripti%e feat$res- its position in the space 7Aronof- )00"8. +ata acG$ired by remote sensing- pre:elaborated and transformed man$ally 7by photo:interpretation8a$tomatically 7by one or more methods described abo%e8 or by a mi'ed approach in thematic maps are .nally elaborated by HI3 technologies. Heographic information systems pro%ide an ef.cient way to o%erlay layers of mapped data toob$t their capabilities are by no means limited to form$lating and prod$cing maps. Altho$gh HI3s ha%e their roots in cartography they ha%e e%ol%ed into powerf$l data management- analysis and display tools to analyse- st$dy and model the str$ct$ral landscape and en%ironmental dynamics. 3patial data are represented in a HI3 in two different ways4 the raster format and the %ector format. In raster format- a grid is $sed to represent the area of interest4 the location of feat$res is indicated by a designated code in each cell containing that feat$re. Nector data represent geographic feat$res by coordinates of points- lines and polygons4 points designate small feat$res or indi%id$als- s$ch as a den tree- or a s$r%eying benchmarkF lines are $sed to represent linear

H. Chirici

et al.

dimension8 consistent with the scale of the least acc$rate dataset 7the dataset mapped at the lowest scale8. &rom a thematic point of %iew a $niG$e relationship has to be fo$nd for all the classes of the system of nomenclat$re $sed in order to ens$re the possibility of reclassifying the classes- creating a new $niG$e system $sable for all the maps. In s$ch an operation- the new common system of nomenclat$re sho$ld be based on international standard de.nitions- as- for instance- for forest and other wooded lands 7&AO- )00"F #C>&,- .**/8. =and $seIco%er maps are $s$ally deri%ed by remotely sensed images- b$t in historical st$dies co$ld also be deri%ed from old paper maps. In s$ch cases- the maps ha%e to be acG$ired in raster format by cartographic scanners. The images ha%e to be geocoded D$st like remotely sensed images

and .nally digitiBed to con%ert them to %ector format. An e'ample of change detection on classi.ed maps is shown in &ig. 6.!. #ross/tabulation matriM The analysis of land $seIco%er changes is completed by cross:tab$lating m$lti:temporal raster land $seIco%er maps. The matri' reports in the rows land $ses of the oldest date and in the col$mns land $ses at the c$rrent date 7an e'ample is gi%en in Table 6..8. The %ectors in the matri' ha%e speci.c meanings. A row %ector indicates how old land $se de%eloped. A col$mn %ector indicates from which class the present land $se de%eloped. ,%ery cell of the matri'

Table -#+# 3n e'am$le of a c oss?ta-ulation mat i' de ived -y the analysis of datasets in +i1. /.". <alues e$o ted in cells a e in hecta es. ,e) @ld F 6: B: *Total F %.1 1.1 ".2 6: 2." 2." B: %.3 2.0 8.3 * /.9 /.9 Total ne) %.1 2." "./ %.8 23.0

Fig# -#9# An e'ample of change detection on classi.ed maps. In images A 7old8 and B 7new8 the same area 7appro'imately ./ ha8 with a classi.ed land co%er maps with fo$r land co%er classes4 black 7B8- dark grey 7+H8- light grey 7=H8- white 7W8. Image A is taken at the year ( and image B at time (5n years. In image C- the change analysis by HI3 shows two changes. >olygon A changed from B to =H and polygon B changed from =H to W.

contains the e'tension of a speci.c class of land:$se change. #atri'es can also be elaborated in order to simplify their reading and interpretation. &or this p$rpose all possible land $se changes can be classified in dynamics classes.

described in the literat$re can be gro$ped into the following eight classes 7#cHarigal and #arks)00684 area metricsF patch density metricsF edge metricsF shape metricsF core area metricsF nearest neighbo$rF di%ersity metricsF contagion and interspersion metrics 7&ig. 6.08. !eogra5%ic vs. geometric -indo-s The calc$lation of one inde' for an entire landscape often fails to re.ect the str$ct$re of the landscape. As mentioned- the

Advances Landsca5e indeMes In order to e'amine the landscape patterns and their e%ol$tion- it is possible to apply landscape ecology techniG$es. #any inde'es ha%e been speci.cally de%eloped to analyse certain str$ct$ral landscape feat$res. 3$ch inde'es can be applied at %ario$s le%els4

at whole st$dy:area le%el4 the inde' is calc$lated on a %ery wide area. HI3 techniG$es are not necessary b$t the res$lt cannot be mapped 7e.g.- the a%erage siBe of patches8F Q at patch le%el4 the inde' is calc$lated for e%ery patch. 1s$ally- the calc$lation is based on %ector data. The o$tp$t can be mapped4 for instance- the relationship between patch area and perimeter e'presses the le%el of comple'ity of the form of the patch 7fractal dimension8F Q at a speci.c window le%el4 the inde' is calc$lated on a geographical neighbo$rhood of patches. HI3 technology is applied to digital maps in raster form. This proced$re allows the best mapping o$tp$t to be obtained. &or e%ery pi'el the inde' is based on the adDacent pi'els. &or instance- if the window is / T / pi'els- a simple di%ersity inde' will be calc$lated on the eight adDacent pi'els. The %al$e is referred to the target pi'el 7the central one8- then the window shifts to the adDacent pi'el and the calc$lation is repeated 7&ig. 6. 8. At each application le%el- changes of %al$es pro%ide s$bstantial information related to different occasions on the same area. =andscape ecology foc$ses on three characteristics of the landscape4 str$ct$re- f$nction and change 7&orman and Hodron- )0 98. Th$s- landscape ecology in%ol%es the st$dy of landscape patterns. =andscape indices are a widely $sed tool to G$antify spatial landscape str$ct$res. The large n$mber of landscape indices that ha%e been

Fig# -#*# An e'ample of the application of a landscape inde' 73hannon di%ersity8 on a mo%ing window. =eft4 a land $seIco%er map. Aight4 the res$lt of the application of the 3hannon di%ersity inde' with a mo%ing window of /* original pi'elsF the di%ersity increases from black to white.

H. Chirici et al.

application of the mo%ing windows technology has been s$ggested in the conte't of landscape analysis. Windows 7synonyms are kernels- masks or .lters8 ha%e their origin in image analysis and are $sed to characteriBe spatial information in a neighbo$rhood. 3$b:areas are separated from the area $nder concern and analysed. According to #erchant 7)0 68 and +ill:worth et al. 7)0068 windows of .'ed siBe C so:called geometric windows C show disad%antages in sit$ations where not the neighbo$rhood of pi'els- b$t the neighbo$rhood of patches has to be analysed. &or these sit$ations #erchant 7)0 68 proposed to $se geographic windows- where- based on an initial geometric window- the window is e'panded $ntil all patches co%ered by the initial geometric window are incl$ded. Aicotta et al. 7.**/8 and 2Phl and Oehmichen 7.**/8 compare geometric and geographical windows in a landscape analysis conte't 7&ig. 6.)*8.

Conclusion
New de%elopments of technologies for capt$ring spatial and temporal information significantly infl$enced research on the assessment of landscape dynamics. 3tandard image processing and HI3 software are able to transform raw images into comple' thematic maps 7landscape str$ct$res-landscape dynamics and history- etc.8. Howe%er- a lack of knowledge still e'ists concerning the relationships among en%ironmental and anthropogenic factors at landscape le%el. &or instance- most landscape indices do not ha%e clear ecological meaning- and dif.c$lties arise in %erifying the e'tracted relationships- with con%entional ecological data intensi%e and costly to assess in the .eld. +espite the fact that land:$se dynamics o%er time pro%ide signi.cant information- the debate regarding the integration of this information into decision processes by land:$se managers is still going on.

Fig# -#@# The main types of landscape inde'es 7modi.ed from H[$sler et al.- .***8.

Fig# -#%,# 3election of patches by 7A8 a geometric window 7in the o$tlined sG$are8 and 7B8 a geographic window 7the darker o$tlined area8.

It is widely accepted that the new methodological approaches will become operational in the near f$t$re and offer new perspecti%es to land management:oriented iss$es. A transition from the reconstr$ction of landscape to the forecasting of change trends will facilitate the implementation of decision:s$pport systems for land:management planning.

"eferences
Aronof- 3. 7)00"8 !eogra5%ic Information *ystems; a Management &ers5ective . W+= >$blications- OttawaCanada. A%ery- T.,. and B$rkhart- H.,. 7.**.8 Forest Measurements, "th ,dition. #cHraw Hill- New Sork. BenB- 1.C.- Hofmann- >.- Willha$ck- H.- =ingenfelder- I. and Heynen- #. 7.**68 #$lti:resol$tion- obDect:oriented f$BBy analysis of remote sensing data for HI3:ready information. I*& * .ournal of &%otogrammetry and emote *ensing " - ./0C." . Chirici- H.- Corona- >.- #archetti- #.- #aselli- &. and Bottai- =. 7.**/8 3patial distib$tion modelling of forest attrib$tes co$pling remotely sensed imagery and HI3 techniG$es. In4 Amaro- A.- Aeed- +. and 3oares- >. 7eds8 Modelling Forest *ystems. CAB International- Wallingford- 12- pp. 6)C"*. +illworth- #.- Whistler- K.=. and #erchant- K.W. 7)0068 #eas$ring landscape str$ct$re $sing geographic and geometric windows. &%otogrammetric Engineering ] emote *ensing 9*- ).)"C)..6. &AO 7)00"8 Forest esource Assessment 6>>9. !lobal *ynt%esis. &AO &orestry >aper ).6. Aome- Italy. &orman- A.T.T. and Hodron- #. 7)0 98 Landsca5e Ecology. Kohn Wiley V 3ons- New Sork. Hiannetti- &.- Hottero- &. and TerB$olo- >.H. 7.**/8 1se of high resol$tion satellite images in the forest in%entory and mapping of >iemonte region 7Italy8. In4 Corona- >.- 2oehl- #. and #archetti- #. 7eds8 Advances in Forest Inventory for *ustainable Forest Management and Biodiversity Monitoring . 2l$wer- +ordrecht- pp. !C09. H$stafson- ,.K. 7)00 8 \$antifying landscape spatial pattern4 what is the state of the artW Ecosystems )- )6/C)"9. H[$sler- T.- AkgP- ,.- Halla$n- H.- 3chardt- #.- ,kstrand- 3.- =Pfmark- #.- =agard- #.- >elB- +.A. and ObergfPll- >. 7.***8 #onitoring changes and indicators for str$ct$ral di%ersity of forested areas. In4 Xawila:NiedBwiecki- T. and Brach- #. 7eds8 emote *ensing and Forest Monitoring . ,1A )0"/*- Of.ce for Of.cial >$blications of the ,$ropean Comm$nities- =$'embo$rg- pp. /0.C6)6. 2Phl- #. 7.**/8 New approaches for m$ltireso$rce forest in%entories. In4 Corona- >.- 2oehl- #. and #archetti- #. 7eds8 Advances in Forest Inventory for *ustainable Forest Management and Biodiversity Monitoring . 2l$wer- +ordrecht- pp. )C9. 2Phl- #. and =a$tner- #. 7.**)8 ,rfass$ng %on WaldPkosystemen d$rch Hyperspektraldaten. &%otogrammetrieD Ferner3undungD!eoinformation .- )*!C))!. 2Phl- #. and Oehmichen- 2. 7.**/8 Comparison of landscape indices $nder partic$lar consideration of the geometric and geographic mo%ing window concept. In4 Corona- >.- 2oehl- #. and #archetti- #. 7eds8 Advances in Forest Inventory for *ustainable Forest Management and Biodiversity Monitoring . 2l$wer- +ordrecht- pp. ./)C.66. 2r$mmel- K.A.- Hardner- A.H.- 3$gihara- H.- O?Neill- A.N. and Coleman- >.A. 7)0 !8 =andscape patterns in a dist$rbed en%ironment. Li3os 6 - /.)C/.6. #cHarigal- #. and #arks- B.K. 7)0068 F A!*TAT*; *5atial &attern Analysis &rogram for Quantifying Landsca5e *tructure. Aeference man$al for 3cience +epartment- Oregon 3tate 1ni%ersity- Cor%allis- Oregon13A. #cHarigal- 2.- C$shman- 3.A.- Neel- #.C. and ,ne- ,. 7.**.8 F A!*TAT*; *5atial &attern Analysis &rogram for #ategorical Ma5s. Comp$ter software program prod$ced by the a$thors at the 1ni%ersity of #assach$setts- Amherst- #assach$setts.

H. Chirici et al.

#C>&, 7.**/8 )ienna 1eclaration and )ienna esolutions . Adopted at the &o$rth #inisterial Conference on the >rotection of &orests in ,$rope. . C/* April- .**/. Nienna- A$stria. #erchant- K.W. 7)0 68 1sing spatial logic in classi.cation of =andsat T# data. In4 &roceedings of t%e &ecora I" *ym5osium- 3io$' &alls- 3o$th +akota- pp. /! C/ ". >ekkarinen- A. and T$ominen- 3. 7.**/8 3trati.cation of a forest area for m$ltiso$rce forest in%entory by means of aerial photographs and image segmentation. In4 Corona- >.- 2oehl- #. and #archetti- #. 7eds8 Advances in Forest Inventory for *ustainable Forest Management and Biodiversity Monitoring . 2l$wer- +ordrecht- pp. )))C).6. Aicotta- C.- Cecchi- >.- Chirici- H.- Corona- >.- =amonaca- A. and #archetti- #. 7.**/8 Assessing forest land scape str$ct$re $sing geographic windows. In4 Corona- >.- 2oehl- #. and #archetti- #. 7eds8 Advances in Forest Inventory for *ustainable Forest Management and Biodiversity Monitoring . 2l$wer- +ordrecht- pp. ..)C..0. Aomme- W.H. 7)0 .8 &ire and landscape di%ersity in s$balpine forests of Sellowstone National >ark. Ecological Monogra5%s ".- )00C..). Tomppo- ,. 7)00/8 #$lti:so$rce national forest in%entory of &inland. In4 Nyyssonen- A.- >oso- 3. and Aa$talaK. 7eds8 &roceedings of Ilvessalo *ym5osium on 2ational Forest Inventories - Helsinki- &inland- pp. ".C "0.

>AAT II

Management

There can be different ways of managing landscapes according to c$lt$ral or ecological approaches. The ecosystem is $s$ally a f$ndamental concept $sed by almost all the approaches to $nderstand landscapes- as a comple' system of interacting biological- physical and c$lt$ral factors- while ecological planning seeks to maintain the stability of ecosystems and their .ows of energy- material and species. Howe%er- there are different ways of considering the role of ecological processes in %al$able c$lt$ral landscapes. The management of .re proposed by #OtailiO 7Chaper !8- not only to maintain past$res- b$t also to enhance biodi%ersity- wo$ld be an almost impossible proposal in conte'ts like Italy- for instance- not only beca$se of the different way of $nderstanding the role of .re from an ecological point of %iew and the danger represented by .res in densely pop$lated areas- b$t also beca$se of the perception of .re ind$ced in the p$blic by certain .elds of scienti.c research and media. On the other hand- the need for a re%ision of the way s$stainability is interpreted is needed. In a continent like ,$rope with s$ch a long history of c$lt$ral in.$ence on the en%ironment- the simple fact of ha%ing a large network of areas to protect nat$re- b$t no eG$i%alent instr$ments to protect c$lt$ral landscapes is G$ite symptomatic. Neither is it $seless to stress @c$lt$ral? when describing these landscapes- as the association of the concept of landscape to that of nat$re often creates misleading interpretations regarding management strategies. As a matter of fact- altho$gh the aims of

the NAT1A, .*** network of protected areas are also to incl$de c$lt$ral factors in their management- the way this directi%e is applied shows that it is better s$ited to protecting endangered species- rather than the habitats created or dominated by c$lt$ral infl$ence- that are G$ite widespread in ,$rope. It is therefore %ery $sef$l to propose st$dies like the one by Bradshaw 7Chapter 98- showing the importance of c$lt$ral in.$ence in so$thern 3weden and the progressi%e incorporation of this into the practical management of biodi%ersity. There is in fact the need to elaborate a better strategy for biodi%ersity and also to propose instr$ments to protect and restore not only biodi%ersity of species- b$t also di%ersity of spaces. The proDect for the park of the r$ral landscape in #oscheta 7T$scany8 7Chapter "8indicating management choices to red$ce the e'pansion of woodlands restoring the di%ersity of spaces- co$ld e%en be interpreted as a pro%ocationrather than a scienti.c proposal- according to how the sit$ation is at a scienti.c and

>art II4 #anagement

political le%el. Altho$gh the restoration of an ideal earlier @nat$ral ecosystem? is widely accepted- the idea of restoring a c$lt$ral landscape .nds many more dif.c$lties- altho$gh the .rst is a m$ch more $nde.ned goal compared to the second. This is a %iew that brings together %ery different sit$ations across the world as shown by the chapter by Nancy =angston for the 13A 7Chapter ))8- stressing the limited s$ccess of s$ch policies- and bringing $p the matter of the %iews that forest managers apply to forest managementcreating a direct parallel with ,1 forest strategies. A rethinking of traditional preser%ation approaches is howe%er $nderway- as doc$mented by the e'perience ill$strated by the #arshCBillingsC Aockefeller >ark- a small b$t significant place for management approaches- and also by the chapter by Blank 7Chapter )*8- addressing the widespread problem of parks in the neighbo$rhoods of $rban areas. This also brings $p the matter of the economic aspect of landscape restoration- an acti%ity proposing an alternati%e to the globaliBation also affecting co$ntrysidecontrib$ting to the s$stainable de%elopment also of less fa%o$red areas. The importance of this concept is presented by Angelstam 7Chapter 8- describing the cr$cial moment for ,astern ,$ropean co$ntries recently Doining the ,1 and waiting to de%elop their economies. This process risks destroying their landscape- with the help of economic incenti%es

for agric$lt$re and strategies for agric$lt$re and nat$re conser%ation. This is the case presented by #ontiel #olina for 3pain 7Chapter )68- b$t co$ld act$ally be applied to all the ,1 co$ntries- where widely $sed s$bsidies to carry o$t afforestation proDects often damaged landscapes. This occ$rred beca$se of the initial absence of speci.c indications in this respectF therefore- after a co$ple of decades- the effects and con.icts pro%oked in regions where landscape is a %al$able reso$rce are e%ident. On the other hand- these trends are also fa%o$red by the way s$stainability is interpreted and applied by important international processes like certification standards. Anderson 7Chapter ).8 is considering them in forestry- b$t the same problem can be seen for eco:certi.cation in agric$lt$re- denying any important role played by c$lt$ral %al$es- or the links between food G$ality and landscape. The lack of speci.c criteria and indicators are ob%io$sly affecting management approaches based on them- which will affect c$lt$ral landscapes when applied. The hope is that initiati%es like the ,$ropean =andscape Con%ention- described by WeiBenegger and 3chenk in Chapter )/- will be able to affect this problem- altho$gh nothing can be done witho$t a growth of social sensibility abo$t this matter. Howe%er- the Con%ention is willing to promote an approach fa%o$ring the recognition of all landscapes- independent of their %al$e.

> The 4ro?ect for the "ural Landscape 4ar2 in

Moscheta 5Tuscan!/ Ital!:
#. Agnoletti- N. #arinai and 3. >aoletti
1e5artment of Environmental Forestry *cience and Tec%nology, University of Florence, Florence, Italy

Introduction
#oscheta is one of the )/ st$dy areas co%ered d$ring the proDect for T$scany reported in Chapter ). In this case the HC,A methodology has been applied to the problem of de.ning the management criteria for the creation of a landscape park. The st$dy addresses two main problems referring to the conser%ation of c$lt$ral landscapes and the de%elopment of marginal r$ral areas- b$t also to the long:term analysis of landscape dynamics. &or the .rst problem we hope to offer a contrib$tion to the definitions of c$lt$ral landscapes- according to the criteria indicated by 1N,3CO for the World Heritage =ist- making this concept less opaG$e and %ag$e 7&owler- .**/8. The de%elopment of r$ral regions- especially those located in mo$ntain en%ironments- is one of the most important iss$es at world le%el- addressed by se%eral international directi%es. #arginal territories- especially those once intensi%ely c$lti%ated and now abandoned- represent a problem not only in de%eloping co$ntries- b$t also in Western societies. Also- for this reason the #o$ntain Comm$nity of the #$gello %alley- the administrati%e body managing the mo$ntain districts where the st$dy area of #oscheta is located- promoted and s$pported this st$dy- trying to tackle the lack of any real policy at regional- national and ,$ropean 1nion le%el fa%o$ring the conser%ation of c$lt$ral landscape in r$ral de%elopment or nat$re conser%ation. #oreo%er- none of them offer a chance to create a network of landscape parks- as happened with the NAT1AA .*** network of protected areas- creating a sit$ation partic$larly problematic for co$ntries like those in the #editerranean area- where c$lt$ral landscape represents an important reso$rce.

0ite and 'istor!

The #oscheta st$dy area is located in a small mo$ntain %alley on the right side of the 3anterno Ai%er basin- .owing from the eastern side of the T$scan Apennines towards the ,milia:Aomagna region. It e'tends for 0*) ha and incl$des the bottom of the %alley and the mo$ntains aro$nd it- presenting an a%erage altit$de of 9 * m abo%e sea le%el 7>lates " and 98. The main geological formations incl$de the #arnoso:Arenacea formation and the Caotic Comple' of the =ig$rian 1nits. The .rst has all the characteristics of a deep sedimentary basin4 sandstones and silt in rythmic seG$ences. The second refers to an olistostrome seG$ence4 distorted claystones- marlstones
< CAB International .**9. T%e #onservation of #ultural Landsca5es 7ed. #. Agnoletti8

#. Agnoletti et al.

or shales- strati.ed packets- a few metres to se%eral h$ndred metres in length- and masses of breccia. &rom a %egetation point of %iew #oscheta is sit$ated in the cold and warm Bones of Castanet$m- according to the phyto:climatic classification of >a%ari 7)0)98- between the hill belt of hop horn:beam and decid$o$s oak woods- and the mo$ntain belt of beech forests- according to OBenda 7)0!"8. Historically- the %alley is characteriBed by the presence of an abbey- fo$nded in the year )*/6 by 3aint Hio%anni H$alberto- a monk of the Benedictine order- on a piece of land donated by the 1baldini family ha%ing the same e'tension as o$r st$dy area. The monks started to carry o$t farming acti%ities and in two cent$ries the abbey became one of the most important in T$scany. In a )!th cent$ry drawing 7&ig. ".)8 the abbey is s$rro$nded by past$res and woods made of beech and .r- the latter reflecting a distincti%e attit$de of the Benedictine monks- who liked to plant .r aro$nd their abbeys- managing them with clear:c$ts and selling the timber 7Agnoletti and >aci- .**)8. In the ) th cent$ry the abbey lost its importance and was s$ppressed d$ring the reforms introd$ced by the =orena- the A$strian dynasty replacing the #edici family as the r$lers of T$scany at the beginning of the )0th cent$ry. The new owners organiBed the area as a r$ral estateaccording to the share:crop system- where each farmer shares the crops prod$ced with the owner. This str$ct$re is the one we .nd at the beginning of the )0th cent$ry when o$r in%estigation begins- when the estate appears to be di%ided into holdings- @poderi?- each one with a stone ho$se for the farmer.

Fig# >#%# The #oscheta abbey in a drawing of the )!th cent$ry. The land $ses listed below the abbey describe the presence of .r- which can be clearly seen on the right side of the pict$re- together with chestn$t and beech.

The >roDect for the A$ral =andscape >ark in #oscheta

The Landscape in %*(+

In ) /. the #oscheta estate was organiBed into eight farms- each farmho$se hosting more than one family of farmers and owned by the #artini family of &lorence. In this period- ."6 people were registered as residents in the @Comm$nity of #oscheta?- incl$ding also neighbo$ring small comm$nities. Cereals and chestn$t .o$r were the main crops- b$t the income of the farmsaccording to the acco$nt books- was mostly coming from li%estock and timber prod$ction. The landscape in ) /. was made $p of 0 different land $ses 7see >late 8- representing a higher degree of di%ersity compared to better farming areas at lower altit$des in T$scany and also had a high le%el of spatial di%ersity 7Ba$dry and Ba$dry:B$rel- )0 .8. #ore than 6*M of this %ariety of land $ses was gi%en by wooded past$res 7see &ig. "..8- as only one land $se was described by the cadastre as simple past$reland- con.rming the role of wood past$re in the landscape of T$scany- a techniG$e of cr$cial importance for cattle breeding in many parts of ,$rope from north to so$th 7&$entes 3ancheB- )006F Aotherham and Kones- .***8. >ast$re represents the most important land $se- co%ering ""M of the territory- located not only on the high part of the mo$ntains- b$t also in the bottom of the %alley regardless of slope or altit$de. >ast$res with beech make $p ) .9M of the total- while @past$res with small woods of beech? make $p )"M- indicating an interesting feat$re of the landscape in terms of patterns- b$t also that beech is the dominating element in 6/M of past$reland. Abo$t )!M of the land is co%ered by different G$alities of meadows 7incl$ded past$relands in o$r reclassi.ed land $se8which are all wooded as well. &orests represent ...6M of the landscape with a list of .* different categoriesF si' of them described as past$red woods- .%e as chestn$t orchards- incl$ding also .%e mi'ed woods with chestn$t- beech and oak. The most common species represented is beech- making $p )0M of the total- while oak co%ers .. M. #ost of the beech forest was $sed for charcoal prod$ction- as testi.ed by the terraced charcoal b$rning sites still e'isting- b$t also for fodder and acorn prod$ction to feed li%estock. Chestn$t orchards make $p .*M of the woodlands. They represent an essential

factor for the s$r%i%al of farmers integrating low cereal prod$ction with chestn$t .o$r. ,ach family had one plot of chestn$ts- e%en if far away from the ho$se. There is no trace in the cadastre of the .r forest appearing in &ig. ".)- which indicated an e'tent of .) ha. The most e'tensi%e wood category is instead @woodlands with beech and past$res?co%ering almost ))* ha- showing once again the pre%ailing role of past$res in the landscapefollowed by beech forest. 3owable land represents )9M of the land $ses. ,%en in this case only one category is described as witho$t trees. The most e'tensi%e category is simple sowable land- with more than .* ha- followed by @mi'ed sow:able land with past$res and trees?- making " ha. The contrib$tion of the land $ses listed- in terms of e'tension- is not proportional to their n$mber- as past$res are co%ering ""M of the territory- woods /0M and sowable land "./M 7&ig. "..8. Howe%erconsidering only the n$mber of land $ses named in the cadastre- the highest freG$ency concerns past$res and sowable land. Trees in the .eld and in past$res are act$ally a %ery important feat$re of this landscape- con.rming the f$nctions and the role described for most traditional r$ral societies in the world- both in de%eloped and de%eloping co$ntries 7Arnold- )00"F Aackham- )00"F 3ereni- )00!8. The freG$ency of tree species- in the land $ses naming them- presents the following hierarchy4 t$rkey oak /.M- beech .6M- chestn$t ./M- white oak )/Mhornbeam "M- and waln$t ..9M. A few descriptions report shr$bs like D$niper and heatheras well as some m$lberries as trees on bo$ndaries between .elds. The pre%alence of beech and t$rkey oak re.ect the climatic distrib$tion of these specieswhile chestn$t has mostly been planted. The estate has a n$rsery where chestn$t is the most important species prod$ced- together with maple and poplar $sed for mi'ed c$lti%ations- as well as fr$it and oli%e trees.

#. Agnoletti et al.

1rban

Wo od

Ches tn$t orch ard

3ow able

>ast $re

area

W oo de d pa st$ re

Fig# >#+# ,'tent of the main land $ses in ) /..

The Landscape bet)een %*(+ and %@>The sit$ation in )0"6 7&igs "./ and ".6 and >late 08 shows a m$ch more simpli.ed str$ct$re- with only nine categories of land $se remaining of the former 0. This problem is partly d$e also to the different G$ality of the so$rce- since the aerial photographs are coming from .ights at high altit$de in black and white- b$t they s$rely show a red$ced fragmentation. Woodlands are now co%ering 96M of the landscapes- with an increase in their e'tension from /"6 ha to " ) ha- past$reland makes $p )9M and sowable land )0M. An interesting change is the presence of a greater amo$nt of sowable land in the bottom of the %alley- greatly increasing the total amo$nt e'isting in ) /. and contrib$ting to the total red$ction of past$reland 7C!/M8. >artic$larly strong is the red$ction of wood past$re from /99 to .6 ha. The general dynamics indicated in &ig. ".6 show the importance of forestation 7/.M8followed by intensi.cation d$e to new agric$lt$ral areas- indicating a change in farm acti%ities. #ost of the new woodlands are clearly growing on former wooded past$res 7""M8 and only )"M on simple past$res following a s$ccessional pattern already obser%ed in other Italian areas after abandonment 73albitano- )0 !F Agnoletti and >aci)00 8. 3ome new chestn$ts are also growing on former past$res- while 6.M of the new sowable land is placed on former past$res- .0M on former wood past$re and ))M on woodlands- according to the different degree of dif.c$lty in t$rning these different land $ses into c$lti%ated land 7Table ".)8. All these changes ha%e ob%io$s effects on the aes: thetic of the local landscape. The mo$ntain slopes are now co%ered with woodlands- rarely

interr$pted by past$res- while c$lti%ated areas can be seen in the bottom of the %alley 7>late "8. This also con.rms a pec$liar in%erse tendency in the area for its r$ral pop$lation- which has not yet abandoned this part of the Apennine #o$ntains as is more generally reported in other areas 7Agnoletti- .**.b8 C in fact ../ people are still resident in the comm$nity.

The >roDect for the A$ral =andscape >ark in #oscheta

area orchard past$re

Intensification )9M &orestation /.M

,'tensification /M +efores tation 9M 3table 6/M B$ilt:$p *M

Fig# >#-# #ain landscape dynamics ) /.C)0"6.

Table >#%# # oss?ta-ulation 183219./. 19./ # he st nu t o ch a d 3nth o $ic 0. %1 0.. 3 0. . " ( a st u e * oo d e d $ as tu e 0. 0 0 ! o ) a -l e T o t a l

E'tent in ha

3n th o$ ic

4i 1h sta nd

0. 2 /

1 . 9 % 2 8 1 . " 3 " 2 . / % / 8 . 0 .

*oodla nd

0. 13

22 %.0 "

2. %"

%. . %

2 ". 1 3

1 9. 1 8

#hestn ut o cha d !o)ale

0. 28 0. 13

9.% 9 ".2 1

.8 .. 3 2. 88

0. 9 . 0. " 8

1. 8 0 ". 9 /

1. 2 2 2 9. 1 0

(astu e

0. 01

3/. .0

.. 09

/. 3 .

1 3. / %

" 3. " 0

1 3 1 . 1 1 3 % % . 8 8 9 0 2 . 1 8

*oode d $astu e

0. /1

22 ".8 /

". 2%

2 3. " 2

. ". / 1

. 0. 2 .

Total

1. .%

.0 ..8 /

"% ./ 3

3 %. 9 2

1 0 ". " .

1 " 3. % 9

#. Agnoletti et al.

The life of the farm described in the acco$nt books shows the importance of wood prod$ctiondemonstrated by )9 different assortments incl$ding timber for b$ilding- poles- sta%es- b$ndles- f$elwoodcharcoal and cinder- altho$gh all the prod$ction decreases towards the 3econd World War. On the agric$lt$ral side there is a strong increase in cereal prod$ction- an effect of the new fields in the %alley- and a steady decrease of chestn$t .o$r and chestn$t prod$ction- con.rming the decreased importance of chestn$t orchards as a food s$pply for farmers- accompanied by the c$tting of many chestn$t trees to $tiliBe bark for tannin- t$rning the chestn$t woods into coppice for poles 7Agnoletti- .**.a8. Altho$gh the period after the war saw the sale of the #oscheta farm to the state- the landscape of the )0"*s still represented a part of the traditional agrosil%opastoral economy- where the marginaliBation of $nfa%o$rable areas had not yet f$lly e'pressed its in.$ence- b$t the signs of a process affecting the Italian mo$ntains were already there.

9**

"**

6**

/**

.**

)**

The Landscape bet)een %@>- and +,,,

The decades after the war con.rm the contin$o$s e'pansion of woodlands- now co%ering !0M of the territory- followed by .*M of past$res- b$t sowable land has disappeared from the %alley. In terms of land $ses- there are now . categories- )0 more than in )0"6- an effect partly d$e to the more acc$rate analysisallowing also .eld work to check photo interpretation. Howe%er- it is worth noting that landscape di%ersity in )0"6 was gi%en by eight land $se types- of which only two were associated with woodlands- while in the year .***- .) types o$t of . are woodlands 7see >late )* and &ig. "."8. This shows how the local landscape is more and more dominated by the absence of open spaces and characteriBed by a contin$o$s forest co%er. The main dynamics are con.rming a large amo$nt of territory remaining $nchanged 79)M8while )9M of e'tensi.cation is d$e to sowable land t$rned into past$res- and afforestation 7 M8 is the new element of the

Aock 3hr$bs 1rban Wood Chestn$t >ast$re Wooded Afforestation o$tcrops area orchard past$re

The >roDect for the A$ral =andscape >ark in #oscheta

Intensification &orestation *M

).M ,'tensification )9M

+eforestation /M ,'tension of conifer w. M Fig# >#7# #ain landscape dynamics )0"6C.***.

landscape 7&ig. ".98. As for the other areas analysed in the proDect- once again it is con .rmed how the .rst period 7) /.C)0"68 is the most important one for landscape changes. The analysis presented in the cross: tab$lation of )0"6C.*** 7Table "..8 shows that ).6 ha of agric$lt$ral land is now t$rned into wood past$re- b$t another interesting thing is afforestation. As already e'plained in Chapter ) abo$t T$scanyafforestation by the state in Italy started soon after the $nification 7Agnoletti- .**.b8- b$t a real programme in the st$dy area started only after the sale of the farm to the state and contin$ed after the organiBation of the Italian state into regions in )0!6- when the area passed $nder the control of the Aegion of T$scany 7&reschi and Hermanin- .***8.
Table >#+# # oss?ta-ulation 19./2000. 3table 9)M B$ilt:$p *M

As clearly shown by Table "..- /9M of the plantations occ$rred on former sowable land- ."M on wooded past$res- .*M on chestn$t orchards and )6M on high stands. =ooking at the distrib$tion of afforestation on the land:$se map- it is clear that there was no real intention to reco%er degraded areas for soil protectionsince %ery few den$ded ridges or high slopes are afforested. The will to e'tend conifers is instead G$ite clear- replacing beech and chestn$ts that were considered not s$f.ciently prod$cti%e. After "* years the res$lts are insigni.cant for timber prod$ction- dominated in Italy and T$scany by international markets- b$t are s$rely considerable for the landscape- now affected by plantations often ha%ing little to do with the c$lt$ral landscape of the area- not

.*** ,'tent in ha Aock Chestn$t Wooded o$tcrops 3hr$bs Anthropic Woodland orchard >ast$re past$re Afforestation Total Anthropic *.6 *."! *../ *.)9 *.*) *.)/ )."9 High stand *.9" "..9 6"/.6! )...) /."! )0./! )*.9! "*"..* Chestn$t orchard *.*) )0.9) 6).99 *."6 *.6/ )6.) !9.6/ )0"6 >ast$re 6./9 *... )6.6. *.0 ..6) ).. * ).!/ /9.0. Wooded past$re ..)) )..09 *..* "/.!" ).!/ ).*) ) .6. )!."* )*!.90 3owable ..0. *.90 ) ."6 )..* 9!.9* "!.6/ ."./. )!/.90 Total ..! ."."* )." "9*./9 " .*) !".. )* .69 90.". 0*).60

#. Agnoletti et al.

positi%ely affected from an aesthetic point A 0!nthesis of the Changes %*(++,,, of %iew. This at least is the case shown in >late !- which needs few words- presenting a problem already posed to Italian foresters in the early )09*s. Howe%er- we m$st also consider that the monks had a .r plantation at the back of the abbey 7see &ig. ".)8presenting a historical and c$lt$ral link which acco$nts for the conser%ation of a portion of the conifer forests. On the other hand- in the dark internal landscape of the e%en aged +o$glas .r plantation- co%ered by a layer of dead needles 7with no grass or regeneration8 one can still see dead st$mps- tr$nks- and the stone h$ts for drying chestn$ts of the pre:e'isting chestn$t gro%e. The red$ction by ./M of chestn$t orchards is in line with the pattern obser%ed for T$scany as a whole- as indicated in Chapter )- and it is described in terms of dynamics d$e to nat$ral and h$man factors by se%eral a$thors 7Cronon- )0 /F Nos and 3tortelder- )00.F Agnoletti- .**"8. This new conifer forest is the clear sign of the absence of farmers and shepherds in the area- replaced by a possible landscape for loggers of l$mber companies- b$t is also a sign of a more widespread ,$ropean trend 7Kohann et al.- .**68. The pop$lation in the year .*** is now red$ced to )" people in the whole comm$nity- b$t the ret$rn of past$re land in the lower part of the %alley is d$e to the acti%ity of the farm @=e =ame?- where horse breeding is now taking place. >ast$res in the form of simple past$re- wooded past$re and also past$red woods are still thereF in fact a detailed st$dy made on the @=e =ame? farm shows that 9 M of its landscape has not changed since ) /.- presenting also a rare e'ample of past$red wood inside a t$rkey oak stand. =ooking at the changes that took place from ) /.- the enormo$s increase of woodlands is e%identincreasing from /"/ to 9 ha in the year .***- a trend already noted in many r$ral areas s$bmitted to abandonment 7&oster et al.- )00 8. It m$st also be reported that the period between the ) th and early )0th cent$ry is probably the one where we ha%e the lowest e'tension of forest land- as also noted 7altho$gh with some local %ariations8 for ,$rope 7Watkins and 2irby- )00 F Agnoletti and Anderson.***8. A f$ndamental aspect related to this tendency in #oscheta is the dramatic red$ction of landscape di%ersity- re.ecting h$ge changes from all points of %iew4 social- economic- en%ironmental. Table "./ shows the strong red$ction in the n$mber of land $ses and patches forming the landscape mosaic- accompanied by the signi.cant increase in their a%erage siBe and Hill?s di%ersity n$mber- a good e'ample of the transformation from a .ne:grained to coarse:grained landscape- an important process also in terms of habitats 7#cArth$r and =e%ins- )096F 3o$thwood- )0!!8. The dominance inde' is red$ced beca$se of the absence of the large patches of past$reland e'isting in ) /.. The dimin$tion of 9!M of the land $ses and the increase of the a%erage e'tension of patches by "6M shows the decrease of the comple'ity of landscape mosaic- since there are no parts of the area presenting .ne:grained str$ct$re any more. The analysis of the inde' of 3harpe clearly indicates the e'istence of two different tendencies for the periods ) /.C)0"6 and )0"6C.*** 7&ig. ".!8. The .rst one is characteriBed by the red$ction of wooded past$re

1832

19 ./

6ominanc e inde' 4ill5s dive sity num-e

1.0 3

0. 8%

31. 8.

3. 81

2 0 0 0 0 . " 1 1 / . 2 "

,um-e of land uses 3ve a1e e'tent of $atches ,um-e of $atches

89 3.3 9 2% %

9 %. 13 1/ "

2 9 . . 2 . 1 " 2

The >roDect for the A$ral =andscape >ark in #oscheta

9** "**
Woodlands Chestn$ts >op$lation

/** ."*

6** ha

.**

) " ) * " * * ) / / ) 6 " ) 0 " ) ) 0 9 ) ) 0 ! ) ) 0 ) ) 0 0 ) . * * *

Sear

Fig# >#*# >op$lation and woodlands in #oscheta.

Inhabitants

and the increase of woodlands and sowable land- while the second presents the contin$o$s increase of woodlands and afforestation- as well as the decrease of sowable land and wood past$re. It m$st also be obser%ed that the second period- altho$gh not characteriBed by great changes in terms of s$rfacesindicates signi.cant tendencies in a m$ch shorter time period. All these changes are happening beca$se of one single main dri%ing force4 the action of man. &ig$re ". presents the relationship between decrease in pop$lation- increase of woodlands and the red$ction of chestn$t orchards- according to a typical pattern for traditional r$ral societies where changes in pop$lation affect local reso$rces. The map of the landscape dynamics 7&ig. ".08 shows the distrib$tion of changes in the territory- which looks like it is being transformed in most of its parts- with none of the differences d$e to altit$dinal belts.

#. Agnoletti et al.

Fig# >#@# #ap of landscape dynamics ) /.C.***.

#ost of the sampling forays made .elds. There is no space here to present the d$ring the .eld work were to analyse the res$ltsF howe%er- c$rrent s$ccessions are dynamics of %egetation in abandoned dominated by shr$bs with osa canina-

The >roDect for the A$ral =andscape >ark in #oscheta

&runus s5inosa and .uni5erus entering in former past$reland- showing the pre%alence of .uni5erus in most of the sit$ations according to well:known s$ccessional patterns 7>eterken)0 )8. One st$dy area was the historical chestn$t orchard e'isting on the slopes at the back of the abbey- with an e'tension of 6** m . - where

there are only fo$r ancient trees left with a diameter of ))*- )/*- )** and 0* cm- and height of between )" and .* m. The bad health of the trees- with many dead branches and stems- will soon lead to the disappearance of this remnant of the historical landscape 7&ig. ".).8- a problem G$ite widespread all o%er T$scany and reported for other areas 7Agnoletti.**"8. This orchard is related also to a st$dy cond$cted on the relationships between land $ses and soil d$ring the proDect. The st$dy has collected eight samples of soils- "* cm deep- located in chestn$t orchards 7two samples8 and past$res 7si' samples8- incl$ding different conditions related to areas classi.ed as stable and slide and $nder erosion- by the geologists carrying o$t the st$dy. The past$res are located in the bottom of the %alley- at the foot of the slope where the chestn$t orchards are. Almost all the soils show the pre%alence of a clay matri'- with acidity 7pH8 between 9.0* and !.6.. Considering also the geological and morphological feat$res- the res$lts of the in%estigation show the absence of any direct relation between soil G$ality and land $se- con.rming that the presence of past$res or chestn$ts was only d$e to the choice of farmers

and the owner in order to meet the needs of the estate. In other words- no ecological conditions D$stify the presence of the two land $ses in the area where they are todayF the chestn$ts co$ld instead ha%e been planted in the %alley and the past$res ha%e been placed on the slopes. The 'istorical Inde$ In the case of #oscheta- the historical inde' 7Agnoletti and #aggiari- .**68 was applied also to gather indications for the landscape management plan. The inde' is $sed to assess the %al$e of a c$lt$ral landscape analysing the changes in time and space of any single land $se or patch- creating a hierarchy in which e%ery element has a ranking according to the %al$e of the inde'. The inde' reG$ires the de.nition of a s5atial scale e'pressed in ha 73r8- and a tem5oral scale e'pressed in years 7Tr8 representing the limits in which the inde' is applied. Other %ariables are the %istorical geogra5%ic distribution 7Hgd8- that is the past e'tension of the land $ses at the beginning of the period consideredand the 5resent geogra5%ic distribution 7>gd8- that is the present e'tension of the land $sesboth e'pressed in ha. The other element of the inde' is the %istorical 5ersistence 7Hp8- the

n$mber of years of presence of a gi%en land $se in the Tr consideredand its %al$e will %ary from * to ). After choosing the 3r and Tr- the algorithm to calc$late the Hi is the following4 Hi i Hp 7HgdI>gd8 The inde' attrib$tes a higher %al$e 7Hi8 to those elements with a long historical persistence 7Hp8- b$t a present geographical distrib$tion 7>gd8 smaller than the one of the past. 1sing the database created with HI3e%ery land $se can be analysed- con: sidering its historical persistence 7Hp8 and the %ariation in the e'tension 7HgdC>gd8. The data res$lting not only create a hierarchy that can be referred to single or gro$ps of land $ses- b$t can be represented in maps of the area st$died. The maps created can refer to the @general? Hi and the @topographical? Hi. In the .rst case the different colo$rs of the map indicate a single land $se or a gro$p of land $ses that ha%e different %al$es of the inde'. In the case of #oscheta this means that any land $se e'isting today has a %al$e- according to the res$lt of the calc$lation- regardless of the fact that its location today is the same as that of ) /.. The highest %al$es indicate an emergency- gi%en the fact that land $ses with a long persistence ha%e strongly red$ced their e'tension. This means that management sho$ld operate to protect or to restore these land $ses- partic$larly important not only

#. Agnol etti et
for the c$lt$ral landscape- b$t also as habitats that are going to disappear. The topographical Hi map instead indicates and classi.es only the land $ses that are still present in the same e'act location as that of ) /.- attrib$ting a greater %al$e to them- as they are not separated from their original topographic position. The st$dy made for #oscheta shows the %al$es indicated in &ig. ".)*- where the highest le%el of the inde' is fo$nd for the wooded past$resfollowed by past$reland- chestn$t orchards and $rban areas. The general Hi shows that the land $ses with the highest %al$es are concentrated in the bottom of the %alley 7&ig. ".))8- along the @&osso di #oscheta? stream- and in some areas of #o$nt Ac$to- while the topographic Hi shows that land $ses with the same locations and high %al$es are also located there- b$t with a m$ch smaller e'tension. These areas ha%e the most important meaning for the conser%ation of the c$lt$ral landscape of #oscheta. The present str$ct$re of the inde' is G$ite simple- b$t lea%es se%eral matters $nsol%ed- a problem c$rrently $nder in%estigation thro$gh the elaboration of a new inde' $sing a @decision tree? model with disaggregate information- trying to sol%e the matter of the lack of information in between the Trs chosen. Howe%er- the inde' has already been applied in the g$idelines for the en%ironmental impact assessment of wind farms for T$scany.

al.

of the landscape and a ma'im$m or a minim$m amo$nt to pay in relation to speci.c meas$res to protect the landscape. The list of G$estions was G$ite speci.c regarding the land $ses and less foc$sed on more general aspects often in%estigated in similar st$dies 7>hipps- )0098. Concerning the age classes- /0M of the people inter%iewed had an age between /) and 6"- a category representati%e of both the highest prod$cti%e capacity and income le%el. The c$lt$ral le%el was another important factor affecting the test4 6.M of the people had a $ni%ersity degree/6M had .nished high school- while a smaller percentage 7!M8 had only attended D$nior high school and )*M primary school.) Concerning

origins- !6M came

6 . * * / . " * / . * * . . " * . . * * H i ) . " * ) . *

The 0urve! of 0ocial 4erception and Economic 3alue

The creation of a park- as well as any other kind of planning- m$st incl$de the participation of the p$blic in the process. Therefore- a team inter%iewed )** people chosen among residents and to$rists- asking their opinion abo$t the landscape and also in%estigating their willingness to pay a ta' for its protection- a %ery important element to create a credible scenario- s$pporting the G$estionnaire with photographic doc$men: tation. The methodology $sed was deri%ed from the open:ended contingent %al$ation method 7#itchell and Carson- )0 0F =oomis- )00*8- with a list of G$estions meant to ascertain the knowledge

* * . " * * . * * Woo dlan d B$il t $p Chest n$t orcha rd >ast $re W oo de d pas t$r e

Fig# >#%,# Nal$es of the historical inde' for #oscheta.

The >roDect for the A$ral =andscape >ark in #oscheta

Fig# >#%%# #ap of the historical inde'.

from T$scany- a common trend since a high percentage of the inhabitants enDoy spending their holidays or free time in the region. Aegarding working acti%ities/"M were pri%ate entreprene$rs- .!M were employees- )"M retired people- 9M ho$sewi%es and !M st$dents. As for the G$estions abo$t landscape changes- ""M of those inter%iewed did not think the landscape had changed in the last decades- while 6"M indicated that some changes had occ$rred- also indicating the reasons. #ost of the people 70.M8 recogniBed a positi%e role of agric$lt$re and sil%ic$lt$re for the landscape- /M indicated a negati%e role and "M did not answer. Abandonment

#. Agnoletti et al.

mi'ed cultivati ons Mo e fo ests Mo e )ildlife (olluted ive s

cultivatio ns 3 3 3 *ooded $astu es +i fo ests (ine )oods T ee o)s !o)a-le Te aces #o$$ice )oodlan d 8 8 8 8 9 9 9

s #o$$ice s Mi'ed cultivati ons (astu e s (ine )oods *ood $astu e s 9 8 8 " %

;eason fo chan1es in the landsca$ e (H) 3-andon ment 2nf ast u ctu es 4uman action Bac0 of / 3 3 . 1 0 3

2m$o tance of some elements in the landsca$e #hestnut / o cha ds (astu es Mi'ed )oods Mi'ed " " 8

2ndication s fo $u-lic incentives (H) 31 icult u e #hestnu t o cha d s T ee o)s Te ace 2 1 2 0 1 1 1 0

was clearly indicated as the most important reason for landscape changes 7Table ".68- con.rming the res$lt of the historical analysis- while the infrastr$ct$res probably refer also to the works for the new railway connecting Bologna and &lorence- ha%ing a %ery strong impact on landscape and en%ironment. All the minor aspects indicated- howe%er- represent effecti%e elements of the landscape dynamics occ$rring in the area. >artic$larly interesting is the wildlife problemF in fact- the increase of woodlands and also the policy $ndertaken in recent years of reintrod$cing animals like wild boar- deer and wol%es has fa%o$red a strong increase in their n$mber and in the n$mber of other small mammals. 1nfort$nately- their high n$mber and the lack of open spaces are contrib$ting to their abnormal increase- allowing them to come closer and closer to the %illages and farms- a common problem also in many parks and protected areas in Italy 7&ilacorda- )0008. The importance gi%en to chestn$t orchards also con.rms the %al$e gi%en to the role of man and the signi.cance of them as a key element for the c$lt$ral identity of the areaaltho$gh the hierarchy prod$ced by the inter%iews does not e'actly re.ect the @emergencies? re%ealed by the historical inde'. Aesponding to the need to detect the willingness to pay- the G$estionnaire proposed some forms of conser%ation meas$res- asking which one was considered more important to s$pport. Almost all those inter%iewed 7 "M8 indicated the need for more than one policy- b$t the two most important were those to s$pport

agric$lt$re and chestn$t orchards- while minim$m importance was gi%en to the reco%ery of wooded past$res- which are the element that has nearly disappeared in the landscape. Inter%iewees were also asked to specify the ma'im$m amo$nt of money acceptable as a form of yearly ta' to s$pport these meas$res. 3i'ty percent of the people indicated no intention to pay at all- while the rest speci.ed the amo$nt. The res$lting a%erage ann$al amo$nt was .6 e$ros. >$t into conte't with the social feat$res- it shows that a higher amo$nt was accepted by those ha%ing reached only a high: school le%el ed$cation- while those ha%ing attended $ni%ersity were prepared to pay /*M less. Concerning working acti%ities- the highest amo$nt was indicated by pri%ate entreprene$rs- ob%io$sly those with higher a%ailability of income- followed by employees. Another interesting element concerned the reasons for being there- incl$ding to$rism 7."M8- recreation 7."M8- the G$ality of mo$ntain landscape 7))M8 and a %isit to the small m$se$m in the abbey 7).M8. In general- the s$r%ey showed important attention gi%en to the elements making $p the landscape of the area and the role of agric$lt$re and forestry- b$t also an in%erse relationship e'isting between the

The >roDect for the A$ral =andscape >ark in #oscheta

c$lt$ral le%el and the will to pay- which was G$ite s$rprising.

Bac2 to the 'istorical Landscape: the "estoration 4ro?ect

The information collected in the in%estigation has been elaborated to prepare a plan for the parkwhich at this stage represents the proposal on which the local a$thorities will make their .nal decision concerning the creation of the park. +espite some $ncertainties e'pressed by se%eral st$dies on what is good or bad concerning grain siBe in landscape for biodi%ersity 7Angelstam)00!F &arina- )00 8- or the .tness of patch interpretation for the concept of habitat 7#itchell and >owell- .**/8- we think that for ecologicalc$lt$ral and economic reasons it is recommended to reco%er at least a part of the di%ersity e'isting in the past- red$cing the process of forestation. A theoretical pre%io$s @non:h$man:impacted? condition- besides the dif.c$lties in its identi.cation- s$rely does not correspond to the c$lt$ral identity of the area- represented by the period with the deepest links between the people and the land. Nor can one be s$re whether this can really be considered the best condition for the health of an ecosystem 7Nogt et al.- )00!8. It m$st be pointed o$t that a proDect like thislike the forest management plans- m$st ha%e a long time:period perspecti%e- whose res$lts will only be seen by f$t$re generations. In the following paragraphs we are not going to consider other acti%ities related to the in%entorying and conser%a: tion of a lot of material e%idence e'isting in the territory 7dry walls- charcoal places- h$ts- etc.8- as well as the promotion of traditional practices- b$t rather the inter%ention needed for the management of the park. In order to create the park there is the need not only to indicate the meas$res to protect some portions of the territory- b$t also to @restore? some of the ancient landscapes. In fact- the simpli.cation of the landscape mosaic occ$rring in the last two cent$ries reG$ires a red$ction of the amo$nt of certain land:$se categories and an increase of others- redistrib$ting them in the territory. There are se%eral problems connected to this

%ision. &rom a technical point of %iew the actions ha%e been foc$sed on a red$ced portion of the territory- in order to .nd a reasonable siBe for economic and management reasons. The latter also presents important problems. Of.cial forestry has neglected to incorporate traditional practices in its te'tsF therefore- e%en well:known books do not mention them- while others may refer brie.y to the e'istence of traditional sil%ic$lt$ral systems s$ch as wood past$res witho$t detailed information 7>errin- )0"68. The other problem is d$e not only to the lack of any law allowing s$ch a park 7in fact only nat$ral parks are foreseen8- b$t also the e'istence of a regional forest law forbidding the red$ction of the e'tension of woodlands- e%en in places pre%io$sly c$lti%ated. This is possible only by doing a compensatory afforestation- or paying an eG$al amo$nt of money for an afforestation that has to be made somewhere else. +espite special permissions for st$dy and research- this is a prob: lem affecting not only any restoration of former r$ral mosaics- b$t e%en the creation of panoramic sites. T$scany has h$ndreds of roads potentially offering o$tstanding scenery and %iews of landscapes- b$t most of them are darkened by trees growing at the sides of these roads- protected by law. Therefore- altho$gh this landscape park might .nd a way to be created- the wider problem of landscape restoration still has a long way to go. The selection of interventions at landscape scale The proDect team prepared a list of potential inter%entions attrib$ting to each one of them an identi.cation n$mber shown on a map of @potential inter%entions?- where )0/ of them were selected. To each one of them has been allocated an inde' of @restoration comple'ity?- classifying them into three categories4 7i8 low comple'ityF 7ii8 medi$m comple'ityF and 7iii8 high comple'ity.

#. Agnolett i et al.

These categories consider the technical aspectstime and cost of inter%entions. The main goal of the work has been to reco%er a fairly good amo$nt of past land $ses- considering the historical %al$ewith the aim of increasing the di%ersity of the landscape and selecting the areas also according to how the f$t$re landscape is going to look. The only ecological concern has been the e%al$ation of the hydro:geological risk concerned with the effects of some of the inter%entions. The inter%entions indicated co%er . M of the total area. The recalc$lation of the historical inde'incl$ding the new data res$lting from the incl$sion of ancient landscape forms- shows the decrease of the %al$e of the inde' for the categories most threatened and also the incl$sion of a category 7sowable land8 deleted from the area- s$pporting the effecti%eness of the planning 7Table "."8. Table ".9 shows the amo$nt of the main land: $se categories of ) /. reco%ered with the percentage of each one of the total area. #ore details are gi%en in the following paragraph. Abo$t )9..M of the proposed inter%entions will affect the present s$rface area occ$pied by woodlands- and ".9M will affect afforestation. The map in >late )) shows how the new land $ses will be distrib$ted in the land- representing the f$t$re landscape of the area. The interventions The space a%ailable does not allow $s to pro%ide details of all the categories reco%ered and their technical descriptions- as in a real management plan- therefore only some general information will be reported for each main land:$se type. The restoration of -oodlands in si' cases shows the reco%ery of one $nit of past$red woods from a high stand of oakF an oak wood $nit from a transitory high stand of oakF a beech wood and past$res $nit from a conifer standF beech woods from mi'ed conifer standsF and beech woods from a transitory beech stand. The s$bstit$tion of conifers with beech- which will take some time and will necessitate grad$al s$bstit$tionconstit$tes the most dif.c$lt problem. An important aspect will be the danger for the yo$ng seedlings

d$e to browsing by

Table >#># 4isto ical inde' -efo e and afte esto ation of the ancient landsca$e. Band uses 4i -efo e 4i afte <a iation Fuilt u$ *oodl and #hest nut o cha d !o)a -le land (astu e *ood ed $astu e 1.2/ 0..0 1.2. 1.2/ 0.%1 0.9. 0.0 0 0.1 1 0.2 " 3.9 1 0.3 8 1.. 1 H of the total a ea ..%0 /.%1 1.3% 3."1 12.%3 2".91

3.91 1."/ 1.21

3.38

1.8"

Main land uses of 1832 ecove ed *oodlands #hestnut o cha ds !o)a-le land (astu es *ooded $astu es Total

3 ea (ha) .0..2 /1.%. 12.30 33..0 11/.0 2 2.2.0 2

The >roDect for the A$ral =andscape >ark in #oscheta

Fig# >#%+# The ancient chestn$t orchard near the abbey.

$ng$lates- today also affecting reg$lar regeneration in beech forests. The restoration of cultivated patches concerns )/ inter%entions creating %ery interesting $nits- from a c$lt$ral and nat$ral point of %iewbringing back into this landscape elements that no longer e'ist. 3owable land with chestn$ts- b$t also with haBeln$ts- m$lberry trees- waln$ts- oaks- as well as kitchen gardens- all represent an opport$nity to increase biodi%ersity- reco%ering fr$it trees $s$ally not considered in the list of endangered species and therefore not protected- b$t disappearing from this c$lt$ral landscape. C$lti%ated areas were often alternated with past$re land and p$t close to farmho$ses and the abbeywhere still today they co$ld present an interesting option for small:scale landscape $nits- pro%iding typical food for the little local resta$rant. All the patches possible to reco%er are presently occ$pied by forest trees- s$ch as +o$glas .r- oak- beech and some chestn$ts. &or all of them a grad$al remo%al has been planned. The restoration of c%estnut typologies is referred to in se%en inter%entions to recreate ancient patches. The most e'tended pattern s$ggested for restoration is the @mi'ed chestn$t and past$re?- presently occ$pied by partly abandoned chestn$t orchards 7.* ha8- and a +o$glas .r stand 7)..6 ha8 7see &ig. ".). for the ancient chestn$t orchard and &ig. ".)/ as an ill$stration of $se of the whole tree8. &or the chestn$ts- it is simply a matter of reintrod$cing graBing- as farmers did to keep the soil clean- while the +o$glas .rs m$st be remo%ed and replaced by new chestn$t trees. The easiest inter%ention among those listed is the one related to the con%ersion of chestn$t coppice to @high stand of chestn$t with past$res?- altho$gh big trees will take se%eral decades to grow- while a moderate

Fig# >#%(# The traditional $se of forest trees concerned the whole tree. In this photograph of the Harfagnana %alley 7)0./8- the chestn$t lea%es are har%ested and transported with the @ca%agnada? and then p$t on the .oor of the stable 7Aegione Toscana- )00!8.

#. Agnolet ti et al.

comple'ity is gi%en to the realiBation of mi'ed chestn$tIbeech stand. The restoration of 5astureland represents a m$ch more comple' problem considering how m$ch of this land $se has been remo%ed from this landscape and the 9. different inter%entions foreseen. The possibility to reco%er past$reland is also linked to the possibility of ha%ing animals graBe in the area- an opport$nity already gi%en by horse breeding and incl$ded in the f$t$re economic plan for the area- altho$gh this has not always worked as e'pected 7=aycock- )00)8. It is also relati%ely more dif.c$lt to go back to a past$re compared to de%eloping a wood past$re 7&ilacorda- )0008F howe%er- these formations can be s$bmitted to a management plan as still occ$rs in 3pain- in order to replace trees. The easiest sit$ations are those related to the transformation of past$res with shr$bs into simple past$relandwhile the most dif.c$lt sit$ations are those considering the restoration of past$res from dense woodlands. In this case- after the remo%al of trees and their root systems- it is important to facilitate the fast growth of a grass layer to protect the soil from erosion. This inter%ention has been e'cl$ded from steep slopes in order to red$ce the danger of erosion.

emergency- e%en at an ecosystem le%el- seems to be the dramatic red$ction of the di%ersity of spacesconsidering also that a healthy ecosystem is not necessarily one with a speci.c composition and f$nctional organiBation that is comparable to the nat$ral ecosystems in the same geographic region 72arr and +$dley- )0 )8. This clearly s$ggests the introd$ction of a landscape approach- which the Aegional Ho%ernment of T$scany has promoted also for the management of protected areas 7Agnoletti- .**"8- considering that the %al$es re.ected by the protected areas- now co%ering almost ) M of the territory- are basically better e'pressed by the concept of landscape..

Conclusions
The research in #oscheta has clearly shown that traditional knowledge was able to create %ery comple' landscape mosaics- richer in biodi%ersity and c$lt$ral %al$es than those e'isting today after the abandonment of traditional farming acti%ities. &rom this point of %iew this st$dy can be con: sidered a sort of regressi%e long:term e'periment on biodi%ersity- as s$ggested many years ago 7>latt- )0968- b$t more recently considered impossible 7Christiansen et al-. )0098. Today the local ecosystem incorporates history- with all the effects of economic- social and en%ironmental fac: tors that acted o%er this time period that m$st be considered in f$t$re management- as ecologists ha%e also acknowledged 7Allen and Hoekstra)006F 2ay and 3chneider- )0068. The real

Altho$gh the area has been s$bmitted to h$ge changes- it still shows some e%idence of the ancient landscape- in the form of c$lt$ral and ecological %al$es e'pressed by the landscape mosaic- as for many c$lt$ral landscapes 7#itchell and B$ggey.***8- presenting also o$tstanding bea$ty and aesthetic %al$es. The landscape of #oscheta can be restored- protected and impro%ed. This can be done not by e'cl$ding it from present social and economic conditions- b$t by integrating it into a r$ral de%elopment plan- $tiliBing both internal and e'ternal reso$rces as for other marginal areas 7Bartos et al.)0008- taking ad%antage of the growing importance of ser%ices in r$ral de%elopment 7Co' et al.- )0068especially those related to landscape 7as with agrito$rism8 7Chang et al.)00!C)00 F Casini- .***8. The proDect is s$rely an ambitio$s proposalespecially considering the way forestry- en%ironmental protection and

r$ral de%elopment is today concei%ed and applied. Besides the ine%itable dif.c$lties there is also the need for s$ch proDects in order to generate a debate- hoping that new ideas and %isions can de%elopF b$t s$rely something m$st be changed in the way we are interpreting both en%ironmental changes and s$stainable de%elopment. Howe%eraltho$gh the @conte't? of the proDect can be G$ite different from other sit$ations- we belie%e that in many other co$ntries- also in de%eloping ones- there is the need to de%elop s$ch an approach-

The >roDect for the A$ral =andscape >ark in #oscheta especially keeping a close link between local people- traditional knowledge and the landscape they ha%e created 73ardDono and 3amsoedin- .**)8. The recognitionconser%ation and s$stainable management of landscape systems facing economic and c$lt$ral globaliBation seems to be a better way of interpreting s$stainable de%elopmentrather than the application of paradigmatic %iews on nat$re conser%ation. The degradation of c$lt$ral landscapes is not ine%itable- as is often s$ggested. They are a signi.cant reso$rce that needs to be $nderstood- preser%ed and allowed to e%ol%e. .otes ) In the Italian school system children attend " years of primary school starting at the age of "- then / years of middle school- " years of high school and " years of $ni%ersity. The new system has changed $ni%ersity st$dies according to the Bologna process. . #a$ro Agnoletti is the a$thor of the proDect for the g$idelines on the conser%ation and de%elopment of landscape reso$rces in the network of protected areas in T$scany- not yet p$blished. "eferences

Agnoletti- #. 7ed.8 7.**.a8 Il &aesaggio Agro/forestale Toscano, *trumenti 5er lFAnalisi la !estione e la #onserva4ione. AA3IA- &irenBeItaly. Agnoletti- #. 7.**.b8 =e sistemaBioni idra$lico:forestali dei bacini montani dall?$nitU d?Italia alla metU del (( secolo. In4 =aBBarini- A. 7ed.8 &rocessi di 1iboscamento Montano e &olitic%e Territoriali. Al5i e A55ennini dal *ettecento al 1uemila. &ranco Angeli- #ilano- pp. / 0C 6)9. Agnoletti- #. 7.**"8 Landsca5e #%anges, Biodiversity and +ydrogeological is3 in t%e Area of #ardoso bet-een 6@7? and ?99?. Aegione Toscana- Tipogra.a Aegionale&irenBe- Italy. Agnoletti- #. and Anderson- 3. 7eds8 7.***8 Forest +istory; International *tudies on *ocioeconomic and Forest Ecosystem #%ange. CAB International- Wallingford- 12. Agnoletti- #. and #aggiari- H. 7.**68 =a %al$taBione dell?impatto s$l paesaggio e s$l patrimonio storicoarchitettonico e archeologico 7The e%al$ation of the impact on landscape and c$lt$ral heritage of windmill farms8. In4 egione Toscana, Linee !uida 5er la

)aluta4ione dellFIm5atto Ambientale degli Im5ianti Eolici- &irenBe- Italy. Agnoletti- #. and >aci- #. 7)00 8 =andscape e%ol$tion on a central T$scan estate between the eighteenth and twentieth cent$ries. In4 2irby- 2.K. and Watkins- C. 7eds8 T%e Ecological +istory of Euro5ean Forests. CAB International- Wallingford- 12- pp. ))!C).!. Agnoletti- #. and >aci- #. 7.**)8 #onks- foresters and ecology4 3il%er .r in T$scany from (IN to (( cent$ry. In4 Cor%ol- A. 7ed.8 Le *a5in. =?Harmattan- >aris- pp. )!/C)06. Allen- T.&.H. and Hoekstra- T.W. 7)0068 Toward a de.nition of s$stainability. In4 Co%ington- W.W. and +e Bano- &.=. 7eds8 *ustainable Ecological *ystems; im5lementing and ecological a55roac% to land management. 13 +epartment of Agric$lt$re- Technical Aeport A#: .6!- &ort Collins- pp. 0 C)*!. Angelstam- >. 7)00!8 =andscape analysis as a tool for the scienti.c management of biodi%ersity. Ecological Bulletins 69- )6*C )!*. Arnold- K.,.#. 7)00"8 &raming the iss$es. In4 Arnold- K.,.#. and +ewees>.A. 7eds8 Tree Management in Farmer *trategies. O'ford 1ni%ersity

>ress- O'ford- pp. /C)!. Bartos- #.- Tesitel- K. and 2oso%a- +. 7)0008 #arginal areas C historical de%elopment- people and land:$se. In4 2o%ar- >. 7ed.8 2ature and #ulture in Landsca5e Ecology. The 2arolini$m >ress>rag$e- pp. )*0C))/. Ba$dry- K. and Ba$dry:B$rel- &. 7)0 .8 =a mes$re de la di%ersitO spatiale. Aelation a%ec la di%ersitO spOci.G$e. 1tilisation dans les O%al$ations d?Impact. Acta Ecologica, Lecol. A55lic. /)!!C)0*. Casini=. 7.***8 2uove 5ros5ettive 5er uno svilu55o sostenibile del territorio. 3t$dio ,ditoriale &iorentino&irenBe. Casini- =. and &errini- 3. 7.**.8 =e indagini economiche. =a %al$taBione economica del paesaggio toscano. In4 Agnoletti- #. 7ed.8 Il &aesaggio Agro/ forestale Toscano, *trumenti 5er lFAnalisi la !estione e la #onserva4ione. AA3IA- &irenBepp. 60C9 .

#. Agno

letti et al.

Chang- Ting &a #.- >iccinini- =.C. and Ta%erna- #. 7)00!C)00 8 Agricolt$ra f$t$ribile4 primario o terBiarioW Agribusiness &aesaggio e Ambiente 6- ./!C."". Christiansen- N.=.- Bart$ska- A.- Am.- Brown- K.H. et al. 7)0098 The report of the ecological society of America committee on the scienti.c basis for ecosystem management. Ecol. A55l. 9- 99"C90). Co'- =.K.- Hollyer- K.A. and =eones- K. 7)0068 =andscape ser%ices4 an $rban agric$lt$ral sector. Agribusiness )*- )/C .9. Cronon- W. 7)0 /8 #%anges in t%e Land. Hill and Wang- New Sork. &arina- A. 7)00 8 &rinci5les and Met%ods in Landsca5e Ecology. Chapman and Hall- =ondon. &ilacorda- 3. 7)0008 =?animale come elemento mobile e modi.cabile del paesaggio. Agribusiness &aesaggio e Ambiente /- )!.C) /. &oster- +.A- #otBkin- H. and 3later- B. 7)00 8 =and:$se history as long:term broad scale dist$rbance4 regional forest dynamics in central New ,ngland. Ecosystems )- 09C))0. &owler- >.K. 7.**)8 #ultural Landsca5es; great conce5t, 5ity about t%e 5%rase. ICO#O3:12- =ondon. &owler- >.K. 7.**/8 ,orld +eritage #ultural Landsca5es 6>>?D?99? . 1N,3CO- >aris. &reschi- #.=. and Hermanin- =. 7.***8 A brief history of Italian forest policy. In4 Agnoletti- #. and Anderson3. 7eds8 Forest +istory; International *tudies on *ocioeconomic and Forest Ecosystem #%ange . CAB Inter national- Wallingford- 12- pp. /")C/9.. &$entes 3ancheB- C. 7)0068 La Encina en el #entro y *uroeste de Es5ana. 3er%antes- 3alamanca. Kohann- ,.- Agnoletti- #.- A'elsson- A.=.- B$rghi- #.- Ostl$nd- =.- Aochel- (.- 3chmidt- 1.,.- 3ch$ler- A.- 3ko%sgaardK.>. and Winiwarter- N. 7.**68 History of secondary spr$ce forests in ,$rope. In4 3piecker- H.- Hansen- K.- 2limo- ,.3ko%sgaard- K.>- 3terba- H. and %on Te$ffel- 2. 7eds8 2or-ay *5ruce #onversion. L5tion and #onsePuences. ,&I research report ) . Brill- =eiden- pp. ."C9.. 2arr- K.A. and +$dley- +.A. 7)0 )8 ,cological perspecti%e on water G$ality goals. Environmental Management """C9 . 2ay- K.K. and 3chneider- ,. 7)0068 ,mbracing comple'ity4 the challenge of the ecosystem approach. Alternatives .*//C/0. =aycock- W.A. 7)00)8 3table states and thresholds of range conditions on North American rangelands4 a %iewpoint. .ournal of ange Management 667"8- 6.!C6//. =e%ins- A. 7)09 8 Evolution in #%anging Environments. >rinceton 1ni%ersity >ress- >rinceton. =oomis- K.B. 7)00*8 Comparati%e reliability of dichotomo$s choice and open:ended contingent %al$ation techniG$es. .ournal of Environmental Economics and Management ) - ! C ". #cArth$r- A.H. and =e%ins- A. 7)0968 Competition- habitat selection and character displacement in a patchy en%ironment. &roc. 2atl Acad. *ci. U*A ")- ).*!C).)*. #itchell- N. and B$ggey- 3. 7.***8 >rotected landscapes and c$lt$ral landscapes4 taking ad%antage of di%erse approaches. T%e !eorge ,rig%t Forum )!7)8- /"C69. #itchell- A.C. and Carson- A.T. 7)0 08 Using *urveys to )alue &ublic !oods; T%e #ontingent )aluation Met%od. Aeso$rce for the &$t$re- Washington- +C. #itchell- #.3. and >owell- A.A. 7.**/8 =inking .tness landscapes with the beha%io$r and distrib$tion of ani mals. In4 Bissonette- K.A. and 3torch- I. 7eds8 Landsca5e Ecology and esource Management. Island >ressWashington- pp. 0/C).". OBenda- >. 7)0!"8 3$r les etages de %egetation dans les montagnes d$ Bassin #OditerranOen. 1oc. #art. Ecol. )9- )C /.. >a%ari- A. 7)0)98 3t$dio preliminare s$lla colt$ra di specie forestali esotiche in Italia. Ann. . Ist. *u5. For. 2a4. I- )"0C/!0. >errin- H. 7)0".C)0"68 *ylviculture HTome IIJ. ,cole National des ,a$' et &orOts- Nancy- &rance. >eterken- H. 7)0 )8 ,oodland #onservation and Management. Chapman and Hall- =ondon. >hipps- 3. 7)0098 >erceptions of landscape and protection of the wider co$ntryside. In4 Kones- #. and Aotherham- I.+.

7eds8 Landsca5es D &erce5tions, ecognition and Management; reconciling t%e im5ossibleX Conference >roceedings- Wildtrack >$blishing- 3hef.eld- 12- pp. ."C/*. >latt- K.A. 7)0968 3trong inference. *cience )69- /6!C/"/. Aackham- O. 7)00"8 Trees and ,oodlands in t%e Britis% Landsca5e. Weidenfeld and Nicholson- =ondon. Aegione Toscana 7)0 !8 LFUomo e la Terra, #am5agne e &aesaggi Toscani. Italia Hra.che- &irenBe- Italy. Aotherham- I.+. and Kones- #. 7.***8 The impact of economic- social and political factors on the ecology of small ,nglish woods in 3o$th Sorkshire- ,ngland. In4 Agnoletti- #. and Anderson- 3. 7eds8 Forest +istory; International *tudies on *ocioeconomic and Forest Ecosystem #%ange. CAB InternationalWallingford- 12- pp. /0!C6)*.

The >roDect for the A$ral =andscape >ark in #oscheta

3albitano- &. 7)0 !8 NegetaBione forestale e insediamento del bosco in campi abbandonati in $n settore delle >realpi Hi$lie 7Taipana C 1dine8. !ortani, Atti del Museo Friulano di *toria 2aturale- /C)6/. 3ardDono- #.A. and 3amsoedin- I. 7.**)8 Traditional knowledge and practice of biodi%ersity conser%ation. In4 >ierceC.K. and Byron- S. 7eds8 &eo5le Managing Forests. Aeso$rces for the &$t$re >ress- Washington- pp. ))9C)/6. 3ereni- ,. 7)00!8 +istory of t%e Italian Agricultural Landsca5e 7reprint- .rst edition )09)8. >rinceton 1ni%ersity >ress- >rinceton. 3o$thwood- T.A.,. 7)0!!8 Habitat- the templet for ecological strategiesW .ournal of Animal Ecology 69- //!C/9". Nogt- 2.A.- Hordon- K.C.- Wargo- K.>. and Nogt- +.K. 7)00!8 Ecosystems; Balancing *cience -it% Management. 3pringer:Nerlag- New Sork. Nos- W. and 3tortelder- A. 7)00.8 )anis%ing Tuscan Landsca5es. >$doc 3cienti.c >$blisher- Wageningen- Aegione Toscana- &irenBe- Italy. Watkins- C. and 2irby- 2.K. 7)00 8 Introd$ction C historical ecology and ,$ropean woodland. In4 2irby- 2.K. and Watkins- C. 7eds8 T%e Ecological +istory of Euro5ean Forests. CAB International- Wallingford- 12- pp. i'C'%.

7 Long term 3egetation &!namics in 0outhern

0candinavia and Their 1se in Managing Landscapes for Biodiversit!
A.H.W. Bradshaw)-/ and H.,. Hannon.-/

Environmental +istory esearc% !rou5, !eocenter, #o5en%agen, 1enmar3?*out%ern *-edis% Forest esearc% #entre, *L), Alnar5, *-eden &resent address; University of Liver5ool, U'
7

Introduction 3weden and &inland are sparsely pop$lated and ha%e the highest proportion of forest co%er within ,$rope. Abo$t /9-*** km. of 3weden 7appro'imately M of the total area8 is protected within national parks and nat$re reser%es with relati%ely %irgin mo$ntain en%ironments comprising almost 0*M of the land protected within national parks. One might imagine that the approaches to conser%ation of biodi%ersity wo$ld not gi%e a partic$larly high priority to c$lt$ral landscapes in a co$ntry where the h$nter:gatherer lifestyle persisted long after sophisticated ci%iliBations in so$thern ,$rope had bro$ght abo$t maDor landscape change. This wo$ld be a misleading impression. Aesearch has shown that c$lt$ral impact in 3weden not only has a longer and geographically more e'tensi%e history than was once belie%ed- b$t also that many of the priBed biodi%ersity %al$es within 3weden owe their e'istence to a comple' inter: relationship between c$lt$ral and nat$ral processes. The increasing knowledge that is de%eloping abo$t earlier c$lt$ral impact on the 3wedish landscape is now becoming incorporated into practical management for biodi%ersity. In this chapter we re%iew the long:term history of a 3wedish forest meadow or wood past$re 73wedish4 lP%[ng8 and an open meadow 73wedish4 sl]tter[ng8- which ill$strate the importance of former c$lt$ral acti%ity for c$rrent biodi%ersity %al$es. B$ilding on these e'amples- we analyse the longer term de%elopment of biodi%ersity %al$es in so$thern 3candina%ia and .nally we disc$ss approaches to landscape management that aim to maintain some of these %al$es.

0)edish Forest Meado)s &orest meadows or wood past$res are among the most cherished and %is$ally attracti%e c$lt$ral landscapes that e'ist in so$thern 3candina%ia and this landscape element has co$nterparts in central and so$thern ,$rope. They were de%eloped from forested landscapes close to farms and formed part of the in:.eld system. They are maintained by selecti%e thinning of trees- mowing and controlled b$rning to create a mosaic of %egetation types- comprising sparse decid$o$s trees and shr$bs and herb:rich grassy meadows. #any of the trees are pollarded and in the past were shredded for leaf fodder. Characteristic tree species incl$de Tilia cordata, FraMinus eMcelsior, Ulmus glabra, #orylus avellana, Quercus robur with Malus sylvestris and #rataegus monogyna. The herb layer is < CAB International .**9. T%e #onservation of #ultural Landsca5es 7ed. #. Agnoletti8

=ong:term Negetation +ynamics in 3o$thern 3candina%ia

often species:rich and typically incl$des Anemone nemorosa, !eranium sylvaticum, Fili5endula vulgaris, Leucant%emum vulgare, !alium verum and many orchid species 7&ig. 9.)8. &orest meadows are known to be of c$lt$ral origin and most ha%e been abandoned d$ring the last cent$ry. 3wedish forest meadows are pres$med to be the oldest type of grassland comm$nity with possible origins in the Neolithic period $p to 9*** years ago 7=ager]s- )0098altho$gh their detailed history is poorly known. Aecent spec$lation s$ggests that they ha%e a close relationship with pre:e'isting @nat$ral? wood past$res that were maintained by pop$lations of a$rochs and tarpan 7Nera- .***8- altho$gh other e'planations are possible 73%enning- .**.F Bradshaw and Hannon- .**68. Their chief p$rpose was for graBing animals and pro%ision of winter fodder. Berlin 7Berlin- )00 8 re%iewed the stat$s of north ,$ropean semi:nat$ral grasslands incl$ding forest meadows- which on calcareo$s soils are among the most species:rich habitats for %asc$lar plants with $p to 9/ speciesIm. 72$ll

cordata in the foregro$nd to the left. 7>hoto4 TorbDorn =arsson8 "Lshult/ 0mLland One s$ch forest meadow is fo$nd at A]sh$lt estate- so$th:west 3weden 7"9o /!%N- )6o ).%,8- which was the birthplace of Carl =innae$s and was declared as one of only ten 3wedish c$lt$ral reser%es in .**/. =indbladh and Bradshaw 7=indbladh and Bradshaw- )00"8 $sed high:resol$tion palaeoecological methods to in%estigate the origin- de%elopment and s$bseG$ent abandonment of the forest meadow at A]sh$lt. They collected ) m of peat from a smallwet depression located in the A]sh$lt in.elds and analysed the pollen and charcoal content 7&ig. 9..8. The record co%ered the last 6"** years and showed that the meadow system had its origins abo$t )*** years ago. >rior to the de%elopment of the forest meadow the data recorded forested conditions with the most important trees being Quercus, Tilia, Ulmus and #orylus- with Alnus and Betula growing on wetter sites. Charcoal fragments indicated occasional b$rning- at least of forest floor comm$nities. >ollen from &lantago lanceolata and other indicators of anthropogenic acti%ity indicate some h$man impactb$t the dominance of tree and shr$b pollen recorded in this small forest

and Xobel- )00)8. There were an estimated .-***-*** ha of grasslands in 3weden at the beginning of the ) **s with only abo$t .**-*** ha s$r%i%ing today- of which only //** ha are forest meadows 7Bernes)0068. The parish of #ara in the pro%ince of Blekinge comprised D$st .%e farms within an area of abo$t )* km. in )!90- yet incl$ded )/* separate forest meadows 7Thomas >ersson- personal comm$nication8. This ill$strates the former importance of this form of land:$se in so$thern 3weden. Fig# 7#%# Niew of the forest meadow at A]sh$lt- 3weden with Tilia

hollow $ntil abo$t ).** A+ strongly s$ggests that the local %egetation was forest- whose composition had been relati%ely

A.H.W. Bradshaw and H.,. Hannon Fig# 7#+ Charcoal data- composite percentage pollen c$r%es and .oristic di%ersity c$r%e for pro.le from
stable for se%eral millennia. The relati%e ab$ndance of Quercus and #orylus and a low b$t signi.cant presence of a s$ite of herbaceo$s pollen types show that the forest had an open str$ct$re- creating habitat for light:demanding species 7Nera- .***8. This open str$ct$re may ha%e been maintained by occasional b$rningperhaps in conD$nction with light graBing by domestic animals. A$rochs and tarpan ha%e been e'tinct in 3weden for many millennia 7Bradshaw and Hannon- .**68. The pollen diagram recorded abr$pt changes in %egetation and increased .oristic di%ersity beginning abo$t A+ ))** that are clearly associated with c$lt$ral impact and the establishment of the forest meadow system 7&ig. 9..8. >teridophytes characteristic of forest conditions almost totally disappeared and the pollen percentages of herbs and grasses increased markedly. The opening of the %egetation is also re.ected by the decrease in percentages of tree pollen to abo$t *M at this time. Cereal pollen grains- incl$ding *ecale cereale- became more freG$ent. Hrasses and se%eral herbaceo$s ta'a that are strongly associated with agric$lt$re 7Behre)0 )F Haillard et al.- )00.8 occ$rred for the .rst time- or became ab$ndant d$ring this period. ,'amples of this gro$p are >oaceae 7p6* qmF mowing and graBing8- &lantago lanceolata 7mowing and graBing8- &otentilla 7graBing8 and umeM acetosaNacetosella 7graBing8. #al/ luna- which is an indicator of strong graBing press$re 7Haillard et al.- )00.8- also became more ab$ndant. The pollen data show a striking correspondence with the archaeological and historical data. =arsson 7=arsson- )0!"8 identi.ed the early #iddle Ages as the time of coloniBation of the forested and remote parts of so$thern 3m]land. He f$rther

A]sh$lt. A total pollen calc$lation s$m is $sed e'cl$ding pteridophytesF pteridophyte representation is based on the pollen s$m pl$s pteridophytes 7after =indbladh and Bradshaw)00"8.

emphasiBed that li%estock:raising was

=ong:term Negetation +ynamics in 3o$thern

3candina%ia

the main acti%ity beca$se of the nat$ral conditions of the area. The forest meadow period 7aro$nd A+ ))**C )0**8 was not static- b$t the pollen assemblages changed thro$gh time in response to socio: economic de%elopments. The prono$nced dip in .oristic di%ersity aro$nd A+ )6** at the in:.eld site coincides with a critical period in agric$lt$ral history. A period of )"* years of economic and pop$lation decline began in 3weden following the Black +eath of the mid:)6th cent$ryF the so: called @agrarian crisis? 7Hissel et al.- )0 )8. The initiation and d$ration of the dip in .oristic di%ersity of the A]sh$lt forest meadow shows a striking similarity with that of the agrarian crisisand the dating of this part of the pro.le is sec$rely based. We propose a ca$sal connection between the historical e%ents and the decreasing n$mber of species that wo$ld be e'pected if the meadows and arable .elds were abandoned and o%ergrown. &$rthermore- the e%ent is also noticeable in the pollen diagram as a decrease in the pollen percentage %al$es of herbs and grasses and an increase in that of trees- partic$larly Betula D e'pected obser%ations if c$lti%ation were to cease. The decline in c$lti%ation also coincided with the beginning of a colder period in ,$rope- namely @the little ice age? 7Bradley and Kones- )00.8- and it is probable that the agric$lt$ral regression was partly ca$sed- or at least amplified- by the changing climatic conditions. Whate%er the $ltimate ca$se of the regression may ha%e been- it is striking that it can be detected in both historical and biological archi%es. It emphasiBes the detailed temporal and spatial resol$tion that can be obtained from the pollen analysis of small hollows 7Bradshaw- )0 8. A dramatic increase of ericaceo$s dwarf shr$bs occ$rred aro$nd A+ )!"* and #alluna pollen reached %al$es of more than 6*M by )0**. #alluna is generally considered to be a good indicator that graBing and li%estock:raising had been the dominant land:$se in this part of 3candina%ia for a long time 7=arsson- )0!"F ,man$elsson- )0 !8. +$ring the ) th and )0th cent$ries the local parish e'perienced a sharp pop$lation increase- from .*9 inhabitants in )!*/ to )0)/ inhabitants by ) "* 7Nilsson et al.-

)0068. As this increase paralleled that of 3weden as a whole- it is likely that the s$bstantial peak in #alluna pollen was associated with an increasing n$mber of animals managed by the growing h$man pop$lation 7#yrdal and 3Pderberg- )00)8. Another graBing indicator- umeM aceotsaN acetosellashowed a minor peak at the same time as #alluna. This ericaceo$s phase ended abr$ptly aro$nd )0** and was replaced by a secondary forest s$ccession and tree pollen percentages ret$rned to high le%els. The $se of fertiliBers was introd$ced more generally to 3candina%ia at the beginning of the .*th cent$ry and the press$re on a%ailable land was considerably red$ced- res$lting in reforestation of marginal areas s$ch as A]sh$lt 7,man$elsson)0 !8. The de%elopment of .oristic di%ersity- as detected by pollen analysis of this small hollow- reflects the de%elopment and demise of the forest meadow system. The rapid loss of di%ersity d$ring the last cent$ry- co$pled with the historical interest of the estate being the site where =innae$s was born and raised- has led to the recent restoration of the forest meadow system. 0lottet/ B?MrehalvHn The forest meadow at A]sh$lt de%eloped in a landscape that was probably only permanently settled rather late with place names dating from the #ediae%al >eriod. The age of the forest meadow may simply re.ect the late e'ploitation of this landscape. The sit$ation aro$nd the coasts of so$thern 3weden is rather different with e'tensi%e e%idence for h$man impact dating back many millennia 7Bergl$nd- )00)8. The hay meadow @3lottet? on the BD[re penins$la lies in a landscape that has been in.$enced by h$man acti%ity for many millennia and the main landscape str$ct$re was established d$ring the BronBe Age. The penins$la contains one of the greatest concentrations of BronBe Age b$rial mo$nds in 3candina%ia 7H$stafsson- )0098.

A.H.W. Bradshaw and H.,. Hannon

The meadow has been recently restored and comprises abo$t . ha of species:rich open grassland that is occasionally .ooded by a small stream. The meadow is .rst mentioned in historical archi%es dating from )"09 7Hannon and H$stafsson- .**68. The area was almost totally deforested by )9!* and a map from ) 6) showed the present meadow to be part of a larger comple' of meadows and arable .elds. By )0. some woody s$ccessions were reclaiming open areas and the restored meadow is today s$rro$nded by Alnus glutinosa stands with gro%es of decid$o$s trees. A ):m sediment core was collected for analysis of plant macrofossils and charcoal to in%estigate the timing and de%elopment of the meadow. The sediment had acc$m$lated close to the stream in the meadow- where the permanently waterlogged conditions had preser%ed plant remains. >lant macrofossils are plant remains %isible to the naked eye. They are not so ab$ndantly preser%ed as pollen b$t tra%el less far from their point of prod$ction and can $s$ally yield a greater ta'onomic resol$tion. The core co%ered the period from abo$t .** BC $ntil present 7&ig. 9./8. Quercus acorns were the earliest macrofossil e%idence- dating from D$st before A+ *. 3$bseG$ent records of *tac%ys sylvatica and #areM s$ggest that the earliest recorded %egetation was wet- decid$o$s woodland. =arge fragments of charcoal began to appear aro$nd A+ /"* and persisted in %arying G$antities $ntil the ).**s. Nat$ral .re was %ery rare in the western coastal area of 3weden- so the charcoal is likely e%idence for h$man impact in the form of tree clearance- slash:and:b$rn agric$lt$re- coppicing and forest graBing. The dominating macrofossil finds are from Alnus glutinosa, Betula 5ubescens, Frangula alnus, &olygonum spp. and ubus fruticosus s$ggesting that these .rst c$lt$ral acti%ities took place in an open forest set: ting. The .rst appearance of Fagus sylvatica d$ring the A+ "**s occ$rs in association with both .re and c$lt$ral acti%ity which is characteristic of its history in so$thern 3candina%ia 7Bradshaw and =indbladh- .**"8.

The ab$ndance of charcoal red$ces after A+ )***C ))** and there is a corresponding increase in the di%ersity of meadow and fen plants s$ch as )iola 5alustris, umeM acetosa, *tellaria alsine, *tellaria media, #ardamine 5ratensis, !lyceria fluitans, #%eno5odium rubrum, Urtica dioica, Linum cat%articum and >oaceae. B$rning had been replaced by hay: making and coppice as the main c$lt$ral acti%ities and a tr$e meadow was created. It is interesting to note that this de%elopment was ro$ghly synchrono$s with the creation of the forest meadow at A]sh$lt- indicating the importance of the early #ediae%al >eriod in the de%elopment of the so$th 3wedish c$lt$ral landscape. +$ring the )"**C)9**s there is a slight res$rgence of forest species incl$ding Betula, Alnus and conifers- followed by their disappearance again d$ring the )!**C) **s. These trends are in agreement with the fragmentary doc$mentary e%i: dence a%ailable and re.ect %arying press$res of land:$se and partic$larly timber e'ploitation on this area d$ring the )!**C ) **s. &rom the late ) **s onwards- both the macrofossil and doc$mentary records indicate a grad$al fall into dis$se of the meadow system $ntil the partial restoration d$ring the )00*s. These two e'amples share some common feat$res that gi%e insight into the role of c$lt$ral acti%ity in the de%elopment of plant di%ersity in so$thern 3weden. In both cases a @nat$ral? dist$rbance regime in%ol%ing .re and graBing de%eloped into a more managed regime that stabiliBed aro$nd ).** A+. The landscape that de%eloped then was not stable- b$t re.ected economic de%elopments and social change. There was hea%y e'ploitation d$ring the )9**C) **s followed by a maDor change in land $se that led to abandonment of parts of the landscape and intensi.cation on other parts. This maDor change has led to the c$rrent crisis in management of biodi%ersity. We ha%e s$mmariBed this de%elopment in a concept$al model with three distincti%e periods of land $se 7&ig. 9.68.

=ong:term Negetation +ynamics in 3o$thern 3candina%ia

A.H.W. Bradshaw and H.,. Hannon

&iversit!

%# Baseline conditions The concept of baseline conditions with minimal anthropogenic impact and ma'imal @nat$ralness? is s$per.cially attracti%e- b$t hard to characteriBe in ,$rope and is more of academic than practical interest. The concept is more widely $sed in North America- A$stralia and New Xealand and other regions where ,$ropean settlement is relati%ely recent. >re:settlement %egetation and .re regimes are often $sed as a reference for nat$re conser%ation in North America- altho$gh there is now increasing recognition of the impact of aboriginal c$lt$res- partic$larly on fire regimes. Important aspects of biodi%ersity are strongly affected by the dist$rbance regime that has been systematically modi.ed by c$lt$ral acti%ity- so it is of some rele%ance to reconstr$ct dist$rbance regimes prior to maDor h$man inter%ention as a biodi%ersity baseline. The most widespread baseline in Northern ,$rope is %ario$s types of forest. Nat$ral forest dynamics and di%ersity are dri%en by rare b$t signi.cant dist$rbance e%ents s$ch as wind- .redro$ght- .ooding- land:slippage and disease 7>ickett and White- )0 "F >eterken- )009F Hardiner and \$ine- .***8. These dri%ing forces interact
Fig# 7#-# #odel of changes in %asc$lar plant biodi%ersity associated with the de%elopment and abandonment of traditional agric$lt$ral methods.

Fire The pi%otal role of .re in many nat$ral boreal ecosystems has now been widely acknowledgedre%iewed and e%en incorporated into forest management 7Kohnson- )00.F Holdammer and &$ryae%- )009F Bradshaw et al.- )00!F Angelstam)00 8. &ires ha%e always been of importance in boreal regions- altho$gh on longer time:scales this importance has %aried dependent $pon pre%ailing climatic conditions. Indi%id$al forest .res ha%e tended to be %ery large in Canada and 3iberia- b$t were m$ch smaller in 3candina%ia- at least d$ring the last few cent$ries where dendrochronological methods can be $sed to reconstr$ct .re siBe 7Niklasson and HranstrPm- .***8. It is still

with the contin$o$s dist$rbance of browsing and graBing animals and the small:scale processes of single tree replacement by seedling establishmentgrowth- competiti%e interactions and senescence 7&alinski- )0 9F Woods- .***8. The dist$rbance regime creates the conditions necessary for regeneration- generates dead wood- in.$ences the siBe and age str$ct$re of a stand and controls contin$ity of local niches and habitats and hence biodi%ersity.

=ong:term Negetation +ynamics in 3o$thern 3candina%ia

an open G$estion whether this difference in scale can be attrib$ted to differences in landscape form and the distrib$tion of nat$ral .re:breaks- or whether c$lt$ral factors play a role. Aoad:b$ilding and .re s$ppression acti%ities ha%e impacted &ennoscandian .re regimes d$ring the last )** years- b$t the effect of these c$lt$ral factors may ha%e been o%er:estimated 7Carcaillet et al.- .**.8. The historical legacy and role of .re in temperate regions and at the boreal:temperate ecotone has been less disc$ssed 7Bradshaw et al.)00!8- b$t raises iss$es of importance for forest management in these regions. 3ediment records from small forest hollows thro$gho$t so$thern 3candina%ia contained ab$ndant charcoal remains in the past- b$t charcoal is less freG$ent in recent cent$ries and decades. Typical records from so$th: east 3weden record .res of probable nat$ral origin between 6*** and "** BC. The charcoal records often change form after "** BC and become more $niform. This can be interpreted as the onset of management of the nat$ral .re regime- altho$gh there was also a widespread change in climate aro$nd "** BC that wo$ld also ha%e impacted the .re regime 7=indbladh and Bradshaw- )00 8. Quercus pop$lations- which regenerate $nder rather open conditions- were important forest components thro$gho$t the last 9*** years b$t declined in ab$ndance d$ring recent cent$ries. The decline of Quercus is associated with a corresponding increase in local importance of &icea and the cessation of charcoal in the sediments. The @nat$ral? .re regime changes thro$gh time b$t has certainly been greatly modi.ed within the temperate forest Bone of ,$rope d$ring the last few cent$ries. &ire is one of the main dist$rbance factors in nat$ral forest- b$t beca$se of its long association with h$man societies and the ease with which a .re regime can be in.$enced by c$lt$ral acti%ity it is dif.c$lt to describe a @nat$ral? .re regime for all b$t the most remote boreal forest regions of the world. Information abo$t former fire regimes is %al$able as an indication of the dist$rbance intensity and freG$ency to which the present flora and fa$na are adapted. This information is %al$able in conser%ation and the assessment of likely f$t$re .re haBard.

Bro-sing animals The role of browsing and graBing mammals in nat$ral forest has been largely ignored by forest researchers- partly beca$se of the dif.c$lty in obtaining rele%ant data. Againthe palaeoecological record doc$ments large changes in the fa$na of boreal and temperate forests and a long history of anthropogenic modification of fa$nas thro$gh h$nting- herding and later domes: tication of large mammals 7Bradshaw and #itchell- )000F Bradshaw et al.- .**/8. By the early Holocene- 0*** years ago- the forests of north:west ,$rope had been re:coloniBed not only by species still s$r%i%ing in these co$ntriess$ch as red and roe deer- b$t also by elk- a$rochsbear- wolf- lyn'- bea%er and others 7Aaris: 3orensen- )00 F Salden- )0008. Howe%er- this fa$na was serio$sly impo%erished compared to pre%io$s interglacials- speci.cally in large herbi%ores and carni%ores. Both nat$ral and anthropogenic factors ha%e affected the Holocene fa$nas of north:west ,$rope. 3ome species left the region long ago- d$e to nat$ral changes in Holocene climate and %egetation- s$ch as the horse EPuus ferusF others are now totally e'tinct- s$ch as the a$rochs Bos 5rimigenius. #ost of the remaining species- howe%er- disappeared after the Neolithic agric$lt$ral re%ol$tion or e%en in %ery recent cent$ries- as a res$lt of habitat clearance and h$nting. In theory- these species still @belong? to the region. #odels for their persistence in a reasonably aboriginal ecosystem e'ist in >oland and A$ssia. Howe%er- cr$cial to the c$rrent s$r: %i%al of these comm$nities is that they are embedded in %ery large areas of habitat 7par: tic$larly- the A$ssia taiga8- so the mammals form a semi:nat$ral metapop$lation- which can s$r%i%e as a whole e%en if local areas become $ns$itable or $na%ailable for %ario$s reasons 7Bradshaw et al..**/8. =ilDegren and =ager]s 7)00/8 s$mmariBed the Holocene records for larger

A.H.W. Bradshaw and H.,. Hannon

mammals recorded from 3weden. The range of so$rces and the G$antity of data a%ailable permit the de%elopment of models describing changing graBing regimes d$ring the Holocene. The changing balance between graBers and browsers 7sensu8 7Hofmann and 3tewart- )0!.8 in so$thern 3wedish forests s$ggests that the present large pop$lations of roe deer and moose are a recent de%elopment. There ha%e been contin$al .$ct$ations in the balance between browsers and graBers chie.y d$e to the early Holocene local e'tinction of bison 7Bison bonasus8 and a$rochs 7Bos 5rimigenius8 7,kstrPm- )00/8 and the s$b: seG$ent introd$ction of domestic cattle nearly /*** years later. The remo%al of domestic cattle from so$th 3wedish forests d$ring the last )** years was a signi.cant e%ent in long:term graBingC %egetation interactions and has had a maDor in.$ence on forest composition and str$ct$re 7Andersson and AppelG%ist- )00*8. The large:scale- anthropogenic alteration of landscape str$ct$re in north:west ,$rope makes the present:day sit$ation significantly different from pre%io$s interglacials or from the early: to mid:Holocene. As with .re- we may gain new insight into processes of $ng$lateC%egetation interactions from palaeoecological data- b$t the c$rrent sit$ation is $niG$e when %iewed from the long:term perspecti%e. 3t$dies of the past reconstr$ct the traDectory of e%ents that created the present condition and gi%e insight into processesb$t they also show that no single set of eG$ilibri$m @baseline? conditions can be recogniBed in the recent geological past- so there is no sec$re refer: ence from the past to $se as a model for f$t$re management. The m$ch higher $ng$late di%ersity 7and pres$mably total biomass8 of past interglacials strongly s$ggests a di%erse %egetational en%ironment that %aried between interglacials- with elephants- rhinos and many species of deer that m$st ha%e been niche: separated. It is hard to concei%e how the $ng$late comm$nities co$ld ha%e ca$sed the apparent dif: ferences in habitat di%ersity between past interglacials themsel%es 7Nera- .***F 3%enning.**.8. HraBing:adapted species- by definition- are $nlikely to ha%e been responsible for the clearing of forest in the .rst place. One might also ask why

they did not appear and open o$t the forest in pre%io$s interglacials. The concl$sion is that otherprobably physical- factors were responsible for the primary habitat str$ct$re 7Bradshaw et al.- .**/8. *torm In ,$rope there are only a few- isolated st$dies of storm damage from near:nat$ral forests 7&alinski)0! F >ontailler et al.- )00!F Wolf et al.- .**68 and most information is deri%ed from conifero$s forest or plantations. Tree siBe and species are important factors in.$encing the e'tent of storm damage. In +ecember )000 the most powerf$l h$rricane e%er recorded in +enmark ca$sed the greatest destr$ction of forest %ol$me in +enmark d$ring the )0**s. In +ra%ed &orest- a semi:nat$ral decid$o$s forest in so$thern K$tland- long:term obser%ations of tree growth and mortality were a%ailable. Analyses of mortality characteristics thro$gh time showed that storm was the maDor mortality factor affecting large trees in this forest. &or smaller trees- competition was an important ca$se of death- as trees that were fo$nd standing dead had a slower growth rate than s$r%i%ors. Indi%id$al species showed different mortality patterns. Betula- Fagus and Tilia were mainly wind:thrown- whereas for Alnus and FraMinus "*M of the mortality was obser%ed as standing dead trees. 3o this st$dy concl$ded that both wind and competition are important mortality factors in +ra%ed &orest 7Wolf et al.- .**68. An important .nding from the +ra%ed st$dy was that abo$t 6M of all trees larger than )* cm diameter at breast height 7dbh8 were damaged by the stormwhile in neighbo$ring commercial conifero$s plantations- damage was almost total. Nat$ral forest mortality rates range between *."M and /M per year in the boreal and temperate Bone 7A$nkle)0 "F >eterken- )0098 and nat$ral forests are clearly better adapted than managed forests to s$r%i%e se%ere storm damage.

=ong:term Negetation +ynamics in 3o$thern 3candina%ia

>ests and disease- .ooding and land:slippage are other nat$ral dist$rbance factors that in.$ence forest str$ct$re and the biodi%ersity of nat$ral forest- b$t the greatest dist$rbances that ha%e affected forests in the boreal and temperate Bones are those bro$ght abo$t by h$man acti%ities- both agric$lt$ral and sil%ic$lt$ral. &orest has been cleared for agric$lt$ral $se for o%er "*** years in ,$rope- and e%en if agric$lt$ral acti%ity has s$bseG$ently been abandoned- the break in forest contin$ity can affect the species composition for a long time. Commercial forestry has altered the siBe str$ct$re of forests thro$gho$t boreal 3candina%ia by .rst the remo%al of large trees and s$bseG$ent short rotation periods. =inder and Jstl$nd 7)00.8 doc$mented the enormo$s modi.cation of forest str$ct$re that has typically occ$rred in northern 3weden d$ring the last )." years. +ensities and basal areas of large trees in s$r%i%ing old:growth North American and ,$ropean temperate forests were fo$nd to be comparable 7Nilsson et al..**.8. The adeG$ate description of nat$ral dist$rbance regimes and f$ll recognition of how they ha%e been modi.ed- both directly and indirectly by anthropogenic acti%ities- is one of the maDor challenges in the identi.cation and st$dy of nat$ral forest ecosystems. Lt%er im5ortant c%aracteristics of natural forest systems The hydrological regime of nat$ral forests has not been st$died in detail- b$t regional and local drainage of forest and agric$lt$ral areas has been relentlessly p$rs$ed in the temperate and boreal Bones for many decades witho$t proper economic assessment of the conseG$ences 7#_ller- .***8. Aegional pollen diagrams record a general red$ction in amo$nts of Alnus and *aliM on the landscape and the .eld e'perience of all ,$ropean forest ecologists is of a systematic alteration of micro:habitats whose effects on biodi%ersity are only now being recogniBed. The role of dead wood and its importance for forest biodi%ersity has also been stressed by many researchers 7Bobiec- .**.F 2rankina et al.- .**.F #o$ntford- .**.8. The nat$ral le%el and dynamics

of dead wood %aries greatly in space and time and is generated as a conseG$ence of the dist$rbance regimes disc$ssed abo%e. +# Cultural in#uence The history of the last "*** years of northern ,$ropean forest co%er is primarily one of deforestation and the spreading of di%erse c$lt$ral habitats with open- species:rich %egetation str$ct$re. The two 3wedish case st$dies presented earlier are detailed e'amples of this de%elopment. Aeliable G$antitati%e data are only a%ailable for the last few decades- b$t generaliBed deforestation traDectories ha%e been estimated for se%eral co$ntries based on palaeoecological and historical so$rces and some general feat$res emerge. Typically- deforestation traDectories fall to a minim$m %al$e of national forest co%er and then reafforestation takes place either d$e to socio: economic collapse of the traditional agric$lt$ral systems and nat$ral woody s$ccession- or to acti%e tree planting. The timing and minim$m %al$e of forest co%er reached %aries somewhat between regions. &or 3weden as a whole the minim$m %al$e was probably reached between ) "* and )0**- and whereas the minim$m percentage co%er was considerably greater than in other ,$ropean co$ntries- most of this co%er lay in the relati%ely inaccessible and sparsely pop$lated western and northern regions. The traDectory for +enmark is rather typical for north:western ,$rope with a minim$m forest area of aro$nd /M reached aro$nd ) **. A detailed s$r%ey was made of the +anish landscape between )! * and ) .* that generated a map of non:forest area. The deforestation traDectory in +enmark typically began aro$nd ""** years ago d$ring the Neolithic >eriod 7Odgaard and Aasm$ssen- .***8. The onset of widespread deforestation can be detected from pollen diagrams and is typically associated with the time:transgressi%e spread of settled agric$lt$re across ,$rope from so$th:east

A.H.W. Bradshaw and H.,. Hannon

to north:west 7Aoberts- )00 8. All pollen diagrams show a signi.cant increase in landscape:scale species di%ersity as relati%ely homogeneo$s forest comm$nities were replaced by a mosaic of c$lt$ral habitats 7&ig. 9."8. Arable crops were c$lti%ated on land cleared of forest- often by b$rning. Howe%er- graBing of li%estock was probably a greater dri%ing force for red$ction of forest area thro$gh restriction of regeneration and winter browsing of yo$ng growth 7Bradshaw and #itchell- )0008. The effects of Neolithic agric$lt$re on general forest str$ct$re are also acti%ely debated- b$t it is likely that many ,$ropean forests began to de%elop more open str$ct$res from this time onwards 7Nera- .***F 3%enning- .**.F Bradshaw et al.- .**/8. Th$s- the phase of c$lt$ral in.$ence is of %ariable length and intensities thro$gho$t ,$ropewith central and northern 3candina%ia showing the least impact. Howe%er- in all areas the phase of @traditional? c$lt$ral impact generated the biodi: %ersity legacy that s$r%i%es today and is now $nder press$re from recent- rapid changes in land $se. The phase of traditional c$lt$ral impact lasted many millennia in so$thern ,$rope- and at least the last )*** years in so$thern 3weden. As the e'amples abo%e ha%e ill$strated- important new %asc$lar plant biodi%ersity %al$e was added d$ring this period. It also acted as a bridge to the less: modi.ed @baseline? conditions which generated more @nat$ral? biodi%ersity. Both these biodi%ersity elements ha%e been se%erely threatened by recent

de%elopments in land $se.

(# Abandonment of traditional land use and the biodiversit! crisis #$ch has been written abo$t r$ral depop$lation$rbaniBation- the collapse of traditional systems of land $se and their replacement by intensi%e agric$lt$re and forestry. The abandonment of e'tensi%e agric$lt$ral $se of marginal land s$ch as the forest meadow at A]sh$lt- b$t also s$mmer graBing past$res in $pland areas and hay meadows has placed partic$lar press$re on .oristic di%ersity in 3candina%ia. Changes in land $se ha%e also been rapid- gi%ing little opport$nity for species to relocate on the landscape. >ollen analytical data can record the rate of change of %egetation by n$merical comparison of consec$ti%e samples. Analysis of )/ small hollow sites from so$thern 3weden showed a rapid increase in the rate of %egetational change since A+ )"** 7&ig. 9.98. These changes in land $se and new press$res ha%e contrib$ted to a general decline in %asc$lar plant di%ersity in so$thern 3candina%ia that has become the foc$s of conser%ation efforts.

Conclusions

=andscape management is a new concept in 3weden that is being practised both by the forest a$thorities and by go%ernment organiBations with responsibility for nat$re protection. Halting biodi%ersity loss is one of the maDor aims of this type of management. Important information needed for manage ment incl$des in%entories of e'isting species and habitats of high biodi%ersity 7e.g. the key biotope in%entory and red lists

=ong:term Negetation +ynamics in 3o$thern 3candina%ia

Fig# 7#7# @Aate of change? analysis for )/ stand:scale sites from so$thern 3weden displayed for indi%id$al sites and as a mean. The analysis incl$ded all pollen types that e'ceeded .M of the pollen s$m in at least one sample. std +Cs4 chord distance per )** years 7after =indbladh et al.- .***8.

of threatened species8 and information abo$t the past. The characteriBation of past dist$rbance regimes is pro%ing to be important within the forestry sector. The basic principle is to mimic these former regimes in c$rrent timber e'ploitation and .re freG$ency is one pop$lar model 7A$lcker et al.- )0068. &ormer c$lt$ral di%ersity- as represented by the forest meadows in this chapter- is managed within systems of nat$re reser%es. In the pro%ince of Halland in so$th:west 3weden- almost half of the land protected in nat$re reser%es is %al$ed for comm$ni ties of c$lt$ral origin that reG$ire acti%e management for their maintenance. Increasingly small reser%es are being merged into larger comple'es where @nat$ral? and c$lt$ral %al$es are combined. This formal recognition of the biodi%ersity %al$e of c$lt$ral landscapes in so$thern 3candina%ia- with its relati%ely modest scale of anthropogenic impact compared with the #editerranean region indicates the importance of the c$lt$ral heritage to ,$ropean nat$re conser%ation.

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Aaris:3orensen- 2. 7)00 8 1anmar3s for%istoris3e dyreverden. Hyldendal- Copenhagen. Andersson- =. and AppelG%ist- T. 7)00*8 Istidens stora %['t[tare $tformade de nemorala och boreonemorala ekosystemen. *vens3 Botanis3 Tids3rift 6- /""C/9 . Angelstam- >. 7)00 8 #aintaining and restoring biodi%ersity in ,$ropean boreal forests by de%eloping nat$ral dist$rbance regimes. .ournal of )egetation *cience 0- "0/. Behre- 2.,. 7)0 )8 The interpretation of anthropogenic indicators in pollen diagrams. &ollen et *5ores ./- .."C.6". Bergl$nd- B.,. 7ed.8 7)00)8 The c$lt$ral landscape d$ring 9*** years in so$thern 3weden C the Sstad proDect. Ecological Bulletins 6). #$nksgaard- Copenhagen. Berlin- H. 7)00 8 *emi/2atural Meado-s in *out%ern *-eden. =$nd 1ni%ersity- =$nd- 3weden. Bernes- C. 7ed.8 7)0068 Biologisk m]ngfald i 3%erige : en landst$die. Monitor )6. Bobiec- A. 7.**.8 =i%ing stands and dead wood in the BialowieBa forest4 s$ggestions for restoration management. Forest Ecology and Management )9"- )."C)6*. Bradley- A.3. and Kones- >.+. 7eds8 7)00.8 #limate *ince A.1. 6899. Ao$tledge- =ondon. Bradshaw- A.H.W. 7)0 8 3patially:precise st$dies of forest dynamics. In4 H$ntley- B. and Webb- T.I. 7eds8 )eg/ etation +istory. +andboo3 of )egetation *cience. 2l$wer Academic >$blishers- +ordrecht- pp. !."C!"). Bradshaw- A.H.W. and Hannon- H.,. 7.**68 The Holocene str$ct$re of north:west ,$ropean temperate forest ind$ced from palaeoecological data. In4 Honnay- O.- Nerheyen- 2.- Boss$yt- B. and Hermy- #. 7eds8 Forest biodiversity; lessons from %istory for conservation. CAB International- Wallingford- 12- pp. ))C.".

A.H.W. Bradshaw and H.,. Hannon

Bradshaw- A.H.W. and =indbladh- #. 7.**"8 Aegional spread and stand:scale establishment of Fagus sylvatica and &icea abies in 3candina%ia. Ecology, 9- )9!0C)9 9. Bradshaw- A. and #itchell- &.K.H. 7)0008 The palaeoecological approach to reconstr$cting former graBing:%egetation interactions. Forest Ecology and Management. ).*7)C/8- /C).. Bradshaw- A.H.W.- Tolonen- 2. and Tolonen- #. 7)00!8 Holocene records of .re from the boreal and temperate Bones of ,$rope. In4 Clark- K.3.- Cachier- H.- Holdammer- K.H. and 3tocks- B.K. 7eds8 *ediment ecords of Biomass Burning and !lobal #%ange. 3pringer:Nerlag- pp. /6!C/9". Bradshaw- A.H.W.- Hannon- H.,. and =ister- A.#. 7.**/8 A long:term perspecti%e on $ng$late:%egetation interactions. Forest Ecology and Management ) )7)C.8- .9!C. *. Carcaillet- C. et al. 7.**.8 Holocene biomass b$rning and global dynamics of the carbon cycle. #%emos5%ere 607 86"C 9/. ,kstrPm- K. 7)00/8 The late \$aternary history of the $r$s 7 Bos 5rimigenius BoDan$s ) .!8 in 3weden. =1N+\1A Thesis- .0. =$nd 1ni%ersity- =$nd- 3weden. ,man$elsson- 1. 7)0 !8 O%er%iew of the 3candina%ian c$lt$ral landscape. In4 ,man$elsson- 1. and Kohansson- C.,. 7eds8 Bioto5er i det 2ordis3a 'ulturlands3a5et. Nat$r%]rds%erkets rapport, pp. )/D".. &alinski- K.B. 7)0! 8 1prooted trees- their distrib$tion and in.$ence in the prime%al forest biotype. )egetatio / - )!"C ) /. &alinski- K.B. 7)0 98 )egetation 1ynamics in Tem5erate Lo-land &rimeval Forests . 2l$wer Academic >$blishers- +ordrecht. Haillard- #.:K.- Birks- H.K.B.- ,man$elsson- 1. and Bergl$nd- B.,. 7)00.8 #odern pollenIland:$se relationships as an aid in the reconstr$ction of past land:$ses and c$lt$ral landscapes4 an e'ample from so$th 3weden. )egetation +istory and Arc%aeobotany )- /C)!. Hardiner- B.A. and \$ine- C.>. 7.***8 #anagement of forests to red$ce the risk of abiotic damage4 a re%iew with partic$lar reference to the effects of strong winds. Forest Ecology and Management )/"- .9)C.!!. Hissel- 3.- K$tikkala- ,.- Osterberg- ,.- 3andnes- K. and Teitsson- B. 7)0 )8 1esertion and Land #oloni4ation in t%e 2ordic #ountries c. 6799D6B99. AlmG%ist and Wiksell International- 3tockholm. Holdammer- K.H. and &$ryae%- N.N. 7eds8 7)0098 Fire in Ecosystems of Boreal Eurasia. 2l$wer- +ordrecht. H$stafsson- #. 7)0098 'ulturlands3a5 oc% .ora 5O BCare%alvon. =$nds Botaniska &Prening- =$nd- 3weden. Hannon- H.,. and H$stafsson- #. 7.**68 3lottet C historien om en sl]tter[ng. *vens3 Botanis3 Tids3rift 0 7/C68)!!C) !. Hofmann- A.A. and 3tewart- +.A.#. 7)0!.8 HraBer or browser4 a classi.cation based on the stomach:str$c t$re and feeding habits of east African r$minants. Mammalia /9- ..9C.6*. Kohnson- ,.A. 7)00.8 Fire and vegetation dynamics. *tudies from t%e 2ort% American boreal forest . Cambridge 1ni%ersity >ress- New Sork. 2rankina- O.N.- Harmon- #.,.- 2$k$e%- N.A.- Treyfeld- A.&.- 2ashpor- N.N.- 2resno%- N.H.- 3k$din- N.#.- >rotaso%N.A.- Satsko%- #.- 3pycher- H. and >o%aro%- ,.+. 7.**.8 Coarse woody debris in forest regions of A$ssia. #anadian .ournal of Forest esearc% /.- !9 C!! . 2$ll- 2. and Xobel- #. 7)00)8 High species richness in an ,stonian wooded meadow. .ournal of )egetation *cience .- !))C!)6. =ager]s- >. 7)0098 Negetation and land:$se in the 3m]land 1plands- so$thern 3weden d$ring the last 9*** years. =1N+\1A Thesis- /9. =$nd 1ni%ersity- =$nd. =arsson- =.O. 7)0!"8 1et medeltida )Srend. 'ronobergsbo3en, 6>A:/A8 . 2ronobergs l[ns hembygdsfPrb$ndN['DP. =ilDegren- A. and =ager]s- >. 7)00/8 FrOn mammutstS55 till 3o%age. 1Curens %istoria i *verige . Wallin and +al:holm- =$nd- p. 6 . =indbladh- #. and Bradshaw- A. 7)00"8 The de%elopment and demise of a #edie%al &orest:#eadow system at =innae$s birthplace in so$thern 3weden C Implications for conser%ation and forest history. )egetation +istory and Arc%aeobotany 67/8- )"/C)9*. =indbladh- #. and Bradshaw- A. 7)00 8 The origin of present forest composition and pattern in so$thern 3weden. .ournal of Biogeogra5%y ."7/8- 69/C6!!.

=indbladh- #.- Bradshaw- A. and HolmG%ist- B.H. 7.***8 >attern and process in so$th 3wedish forests d$ring the last /*** years- sensed at stand and regional scales. .ournal of Ecology 7)8- ))/C). . =inder- >. and Jstl$nd- =. 7)00.8 F(rSndringar i *veriges boreala s3ogar 6@A9/6>>6. )- +epartment of &orest ,cology- 3wedish 1ni%ersity of Agric$lt$ral 3ciences- 1me]. #_ller- >.&. 7.***8 )andet i s3oven D %vordan fOr vi vandet tilbage til s3ovenX H,13- Copenhagen. #o$ntford- ,.>. 7.**.8 &allen deadwood le%els in near:nat$ral beech forest at =a Tillaie reser%e- &ontaineblea$- &rance. Forestry !"- .*/.

=ong:term Negetation +ynamics in 3o$thern 3candina%ia

#yrdal- K. and 3Pderberg- K. 7)00)8 2ontin$itetens dynamik. Acta Univ *toc3%olmensis )". Niklasson- #. and HranstrPm- A. 7.***8 N$mbers and siBes of .res4 long:term spatially e'plicit .re history in a 3wedish boreal landscape. Ecology 9!- )."6. Nilsson- 3.H.- Ar$p- 1.- Baranowski- A. and ,kman- 3. 7)0068 Tr[db$nda la%ar och skalbaggar i ]lderdomliga k$lt$rlandskap. *vens3 Botanis3 Tids3rift - )C).. Nilsson- 3.H.- Niklasson- #.- Hedin- K.- Aronsson- H.- H$towski- K.#.- =inder- >.- =D$ngberg- H.- #ik$sinskiH. and Aani$s- T. 7.**.8 +ensities of large li%ing and dead trees in old:growth temperate and boreal forests. Forest Ecology and Management )9)- ) 0C.*6. Odgaard- B.N. 7)0008 &ossil pollen as a record of past biodi%ersity. .ournal of Biogeogra5%y .97)8- !C)!. Odgaard- B.N. and Aasm$ssen- >. 7.***8 Origin and temporal de%elopment of macro:scale %egetation pat terns in the c$lt$ral landscape of +enmark. .ournal of Ecology 7"8- !//C!6 . >eterken- H.&. 7)0098 2atural -oodlands. Cambridge 1ni%ersity >ress- Cambridge >ickett- 3.T.A. and White- >.3. 7)0 "8 T%e Ecology of 2atural 1isturbance and &atc% 1ynamics. Academic >ress- Orlando- &lorida. >ontailler- K.:S.- &aille- A. and =emee- H. 7)00!8 3torms dri%e s$ccessional dynamics in nat$ral forests4 a case st$dy in &ontaineblea$ forest 7&rance8. Forest Ecology and Management 0 - )C)". Aoberts- N. 7)00 8 T%e +olocene. Blackwell- O'ford. A$lcker- C.- Angelstam- >. and Aosenberg- >. 7)0068 Nat$rlig branddynamik kan styra nat$r%]rd och skogsskPtsel i boreal skog. *3ogfors3 esultat - )C6. A$nkle- K.A. 7)0 "8 +ist$rbance regimes in temperate forests. In4 >ickett- 3.T.A. and White- >.3. 7eds8 T%e Ecology of 2atural 1isturbance and &atc% 1ynamics. Academic >ress- Orlando- &lorida- pp. )!C/. 3%enning- K.:C. 7.**.8 A re%iew of nat$ral openness in north:western ,$rope. Biological #onservation )*6- )//C )6 . Nera- &.W.#. 7.***8 !ra4ing ecology and forest %istory. CAB International- Wallingford- 12. Wolf- A.- #oller- >.&.- Bradshaw- A.H.W. and Bigler- K. 7.**68 3torm damage and long:term mortality in a semi:nat$ral- temperate decid$o$s forest. Forest Ecology and Management ) 7)C/8- )0!C.)*. Woods- 2.+. 7.***8 +ynamics in late:s$ccessional hemlock:hardwood forests o%er three decades. Ecology )- ))*C).9. Salden- +. 7)0008 T%e +istory of Britis% Mammals. >oyser- =ondon.

9 Mountain Landscape/ 4astoral

Management and Traditional 4ractices in the .orthern 4!renees 5France:
K.:>. #OtailiO
!EL1E D UM 8B9? #2 *, Maison de la ec%erc%e, Universit0 ToulouseDle Mirail, Toulouse, France

Introduction
#o$ntain pastoral landscapes represent in all of so$thern ,$rope an immense heritage- shaped by s$ccessi%e phases since the Neolithic era. They are at the same time an economic reso$rce- which is dif.c$lt to restore when it is degraded- a factor of biodi%ersity 7as m$ch botanical as fa$nistic8- and also a c$lt$ral heritage. These landscapes were b$ilt and maintained for cent$ries or millennia by an agrosil%o pastoral system integrating all the f$nctions of prod$ction and acti%ation of the reso$rces in the same places4 agric$lt$ral prod$ction- past$re- litter and man$re- gathering- charcoal- .rewood- framework and craft ind$stry. Today- in many regions- the crisis of li%estock farming and land abandonment in%ol%e dramatic en%ironmental changes- which are often %ery fast and threaten these landscapes. 3pread of fallow land and afforestation are the main effects- b$t pastoral degradation incl$des phenomena of decline- in partic$lar in heathlands. The contemporary management of these e'tensi%e lands threatened by abandonment is in%ol%ed today in a net of contradictions between- on the one hand- ideology of nat$re and conser%ation 7some seeing the past$res as a pristine landscape8- and on the other hand the willingness for management and economic de%elopment of the mo$ntain.) In the &rench >yrenees as in other mo$ntains-

the agropastoral landscapes e%ol%ed d$ring the last decades- b$t they are still relati%ely well preser%ed- especially in high mo$ntain areas- beca$se of the maintenance of li%estock and recent reorganiBation of modes of e'ploitation 7,ychenne:Niggel- .**/8. The reco%ery of the agropastoral landscapes is today a local consens$s- and the s$pport for some traditional practices is recogniBed as one of the essential tools for this p$rpose. We will present here the past and contemporary role of two great @gro$ps of practices? 7the management of the past$res by .re- and the management of the bocages and wooded past$res8- and the prospects for their f$t$re $se 7&ig. !.)8. From the 'istorical Crisis to 4recarious "evival: the 4resent Condition of

4astoralism in the French 4!renees The disappearance of the practices and traditional knowledge is closely related to the economic and demographic crisis that the >yrenees $nderwent more than a cent$ry < CAB International .**9. T%e #onservation of #ultural Landsca5es 7ed. #. Agnoletti8 Fig# 9#%# =ocality of the places disc$ssed in the te't.

ago. A$ral emigration began in the ) /*s in the eastern part of the chain 7as in all the &rench #editerranean mo$ntains8- b$t it only spread from the years ) *C) 0*- pro%oked by agric$lt$ral crises of the end of the )0th cent$ry. 1ntil the )0/*s- r$ral emigration mainly affected the poorest classes of the pop$lation4 peasants witho$t land- small artisans- and the workmen in metall$rgical ind$stries in decline. This emigra: tion and the losses of World War I had parado'ically little conseG$ence on the landscape dynamics beca$se the main farms were maintained. #ost of the great geographic and ethnographic in%estigations on the pastoral society were carried o$t d$ring this time 7Ca%aillLs- )0/*F =efeb%re- )0//F Che%alier)0".8- and aerial photographs of )06.C)06 offer the %ision of an agrosil%opastoral landscape still well maintained. The great change occ$rred after World War II- in the conte't of economic growth and de%elopment of ind$strial agric$lt$re between )06" and )0!". +$ring this period- !"M of the e'ploitations disappeared- in%ol%ing a landscape $phea%al witho$t eG$i%alent since the #iddle Ages. Howe%er- this e%ol$tion was far from being $niform- and each >yrenean departmente%en each %alley- presented speci.c characteris: tics. +epop$lation- land abandonment and spread of fallow were more accent$ated towards the east of the chain- and less dramatic and e%en $nknown in the west. In >yrOnOes:Orientales or AriLge there were many %illages with only one farmer- and many others witho$t any- whereas in >ays BasG$e there were still se%eral tens of stock:breeders witho$t estate- obliged to rent meadows on the plain in winter and mo$ntain past$res in s$mmer. The conte't of the maintenance of practices was th$s %ery different according to the %alleys and agropastoral systems. &rom )0!. a new period started in &rance marked by the prom$lgation of the law on the @pastoral de%elopment of the mo$ntain?- in partic$lar creating >astoral =and Associations 7Associations FonciIres 5astorales8 and >astoral Hro$ps 7!rou5ement 5astorauM8which were in the following decades the principal tools of the stock farming reorganiBation. The @policy of the mo$ntain? contin$ed to de%elop at the end of )0!*s-

s$pported by the beginnings of the ,$ropean policy of assistance for less:fa%o$red areas. In )0 "- the new law for the de%elopment of the mo$ntain led to an increased engagement of the local comm$nitiese%en when the Common Agric$lt$ral >olicy set $p agro:en%ironmental meas$res- which were %ery important for en%ironment and land management. In the prolongation of these %ario$s policies the agencies of pastoral de%elopment were set $p in each >yrenean department. These dynamics lead today to a relati%e stabiliBation- e%en to a re%i%al of farming- with maintenance of pastoral landscapes and with renewed attention to some traditional practices. Altho$gh the maintenance of mo$ntain farming- essential for the management of the landscape- has consens$s in &rance- that e%ol$tion remains fragile beca$se of the repeated crises of the meat market 7especially o%ine8 and of the $ncertainty related to the perspecti%es of the Common Agric$lt$ral >olicy. The n$mber of pastoral e'ploitations contin$es to decrease reg$larly.

The last general cens$s of agric$lt$re 731AIA >yrOnOes- .**.8 gi%es an o%er%iew of the c$rrent sit$ation of the >yrenees and e%ol$tions foreseeable in the years to come 7Table !.)8. It shows that the >yrenees are di%ided today into three Bones of pastoral economy4 R The eastern part 7A$de- >yrOnOes:Orientales8 where the agri:b$sinesses are %ery few- b$t with rather yo$ng farmers and a high le%el of G$ali.cation. The greater landscape changes took place in the past- and dynamics of reco%ery are beginning. The prod$ctions are primarily of bo%ine and o%ine meat. Traditional practices and knowledge can be considered to ha%e practically disappeared in these areas beca$se of the strong decrease and renewal of the farming pop$lation- and conseG$ent c$lt$ral change. Q The central part 7AriLge- Ha$te: Haronne- Ha$tes:>yrOnOes8- with comparati%ely n$mero$s agri:b$sinesses b$t of the old- little: G$ali.ed farmers and a low n$mber of yo$ng s$ccessors. O%ine and bo%ine herds for meat prod$ction largely $se the collecti%e past$res. +$e to the ageing and progressi%e disappearance of the stock:breeders- there are clear prospects for abandonment and fallow land spreading in decades to come. >ractices and knowledge are in the process of degradation and $neG$ally maintained according to %alleys. Q The western part 7>yrOnOes: AtlantiG$es8 has the most intensi%e and dynamic farming- with a great n$mber of b$sinesses 7half of the pastoral b$sinesses of the whole mo$ntain Bone8 and a high proportion of yo$ng and G$ali.ed farmers. #oor clearings and intensi.cation ha%e been carried o$t since the )09*s. >rod$ction is di%ersi.ed- mainly based on sheep milk and cheese- b$t also on bo%ines for meat and milk. The good social and c$lt$ral contin$ity 7especially in BasG$e Co$ntry8 has allowed traditional practices and knowledge to be maintained. What are the effects of these de%elopments on the mo$ntain pastoral landscapeW Their dynamics are a comple' phenomenon and dif.c$lt to e%al$ate at the >yrenean scale- e%en for recent decades. The in%entories a%ailable 7land registers- forest in%entories- general cens$s of agric$lt$re8 $se different typologies and methodologies for all that concerns @moors?- @fallows? and @waste

lands?- and cannot gi%e reliable information on dynamics nor e%en real s$rface areas. To get more details- one can try an approach $sing two so$rces4
6e$a t ments (f om east to )est) 3ude (y InI es? @ ient ales 3 iJ1e 4aute? :a onn e 4autes ? (y InI es (y InI es? 3tlanti 8ues Total ,um-e of $asto al e'$loitati ons 2%8 (/..H) 32% (...H) 92/ (1../H) 303 (.H) 1//9 (2/H) 2"/8 (/..%H) ,um-e of cattle units (7:F) 1290%9 (/.3H) 1%999. (%.1H) /09/.2 (1/..H) 10938/ (3."H) /.93.2 (1%.3H) 1.392/3 (...1H) +a me s of mo e than .0 yea s 31H 38H /2H .3H .0H 3.H

%018

2"89/9.

2/%%

).

The National &orest In%entory 7I&N8- which was repeated at least three times with inter%als of )* years in all the >yrenean departments since the end of the )09*s with a $niform typology.. It offers a

negati%e of the past$res- by G$antifying the growth of the woodlands in each @forest area? defined by the in%entory. In the >yrenees- one can note that the growth of the s$rface area of woodlands reaches on a%erage )C .M per decade. In some areas at the edge of the central >yreneeswhich are %ery wet and where the forest has dominated the landscape for a long time- the growth reaches $p to "M per decade./ Tree coloniBation in the $pper %alleys is m$ch slowerF the only dynamics are perceptible in the moors and past$res- for which the in%entory is not %ery reliable.6 In the western >yreneesthe dynamics are still %ery weakboth in the $pper %alleys and the low mo$ntains. .. The systematic st$dies which began from the pastoral s$r%ey of )000- to in%entory the past$res- and %ario$s research by scienti.c teams. These works gi%e detailed information on the pastoral en%ironment- b$t on the other hand the problem of contemporary and historical dynamics of the past$res remains %ery little in%estigated. In AriLgea .rst assessment of spatial dynamics was made on )/ pastoral $nitsF one co$ld note

that- according to the $nits- .*C "*M of the s$rface of the mo$ntain past$res s$ffered strong dynamics since the )0"*s- either by spontaneo$s afforestation or by scr$b coloniBation of the past$res. N$mero$s obser%ations in the central and eastern >yrenees 7in partic$lar by repeated photographs8 7#OtailiO and >aegelow- .**68 con.rm this dramatic e%ol$tionwhich is m$ch less prono$nced or absent in the western >yrenees. In synthesis- one can say that the e%o: l$tion of the pastoral landscape was dramatic in the >yrOnOes:Orientales and AriLge- in partic$lar in low and medi$m mo$ntains 7below )9** m8F the high mo$ntain past$res 7abo%e )9**C)!** m8 are more stable- b$t do not escape either from important changes d$ring the last decades. In the central >yrenees 7Ha$te:HaronneHa$tes:>yrOnOes8- signi.cant changes to$ched low and medi$m:siBed mo$ntains- while the high past$res remained rather stable $ntil now beca$se of the maintenance of a good pastoral press$re. In BOarn 7>yrOnOes: AtlantiG$es8- the good G$ality of the soil 7many past$res are on limey gro$nd8 and a hea%y pastoral press$rerelated to the cheese economy- made it possible to preser%e the pastoral landscapes $ntil the )0 *sF b$t a tendency for scr$b and broom coloniBation has de.nitely been perceptible since )* years ago. In the BasG$e mo$ntains- on the contrarystability seems the r$le in the $pper

past$res- beca$se of the maintenance of a %ery hea%y pastoral press$reboth o%ine and bo%ine 7it is the only part of the >yrenees where the o%ine li%estock increased beca$se of the strength of the dairy economy8. On the other hand- the hillsides of medi$m:siBed mo$ntains saw a contrasting de%elopment4 new clearings and c$lti%ations 7meadows and maiBe8 of the .atter areasres$lting in abandonment of the steep slopes- in%aded by dense stands of bracken and UleM.

The 'istorical "ole of Traditional 4ractices in the Construction of the 4!renean Landscape Fire/ the main tool for construction and management of agro pastoral landscapes Aesearch in en%ironmental history makes it possible today to highlight the m$ltiform and generaliBed role of .re in the constr$ction of the >yrenean mo$ntain landscapes 7&ig. !..8. The .rst e%idence of clearings by fire in $pper mo$ntains is fo$nd in

>,, m %-,,%7,, m +,,,++,, m +7,, m

Catalonia 7Cerdagne8 as of the Neolithic eratowards 6*** BC 7NanniLre et al.- .**)8F at the same time- slash and b$rn c$lti%ations appear on the northern central piedmont 7Halop et al..**.8. They intensify considerably towards the end of the Neolithic and the beginning of the BronBe Age- which represents the .rst great phase of creation of the past$res in all the >yrenees. As at this time- se%eral .re practices will coe'ist4 the .re of 5astoral clearing - by b$rning the edges or the whole woodlandsF the running .re for maintenance of the past$res 7which can easily lead to the clearing .re8F slas% and burn cultivation based $pon a long cycle of coppice b$rning- e%ery )" to /* years. It sho$ld be noted that maintenance by .re of sil%o:pastoral forests- in partic$lar the oak and beech stands of s$nny slopes- had to start at that time. The impact of .re intensi.es from the early #iddle Ages $p to the )6th cent$ry- a period of generaliBation of the agric$lt$ral and pastoral clearings- which will set $p the >yrenean soils. In the )6th cent$ry- cens$ses of pop$lation show that practically all the c$rrent >yrenean %illages e'ist 7a small n$mber will disappear d$ring the )"th cent$ry- while some others will appear d$ring the ) thC)0th cent$ries8- with already important pop$lations- eG$i%alent to those of the middle of the .*th cent$ry. After the demographic crisis of the end of the #iddle Ages- the last phase of constr$ction of the soils corresponds to the )9thC ) th cent$ries. #any o%ere'ploited forests disappear d$ring this periodF the past$ressystematically managed by .re- reach their greatest e'tent- and the woodlands e%ol%e into coppices or graBing forests managed by c$rrent .res- e'cept some high stands protected in the state or common forests 7#OtailiO- )009F Bonhrte et al.- .***8. The stabiliBation of the soils makes agric$lt$ral .re disappear grad$ally and the last clearings occ$r at the beginning of the )0th cent$ry." After a long contin$ity of

constr$ction of the soils and generaliBed practice of .re- a short phase of stability s$cceeds- which remains today in the local memory as the apogee of the @traditional? landscape. &ire is then primarily a management tool of pastoral landswell $nder control on acco$nt of the

ab$ndance of labo$r and the intensity of the agro:pastoral e'ploitation. All this was o%er as from the )0"*s4 the acceleration of r$ral emigrationthe abandonment of the land and the fast red$ction in the herds ca$se a rapid spread of fallow lands which standardiBe landscapes- increase the comb$stible biomass and make the nat$ral firebreaks disappear. The practice of .re then changes completely4 aerial photographs and statistics show the change from freG$ent b$rnings on small s$rface areas distrib$ted o%er the whole of the mo$ntain- to .res at wide inter%als%ery %ast and concentrated on the s$nny slopes which are easiest to b$rn 7#OtailiO- )0 )F &aerber- )009- .***8. In AriLge- for e'ample- the a%erage s$rface area b$rnt by .re increased between the )06*s and the )0 *s from "C ha to "* ha- while the n$mber of .res fell by half. The red$ction in the n$mber of stock: breeders also res$lted in a disappearance of the collecti%e practices and knowledge- worsened by the social changes affecting the shepherds- with fewer and fewer coming from the local pop$lation. &ormer practice was reg$lar- @when necessary?- and was made possible by a n$mero$s labo$r force and a constant presence in the past$resF today .re is $sed @when one can?according to the a%ailability of the farmers and their friends. This e%ol$tion of the practice was paralleled by a maDor c$lt$ral change 7Table !..8F $ntil the ) th cent$ry- one

can consider that .re pro.ted from a general social consens$s4 knowledge and standards were shared by all the mo$ntain dwellers- and lords and peasants had the same c$lt$re. &rom the )0th cent$ry- new standards and new scienti.c knowledge were emerging- carried o$t by the

engineers of the state administrations 7EauM et For^ts, &onts et #%auss0es8 and by the first agronomists or phytogeographers. They are contradictory to those of the >yrenean peasants and are opposed in partic$lar to the traditional practiceslike fire. This

sit$ation e%ol%es G$ickly to a prohibition- in fact- of the b$rning practices 7altho$gh b$rning remains legal and simply reg$lated8- which will bring the stockbreeders to clandestine practices and $ncontrolled fire. This tendency to prohibition and conflict is accent$ated d$ring the .*th cent$ry- in a conte't of disintegration of the mo$ntain society- increasing power of the administration and m$ltiplication of the social or instit$tional gro$ps inter%ening in mo$ntains. The practice of .re is bo$nd more and more to national or ,$ropean standardsin spite of the scienti.c rehabilitation in progress since the )0 *s. It is clear that there is an e%ol$tion towards an increased technical and legal framing of the practice- in spite of the efforts of the agents of de%elopment to manage it at the local le%el- on the basis of adapted traditional knowledge. One cannot e'cl$de either a ret$rn to strong reg$lations or prohibition.
Ti me &r om Ne olit hic to ) t h ce nt$ ry )0t h ce nt$ ry >ractices B$ilding of landscape4 slash and b$rn c$lti%ation 7essartsartig$es8clearing .re in forestspastoral .re in past$res and moors 3tabiliBatio n of landscapedisappeara nce of agric$lt$ral .repastoral .re e'cl$si%e Agro: pastoral crisis &allow lands spreading +egradatio n of common .re practices 1se of .re for global land manageme nt >otential dif.c$lties d$e to changes in local society2nowledg e Nernac$la r A$le s =oca l 3ocial actors >easant society

Oppositio n between local knowledg e and scienti.c knowledg e Crisis of local knowledg eincreasing power of technical and scienti.c knowledg e Adaptatio n of local knowledg eW

=oca l r$les %s. natio nal r$les Natio nal and ,$ro pean

3tate enginee rs and adminis trations

.*t h ce nt$ ry

#$ltipl e protago nists

.) st ce nt$ ry

,$ro pean W

#$ltipl e protago nists on ,$rope an scaleW

HeneraliB ation of prescribed

climate and %egetation changesW

b$rningW

The peasant forest: bocage and )ood pastures/ a pastoral design of the forests The $se of the forest as an essential element of the agro:pastoral system probably began at the same time as pastoralism 73iga$t- )0 !8. The lea%es of many trees pro%ide good fodder and are con%enient to $se4 before the scythe- c$tting branches was easier than mowing grass- storage was possible witho$t barns- and many trees ha%e persistent foliage by winter. The beechmasts and oak acorns are also %ery important reso$rces- mainly for pigs b$t also for sheep 7e%en for man8. Aecent archaeopastoral research shows that the farming and transh$mance of pigs in the oak and beech forests were already widespread in the BronBe Age in the BasG$e mo$ntains 7massif of Irati and Arbailles- for e'ample 98F this tradition remained

$ntil the )0th cent$ry- as in many other >yrenean %alleys 7Bigorre- A$re8.!

FraMinus eMcelsior is the best known forage tree- b$t the list of the ta'a $sed in the >yrenees is %ery long4 &o5ulus nigra-

&. italica-0 Quercus 5etraea- Q. 5yrenaicaQ. 5edunculata-)* Q. ileM 7for goats8- &runus avium- Tilia cordata- Alnus glutinosa- *aliMAcerF Abies alba was also bred for bo%ines and sheep-)) like Fagus sylvatica.). It is necessary- of co$rseto add #astanea sativa- which was not a fodder tree- b$t whose plantations constit$ted important graBing forests on lower slopes. #any types of foliage are $sed only after drying- beca$se they are considered too @strong? in a green state for the animals 7&o5ulus, FraMinus8. There is- $nfort$nately- little histori: cal doc$mentation on these practices d$ring the cent$ries when they were most widespread 7the )!th to )0th cent$ry8- when stock farming was $nder the permanent threat of the winter forage shortage- beca$se of the e'treme e'tension of the c$lti%ations to the detriment of the meadows. #ention appears only indirectly in the archi%es- when shortage crises led the stock:breeders to make reG$ests for c$tting branches in the forests r$led by the &orest Administration. )/ &oresters and agronomists regarded them as aberrations- ca$sed by the ins$f.ciency of the meadows- and did not gi%e any attention to themF only some a$thors ga%e an acco$nt of it. &irst is =o$is de &roido$r-

0formateur and !rand Ma_tre des for^ts in )99!- who %isited all the >yrenees and- parallel to his administrati%e and legal action- noted the agric$lt$ral as well as pastoral $ses. Th$s- he describes the pollard forests of the BasG$e Co$ntry- @tr$e orchards of oaks?- $sed for intensi%e breeding of pigsF generally- he protests against the practice of pr$ning which he considers too freG$ent- witho$t care and leading to the e'ha$stion of the trees. At the end of the )0th cent$ry- in ) 0- Henri de =apparent- agronomist and inspector of agric$lt$re- made a st$dy trip to the >yrenean past$resF being at %ariance with the opinions of this time- he D$sti.ed the pastoral $se of the forest and recommended e%en the transformation of the less prod$cti%e stands into @fodder coppices? 7=apparent- ) 0*8. One can .nd a similar analysis in the works of &eli' Briot on the pastoral economy of the Alps 7Briot- )0*!8F)6 he describes many sil%opastoral woodlands like fodder coppices of beech or alders- or pr$ned .r mi'ed with coppices- and analyses their pro.tability. The co$ntry forests had many other well:known $ses- like .rewood- and the prod$ction of charcoal- toolswooden shoes and frame timber. The demographic growth and the intensity of the e'ploitation d$ring the )!thC )0th cent$ries led to the disappearance of many forestsespecially in the areas with strong metall$rgical acti%ity 7AriLge and Catalonia8. In the %alleys with

predominating agropastoral economy 7Bigorre- BOarn8- the destr$ction was of less importance b$t the forest landscapes were deeply transformed4 generaliBation of coppices- of sparse forests with herbaceo$s $ndergrowth and of pollard trees.)" The practices of maintenance of syl%o:pastoral woodlands disappeared d$ring the .*th cent$ry- b$t m$ch of the graBed forests last to this day beca$se of the maintenance of a hea%y pastoral press$re and $se of .re4 in the Ha$tes: >yrOnOes- the &orest In%entory indi%id$aliBes a category @sparse forests?- which acco$nts for . M of total forest area.)9 #any wood past$res are still managed by .re 7&ig. !./8. In the BasG$e Co$ntry- the wood past$res and oak:pollard landscapes are still %ery widespread in all the hills and lower mo$ntains 7b$t pollarding is no longer practised8. >robably a long time after the constr$ction of the agrosil%opastoral forests- a second type of peasant forest was created4 the >yrenean bocage. Its forms are rather different from those of western &rance4 it is discontin$o$s and limited to soils with irrigated meadowsF barns are %ery n$mero$s- $p to one per plot. Henerally low fences 7)C)..* m8 pre%ent the passage of the animalssometimes stone:b$ilt b$t mainly %egetal 7#orylus, BuMus, #rat`gus, &runus, #ornus8associated with fodder trees. The branches of haBel are c$t e%ery year in winter and are $sed for basket: making and .rewood. Ashes s$rmo$nt

the haBel fence at inter%als of a few metres- formerly pr$ned e%ery 6C" years in A$g$stC3eptember- b$t many so$rces relate the collection of the lea%es e%ery year. In general- people bro$ght together branches and foliage to make faggots and stored them in the barns or in the plotsF sometimes it was e%en stored in the tree- beyond the reach of the cattle 7in Occitan4 la fullera, &ig. !.68 and gi%en to the animals thro$gho$t Kan$ary and &ebr$ary. The large branches of ash were $sed to make .rewood- fencesplates and tools 7cattle collars- rakesforks- etc.8. In the c$lti%ated soil 7cereals- potatoes- etc.8 the obligation of common graBing pre%ented the constr$ction of fences to allow free graBing after har%esting. The meadows were- on the other hand- for pri%ate $se- and it was important to protect them from the bordering herds from spring onwards and to maintain their owners? own cattle in winter.)!

Fig# 9#(# Winter b$rning of bracken and Brac%y5odium in a pastoral oakland- =a%edan 7Ha$tes:>yrOnOes8)006. 7K.>. #OtailO8.

The chronology of the constr$ction of the >yrenean bocage is not clear- and its origin- like all the other bocages- is dif.c$lt to know. Anthracological st$dies on the Hallo: Aoman forges of Ai%erenert 7Co$ser: ans- AriLge8 showed that- d$ring the )st cent$ry A+- charcoal was made $sing ta'a s$ch as #orylus&runus, Acer and .uglans. This does not pro%e the e'istence of a bocage- b$t re%eals a landscape with hedges and sparse woods. FraMinuswhich is the present key element- is present in the >yrenean pollen diagrams as early as the Neolithic period 7Halop et al.- .**.8- b$t the real importance of ash in the landscape is dif.c$lt to reconstr$ctbeca$se of the pr$ning- which pre%ents .owering and pollination. In the )!th cent$ry- some forest maps of the eformation re%eal a net of hedges and fences) and at the end of the ) th cent$ry there are dendrochronological e%idences of ash hedges in the 3panish >yrOnOes 7HomeB and &illat- )0 68. The most credible hypothesis is that the con: str$ction of bocage was probably parallel with the creation and pri%ate appropriation of the irrigated meadows d$ring the #iddle Ages and modern times- and with the rar:

efaction of forest reso$rces. This e%ol$tion is highlighted in Champsa$r 73o$thern Alps8 7Co$rt:>icon- .**/84 the beginning of the ash bocage is noted d$ring the #iddle Ages- and the greatest de%elopment takes place d$ring the )!th and ) th cent$ries. The latest increase of ash pollens in the diagrams corresponds to the cessation of pr$ning and the growth of trees d$ring the .*th cent$ry. This type of e%ol$tion can be seen in present times in Nepal- where recent deforestation and forest reg$lations ha%e limited access to woodlands and ind$ced the plantation of hedges for leaf fodder and .rewood 7Br$slO et al.- )00!8F in this s$btropical en%ironment- "9 ta'a are $sed.

Fig# 9#-# @=a f$llera?4 lea%es of FraMinus eMcelsior stored in the tree after pr$ning 7AriLge- )0".8. 7coll. Of.ce National des &orsts8.

Bet)een 'eritage and &evelopment: the 4recarious 0urvival of Traditional 4ractices in the 4!renees From peasant #re to prescribed burning The G$estion of the management of pastoral .res in the >yrenees showed a complete in%ersion d$ring the last )" years. &or a long time- .re was blamed for the degradation of past$res and forestsF the agents of the administration and the foresters tried to remo%e this @archaic? practice- or at least to reg$late it strictly. Howe%eraccording to the scienti.c research of the last .* years- which highlighted the logic and the role of pastoral .re- it is now recogniBed as a tool and not a constraint or a threat. The reha: bilitation e%en reached a point that was $nbelie%able .* years ago4 prescribed b$rning was of.cially incl$ded in the forest law of 0 K$ly .**) as a techniG$e for the pre%ention of forest .res. T%e logic of t%e 5ractice In the >yrenees- the maDority of the past$res are made $p of heathlandfern- broom and gorses- on poor and

acid s$bstrates- $nfa%o$rable for herbaceo$s %egetation. To ha%e a fodder reso$rce- the stock:breeders need periodic .re- b$rning scr$b and dry biomass and regenerating 7cleaning8 the grassland. The idea of cleanliness is closely related to the image of .re in the mo$ntain society4 when the mo$ntain is dirty- yo$ ha%e to clean it by .re 7Aibet- )0098F grass is clean and scr$b is dirty. This c$lt$ral logic of .re is based on a precise knowledge of the dynamics of the %egetation and its rhythms4 r$nning .res are practised d$ring the period of rest for the plants C in the a$t$mn or at the beginning of springF the d$ration of cycles is linked to the speed of growth and to pastoral press$re. The planning and technical management of b$rning is based on an intimate knowledge of the mo$ntain- of local climate and slope microclimates- of .re beha%io$r in general and in precise places. In each %illage there were skilled men- @.re leaders? who organiBed the b$rning when it co$ld be carried o$t of.cially or- in contrary cases- did it clandestinely 7#OtailiO- )0 )- )00 F &aerber- .***8. #ontem5orary decline of t%e 5ractice and 3no-ledge O%er the last "* years- the conseG$ences of r$ral emigration and pastoral abandonment

ha%e res$lted in a maDor change in the nat$re of >yrenean .re4 the past$res are fallowing- in partic$lar on the lower slopes close to the %illages- the comb$stible biomass increases- the former limits and landmarks are disappearing. We can say that the territory escapes to the stock:breeders- and by conseG$ence .re itself4 it no longer has the same beha%io$r- no longer stops at the $s$al places and spreads $n$s$ally far. The m$ltiplication of afforestationsof eG$ipment 7power lines- telephones- etc.8 and of to$rists? homes constit$te increasing .re risks.

In parallel- the mo$ntain society changed4 the n$mber of stock:breeders $nceasingly decreases- which makes the collecti%e control of b$rning more dif.c$lt- e%en improbable. The know:how disappears at the same time as the old .re leaders- or it does not e%ol%e and becomes $ns$ited to the new en%ironment. =astly- the power of the administration and other social gro$ps increases4 foresters- of co$rse- b$t also .remen- h$nters- agric$lt$ral agencies- policeecological associations- to$rists and @neo:r$ral? residents- etc. They constit$te special interest gro$ps and it becomes dif.c$lt for stock:breeders to maintain a less and less controlled practice- ca$sing increasing damageF they are becoming a minority in the co$ntry and they ha%e to take that into acco$nt.)0 The de%elopment of the local practices takes- today- appro'imately three forms in the >yrenees. In some %alleys- mainly in the west- in BasG$e Co$ntrythe stock:breeders are in great n$mber- the pastoral press$re is hea%y- and the traditional practices are maintained- which allows a local- traditional management of b$rning- which is relati%ely well controlled. In other %alleysthe absence of the control of past$res and fallows is accompanied by dangero$s indi%id$al practices- heirs of a long history of con.icts and clandestineness. This is the case- for e'ample- in some %alleys of AriLge- where indi%id$al stock: breeders and pensioners are desperately b$rning @to clean the mo$ntain? in abandoned Bones- witho$t concern for the conseG$ences. In the maDority of other cases- the stock:breeders who need the .re to manage the past$res are recepti%e to a transformation of its organiBation. It is in this general conte't that the e'periments of management of b$rning ha%e de%eloped o%er the last )* years- in all the >yrenean departments- in the form of technical gro$ps or of local committees. They represent a tr$e r$pt$re in the history of the practice- a test to modify at the same time the social and technical patterns. From burning to land management The forms of dialog$e and management of b$rning are different according to departmental conte'ts in the chain- and are mainly of two types4 on the one hand- dialog$e and realiBation of b$rning by a professional teamF on the other hand dialog$e and organiBation of fires by the local people. The key word remains always that of dialog$e- a depart$re from the preceding repressi%e attit$des of administrations 7#OtailiO and &aerber- .**/8. In the >yrOnOes:Orientales- the local pastoral agency set $p a specialiBed team in )0 !- in order to deal with b$rnings necessary for stock:breeders 7=ambert and >ar:main- )00*8. It was considered that the le%el of risk was too high in the #editerranean en%ironment- and local technical capabilities too limited- to lea%e the management of .res to the stock:breeders alone. Here the traditional practice was banished. The team- made $p of pastoralists and foresters- collects the reG$ests for b$rning- disc$sses them with the local partners- prepares

b$rnings and carries them o$t- in collaboration with $nits of firemen. This organiBation took ad%antage of the #editerranean conte't and the policy of forest:.re pre%ention. 3$ch .re management is today de%eloping in all the &rench #editerranean Bone where- according to departments- foresters or .remen organiBe b$rning campaigns- either with a pastoral obDecti%e or for pre%ention of forest .res 7>A3T1#- )00 8. In the remainder of the >yrenees- to take technical responsibility for all the b$rnings wo$ld be $nrealistic4 on the one hand- the stock:breeders are still n$mero$s and wo$ld not agree to be e'cl$ded from the management of their landsF on the other hand- the %ery great n$mber of .res necessary each year in the %ario$s %alleys wo$ld make impossible their realiBation by a professional team. In the Ha$tes:>yrOnOes- since )0 0- the choice was that of local committees 7at the le%el of the canton or the %alley8- allowing .rst the dialog$e between all the partners. In these committees- the %ario$s local protagonists present their points of %iew and disc$ss the bene.ts or risks of b$rnings- setting $p Bones of land and .re Bones. One of the essential actions of the committees remains pro%ision of local information on reg$lation and techniG$es. The obDecti%e is the end of clandestine b$rnings and the re%italiBation of collecti%e .re practices- $sing traditional knowledge and modern tools 7drip torch- water.re:beater8. Accordingly- .re m$st become again an agric$lt$ral tool like any other. The progressi%e installation of the committees in the mo$ntain cantons allows a slow b$t relati%ely s$re diff$sion of this new collecti%e management of .re.

In AriLge- a b$rning committee was set $p at the le%el of the whole department. >arallel to the $s$al work of dialog$e and information- the committee led to the constit$tion of a semi:professional b$rning team- made $p of shepherds. The team was created based on the e%idence that- in many casesthe local protagonists needed help beca$se they were not n$mero$s eno$gh or no longer had the know:how to control their b$rnings. After . years- the team had to stop- thro$gh lack of f$nds- and the .remen took o%er the programme againF b$t- $nfort$nately- they do not ha%e appropriate relations with stock: breeders. At the present time- the problem of .re management and e%ol$tion of practices has still not been worked o$t. On the one hand- the stock:breeders organiBed within >astoral =and Associations or >astoral Hro$pings generally changed their practices by integrating .re in the c$rrent and lawf$l management. Howe%er- on the other hand- the clandestine practices were not controlled and contin$e to ca$se important scr$b and forest .res. The >yrOnOes:AtlantiG$es represents a partic$lar problem beca$se the department incl$des as many stock:breeders as the remainder of the >yrenees. That has two important conseG$ences. &irst- the n$mber of farmers in only one comm$ne can be eG$i%alent to that of a whole %alley in another departmentF the problems of dialog$e and the potential con.icts are th$s m$ltiplied. 3econdlythe reG$ests for b$rnings ha%e also m$ltiplied C in some comm$nes the mayors recei%e 9* to * declarations of b$rning per ann$m- which is eG$i%alent to se%eral cantons in the neighbo$ring departments. &$rthermore- traditional practices are still %ery m$ch ali%e- and the farmers are not generally disposed to accepting criticism. A .rst attempt at installation of a b$rning committee was made in )0 0- in the %alley of 3o$le 7BasG$e Co$ntry8- based on a similar model to the cantonal committee of the Ha$tes:>yrOnOes. Howe%er- the e'periment failed beca$se of the lack of f$nds and contin$ity in the animation of the committee- b$t also of contradictions between the 6/ comm$nes of a %ery large and pop$lated %alley. The committee also enco$ntered a strong inertia of the local farmers- who think they ha%e nothing to learn abo$t .re from technicians. Other actions were then started in BOarn in )006C)00" 7Aspe %alley8- where a local reG$est for management of .res was better e'pressed. After . years- the .rst assessment highlighted good participation of shepherds and stock:breeders- and of the mayors- a change in the practices and good control of b$rnings. The second time- this commission pro.ted from a local agro:en%ironmental meas$re 7@>atrimonial management of pastoral landscapes and protection of the bear in the %alleys of BOarn?8 incl$ding the management of nat$ral risk- within which prescribed b$rning was .nanced 7)00 C.**.8. In spite of that- no dialog$e was really de%eloped at the departmental le%el d$ring all these years. It will be started again only after the shock of the

dramatic accidents in .*** and .**.. On )* &ebr$ary- .***- eight hikers on the HA)* trail were trapped by a .re in the %alley of ,stOrenn$by in BasG$e Co$ntry C .%e of them died and two others were serio$sly wo$nded. The site of b$rning was perfectly banal for the BasG$e mo$ntains4 a steep slope with dense grass: land of Brac%y5odium 5innatum- freG$ently b$rned- where the .re reached a mortal %elocity for to$rists witho$t knowledge of .re beha%io$r. It sho$ld be noted that the stock:breeders regard themsel%es as the only inhabitants of the mo$ntains 7especially in winter8 and b$rnings are $s$ally started witho$t any speci.c preca$tion or informationF the stock:breeders of ,stOrenn$by are indifferent to the welfare of passing to$rists. The gra%ity of the accident and the G$estioning of the practices which $nderlay it ca$sed a shock in the departmentrestarting the disc$ssions on the management of b$rnings and the creation of a departmental committee.

In this conte't another catastrophe occ$rred in &ebr$ary .**.. After se%eral weeks of winter dryness and snow melting- there was a spell of strong- hot so$therly wind o%er the whole of the >yrenees. On / &ebr$ary .**. the ma'im$m temperat$re in the lower %alleys reached . tC- while on the high slopes the winds reached *C)** kmIh. =ogically- no b$rnings sho$ld ha%e been carried o$t $nder these conditions C any control is impossible with winds e'ceeding .*C/* kmIh- and the e'treme dryness of the %egetation meant that the moist$re which normally stops the .res in the thalwegs or on the northern slopes was absent. In spite of that- many stock:breeders started b$rnings in sit$ations where they were dif.c$lt or impossible to control. In the >yrOnOes: AtlantiG$es- especially in BasG$e Co$ntry- $s$ally the wettest area of the chainthe damage was the most se%ere4 more than "*** ha of forests were b$rned- in sectors ne%er to$ched before 7high beech stands of northern slopes8. The impact on the forests was th$s considerable- e%en if in the maDority of the cases the .re was an $nder:wood .reF b$rned woodlands lose any commercial %al$e- and the losses were estimated at ). million e$ros. An old farmer was trapped by a .re and died. The gra%ity of the conseG$ences again re:ignited the debate in fa%o$r of departmental inp$t and the creation of local committees in .**)C.**/- $nder the care of the Association of #o$ntain #ayors and of the Chamber of Agric$lt$re. The principal effect of these repeated serio$s accidents was to highlight the de.: ciencies of traditional b$rning practices in BasG$e Co$ntry. >arado'ically- the risks are increasing in a conte't of intensi%e pastoralism- which is confronted to changing a social and biological en%ironment. &or the years to come- the challenge of the committees is to con%ince the stock:breeders to adapt their practices and organiBe b$rnings better. The rehabilitation of .re d$ring the last .* years was partic$larly spectac$lar in the #editerranean area- where it led to the integration of prescribed b$rning into .re pre%ention as a clearance techniG$e associated with stock:breeding. &rom )0 0- the creation of the >rescribed B$rning Network- an association of agronomists- .remen- foresters and pastoral agents- led to a technical framework of b$rning which made it acceptable for the forest ser%ices 7>A3T1#- )00 8. The &orest =aw of 0 K$ly .**) con.rmed this de%elopment by recogniBing the prescribed b$rning as a techniG$e for .re pre%ention. Howe%er- this @c$lt$ral re%ol$tion? at the le%el of the &orest Administration does not resol%e the problem of the traditional .re. The @prescribed b$rning? is becoming an adminis: trati%e standard- with legal codification corresponding to a %ery technical organiBation with the obDecti%e of forest:.re pre%ention. These constraining r$les are s$itable for the b$rning teams of the #editerranean area- made $p of foresters and .remen who are hea%ily eG$ipped- and who carry o$t a small n$mber of b$rnings e%ery year in high:risk Bones and $se the technical model

of American prescribed b$rning. 1nfort$nately- it is impossible to apply this model to the practice of the shepherds and stock:breeders in the >yrenees. H$ndreds or tho$sands of b$rnings are made e%ery year- and in this case the main obDecti%e is responsibility- obser%ance of the legal r$les and good technical management of the .re.

There is th$s a risk of the practice of .re again being limited by new technical standards- e%en prosec$tions if new serio$s accidents happen. Now the conditions for s$ch accidents are becoming more freG$ent- especially if the c$rrent climatic e%ol$tion ca$ses more freG$ent winter dryness. The practice of pastoral b$rning th$s arri%es at a historic t$rning:point- similar to the disappearance of the agric$lt$ral $ses of .re .** years ago. The change of the second half of the .*th cent$ry seems irredeemable and will oblige the stock: breeders and shepherds to adapt their ancestral practice and integrate new technical and social arrangements. The pastoral logic of .re m$st be integrated today in a global mo$ntain land: management policy. The precarious future of the bocage What is the c$rrent e%ol$tion of bocage management in the &rench >yreneesW The pr$ning of the ashes contin$es in some %alleys 7AriLge- in some comm$nes of Co$seransF Ha$tes:>yrOnOesin =a%edan- %alley of BarLgesF >yrOnOes: AtlantiG$es- in the %alleys of Aspe- Ossa$- 3o$le and CiBe8- where the collection of leaf fodder is relict. In most of the %alleys- it is e'tinct- e'cept d$ring dro$ghts- and pr$ning is practised mainly for the .rewood.* and a few crafts. The

chronology of disappearance of the practices is clearly shown by photographs and ethnographic in%estigation4 d$ring the years )0"*C )09*- the bocage was still b$sily $sed and the landscape well maintained in all the %alleys. The decline began d$ring the )0!*s- b$t at the time of the dro$ght of )0!9- the ashes were pr$ned again for forage in all the >yrenean %alleys- e%en where the practice was already e'tinct. At the time of the dro$ght of .**/- in spite of a great forage shortage- the farmers preferred to b$y costly hay- and the ashes were pr$ned only in the few %alleys where the practice is still ali%e. In some places- farmers simply

c$t whole trees into the meadows to allow breeding. The change of working conditions 7increase in the siBe of the farms and of the herdslack of time8 and the increased integration of intensi%e agric$lt$re e'plain this disaffection. .) The decline of the practice of pr$ning occ$rred especially in the )0 *s- b$t reco%ery attempts took place as of the )00*s. At that time- management and restoration of r$ral landscapes became stakes for the local elect and the agencies of de%elopment. They were based on a s$ccession of proce: d$res and .nancings- national or ,$ropean4 ,$ropean agro: en%ironmental meas$res- from )0 "to maintain practices compatible with good en%ironmental management 7past$re and mowing- b$t also b$rning in some cases8F the @Hrass Hrant? in )00/F A$ral Areas #anagement &$nds in )00"F and Territorial ,'ploitation Contracts in )00 - replaced in .**. by the 3$stainable Agric$lt$re Contracts... The conser%ation of the bocage remains one of the principal obDecti%es in the maDority of the proDects. Henerally- these meas$res are $sed to compensate for the lack of local labo$r by .nancing the realiBation of work by specialiBed companies. This is what occ$rred in the hamlet of =aspe- in the comm$ne of 3entein 7Co$serans- AriLge8 C $ntil abo$t )00*C)00"- the bocage was still partic$larly well managed and all its $ses maintained by two familiesespecially the old people. This

landscape was considered as an important heritage in a %alley where fallows were G$ickly spreading. &rom )00"- a programme of fence b$ildingmaintenance of the byways and ash pr$ning was $ndertaken by local pastoral gro$ps- and mainly carried o$t by one stock:breeder- helped by a company 7&ig. !."8. The principal problem on this le%el remains to obtain reg$lar .nancing to care for the bocage at least e%ery 6C" years. Conclusion The traditional practices in the >yrOnOes are today in a parado'ical sit$ation. &or the maDority they are clearly disappearing- b$t they are also percei%ed as a c$lt$ral heritage indispensable for the maintenance of the landscape of past$res- bocage and terraces. In the case of the bocage- the practices are disappearing- b$t the social the re%erse4 the practice is considered as consens$s on the landscape mo%es towards @too ali%e? by certain people- its social an ass$mption of management by the local acceptance is not g$aranteed and it is neccomm$nities- in forms related to agro:en%i:essary to adapt the b$rning to a new social ronmental policies. In the case of .re- it is and biological en%ironment.

Fig# 9#># =andscape of >yrenean bocage in winter4 hamlet and barns of =aspe- in the Biros %alley 7AriLge8.**.. 7K.>. #OtailiO8.

.otes ). The c$rrent con.ict o%er the reintrod$ction of large predators 7bear and wolf8 characteriBes this opposi: tion between the perceptions of the mo$ntainF e%en the Nat$ra .*** proDect is a case of con.ict- beca$se the local elect percei%e it as a loss of control of the territory. .. National &orest In%entory 7see www.ifn.fr8. AriLge4 )09 - )0! )00*F Ha$tes:>yrOnOes4 )0!6- )0 9)00!F Ha$te:Haronne4 )0!.- )0 !.***F >yrOnOes:AtlantiG$es4 )0!))0 6- )00". /. &or e'ample- in the Co$serans 7AriLge8 forests increased between )0! and )00* from /9-.0* ha to 6*-"0! ha. On the northern edge of Ha$tes:>yrOnOes- between )0 9 and )00!- forests increased from "/-"*. ha to ""-/)6 ha. 6. The typology of woodlands is homogeneo$s from one in%entory to another- b$t this is not the case for moors- past$res- wastelands- etc.- and s$ch data are not $sef$l for o$r p$rpose. ". There is e%idence of clearings at the beginning of the .*th cent$ry in forest archi%es and ancient photo: graphs- b$t they are relict practices. 9. Collecti%e research proDect @>alaeo:

en%ironment and anthropisation dynamics in BasG$e mo$ntain?.***C.**/- coordinated by +. Halop. !. At the end of the )0th cent$ry- in the %alley of Bareilles 7A$re8- herds of pigs were assembled for breeding in the oak lands of the state forest 7#OtailiO- )0 98. . The bocage with &. nigra still e'ists in Cerdagne and the 3panish %alleys- b$t is not maintained. 0. &o5ulus italica was the last bocage tree to arri%e in the >yrenees. Coming from central Asia- the .rst clones were imported by the Aoyal Harden at the end of the ) th cent$ry. Its s$ccess was %ery G$ick- beca$se of its m$ltiples $ses- and it was one of the maDor elements of the >yrenean landscape d$ring the )0th cent$ry. The poplar bocage declined in &rance after the )0"*s- b$t it is still rather important in the 3panish >yrenees. )*. These three ta'a make $p the BasG$e pollard landscape. )). So$ng .rs still constit$te an $nder: wood past$re for bo%ines. ).. The beech seedlings are bred d$ring the spring. In the =ig$rian Apennines- pollard beeches were $sed for fodder $ntil the )0"*s 7#oreno and >oggi- )00 8. )/. Archi%es and other so$rces are n$mero$s in Italy and the comparison can help $s 7#oreno and >oggi- )009)00 8. )6. Briot- an atypical @pastoralist forester?- was one of the fo$nder members of the 3ociety of Alpine ,conomy 7)0)/8- which has e%ol%ed into the c$rrent &rench &ederation of

#o$ntain ,conomy. )". This woodland type- m$ch e'tended thro$gho$t all of so$thern ,$rope 7see the dehesa and montado8 was concept$aliBed as @sa%annas? by Aackham 7)0098. )9. I&N- Ha$tes:>yrOnOes- )009. )!. In some %alleys- common graBing was practised in the pri%ate meadows from October to #arch 7Che%alier)0".8. ) . Bethmale Nalley4 Arch. +Opart. Ha$te:Haronne- sOrie B- AOformation de Comminges- *C/ 7)99 8. )0. 3ome mayors of mo$ntain comm$nes- who are townsmen in the co$ntryside- simply forbade the b$rnings. .*. It is interesting to note that the bocage e'ploitation prod$ces two: thirds of the .rewood of the #idi: >yrenees region. .). The ash fodder is still well $sed in the 3panish %alleys and it is possible to .nd some practices- like the @f$llera?- which ha%e disappeared in &rance. ... In &rench4 &rime = lF%erbe, Fonds de !estion de lFEs5ace ural, #ontrat Territorial dFEM5loitation, #ontrat dFAgriculture 1urable.

"eferences Bonhrte- K.- +a%asse- B.- +$bois- C.Halop- +.- IBard- N. and #OtailiOK.>. 7.***8 Histoire de l?,n%ironnement et cartographie d$ temps dans la moitiO est des >yrOnOes4 po$r $ne uchrono: chorologiev. In4 Barr$O:>astor- #. and Bertrand- H. 7eds8 Les Tem5s de lFEnvironnement. >resses 1ni%ersitaires d$ #irailTo$lo$se- pp. "*)C")". Briot- &. 7)0*!8 2ouvelles atudes sur lFaconomie Al5estre. Berger:=e%ra$lt- >aris. Br$slO- T.- &ort- #. and 3madDa- K. 7)00!8 1n paysage de bocage. #asyam et le hamea$ de 2olang. In4 3madDaK. 7ed.8 +istoire et 1evenir des &aysages en +imalaya. >arisCNA3 ,ditions- pp. 6 "C".!. Ca%aillLs- H. 7)0/*8 La )ie &astorale et Agricole dans les &yr0n0es des !aves, de lFAdour et des 2estes. Colin>aris. Che%alier- #. 7)0".8 La )ie +umaine dans les &yr0n0es Ari0geoises. HOnin- >aris. Co$rt:>icon- #. 7.**/8 Approche palynologiG$e et dendrochronologiG$e de la mise en place d$ paysage dans le Champsa$r 7Ha$tes:Alpes- &rance8 U l?interface des dynamiG$es nat$relles et des dynamiG$es sociales. ThOmatiG$e-

mOthodologie et premiers rOs$ltats. Arc%0ologie du Midi M0di0val .)- .))C..6. ,ychenne:Niggel- C. 7.**/8 Trente ans de relance pastorale pastorale en AriLge4 le temps de la mat$ritO. =es enseignements de l?enG$ste pastorale de )000 et d$ recensement agricole de .***. *ud/Luest Euro50en )9- "C)6. &aerber- K. 7)0098 Hestion par le fe$ et impact s$r la di%ersitO 4 le cas des friches s$r les anciennes terrasses de c$lt$re dans les >yrOnOes centrales. .ATBA H.ournal dFAgriculture To5icale et de BotaniPue A55liPu0eJ- .!/C.0/. &aerber- K. 7.***8 +e l?incendie destr$cte$r U $ne gestion raisonnOe de l?en%ironnement4 le rrle d$ fe$ dans les dynamiG$es paysagLres dans les >yrOnOes centrales frannaises. *ud/ Luest Euro50en !- 90C *. Halop+.- Nanniere- B. and &ont$gne- #. 7.**.8 H$man acti%ities and .re history since 6"** BC on the northern slope of the >yrenees4 a record from C$g$ron 7central >yrenees- &rance8. In4 ThiOba$lt- 3. 7ed.8 #%arcoal Analysis. Met%odological A55roac%es, &alaeoecological esults and ,ood Uses. &roceedings of

II Intern. Meeting of Ant%racology, >aris- .***. BA

International *eries )*9/- 6/C").

HomeB- +. and &illat- &. 7)0 68 1tilisation d$ frsne comme arbre fo$rrager dans les >yrOnOes de H$esca. In4 =aBareK.K.- #arty- A. and +aDoB- A. 7eds8 ,cologie et biogOographie des milie$' montagnards et de ha$te altit$de . 1ocuments dFacologie &yr0n0enne IIICIN- 6 )C6 0. Hro%e- A.T. and Aackham- O. 7.**)8 T%e 2ature of Mediterranean Euro5e. An Ecological +istory . Sale 1ni%ersity >ress- New Ha%en- p. / 6. =ambert- B. and >armain- N. 7)00*8 =es brwlages dirigOs dans les >yrOnOes:Orientale. +e la rOgOnOration des pZt$rages d?altit$de U la protection des forsts. evue ForestiIre Franbaise- T.6.- pp. )6*C)"". =apparent- H. de 7) 0*8 Noyage d?Ot$de dans les ha$ts pZt$rages de la chaxne des >yrOnOes. LFAvenir, .ournal de lFAriIge, .! April to )) 3eptember ) 0*. =efeb%re- Th. 7)0//8 Les Modes de )ie dans les &yr0n0es AtlantiPues Lrientales. Colin- >aris. #OtailiO- K.>. 7)0 )8 Le Feu &astoral dans les &yr0n0es #entrales. To$lo$se- CNA3 ,ditions. #OtailiO- K.>. 7)0 98 =es chsnaies des montagnes pyrOnOo:cantabriG$es- $n OlOment forestier d$ systLme agro pastoral. evue !0og &yr0n0es *ud/Luest- "!7/8- /)/C/.6. #OtailiO- K.>. 7)0098 =a forst d$ %illage et la forst charbonnOe. =a mise en place des paysages forestiers dans la chaxne pyrOnOenne. In4 Ca%aciocchi- 3. 7ed.8 LFuomo e la foresta, secc. "IIID")III. Istit$to +atini- Atti della .*t settimana di st$di- >rato- C)/ mai )00". =e #onnier- &lorence- pp. /0!C6... #OtailiO- K.>. 7)00 8 =e sa%oir:brwler dans les >yrOnOes. +e ul?Ocob$agev a$ ubrwlage dirigOv- la transforma tion d?$ne pratiG$e traditionnelle en o$til de gestion de l?espace. In4 Ao$sselle- A. 7ed.8 Monde ural et +istoire des *ciences en M0diterran0e. 1u bons sens = la logiPue. CAHI3#- >1>- pp. )9"C)!0. #OtailiO- K.>. and &aerber- K. 7.**/8. \$inBe annOes de gestion des fe$' pastora$' dans les >yrOnOes4 d$ blocage U la concertation. *ud/Luest Euro50en )9- /!C".. #OtailiO- K.>. and >aegelow- #. 7.**68 =and abandonment and the spreading of the forest in the ,astern &rench >yrOnOes in the )0th to .*th cent$ries. In4 #aBBoleni- 3. et al. 7eds8 ecent 1ynamics of t%e Mediterranean )egetation and Landsca5e. Kohn Wiley V 3ons- Chichester- 12- pp. .)0C./9. #oreno- +. and >oggi- H. 7)0098 3toria delle risorse boschi%e nelle montagne mediterranee4 modeli di inter pretaBione per le prod$Bioni foraggiere in regime cons$et$dinario. In4 Ca%aciocchi- 3. 7ed.8 LFuomo e la Foresta, secc. "IIID")III. Istit$to +atini- Atti della .*t settimana di st$di- >rato- C)/ mai )00". =e #onnier- &lorence- pp. 9/"C9"/. #oreno- +. and >oggi- H. 7)00 8 Identi.cation des pratiG$es agro:syl%o:pastorales et des sa%oirs nat$ralistes loca$' 4 mise U contrib$tion de l?Ocologie historiG$e des sites. In4 A. Ao$sselle 7ed.8 Monde ural et +istoire des *ciences en M0diterran0e. 1u bons sens = la logiPue. Centre de Aecherches HistoriG$es s$r les 3ociOtOs #Oriodionales- >resses 1ni%ersitaires de >erpignon- >1>- pp. )")C)9/. #oreno- +. and Aaggio- O. 7)00*8 The making and fall of an intensi%e pastoral land $se system in the east ern =ig$ria 7(NIC(I(th c.8. In4 #aggi- A.- Nisbet- A. and Barker- H. 7eds8 T%e Arc%eology of &astoralism in *out%ern Euro5e. Ai%ista di st$di lig$ri- =NI- )00*- pp. )0/C.)!. >A3T1# 7)00 8 2um0ro s50cial ZBrclages dirig0s[. A&>- ")C".- ).*. Aackham- O. 7)0098 &orest history of co$ntries witho$t m$ch forest4 G$estions of conser%ation and sa%anna. In4 Ca%aciocchi- 3. 7ed.8 LFuomo e la Foresta, secc. "IIID")III. Istit$to +atini- Atti della .*t settimana di st$di- >rato- C)/ mai )00". =e #onnier- &lorence- pp. .0!C/.9. Aibet- N. 7)0098 =e fe$ pastoral dans le >arc Nat$rel des Nolcans d?A$%ergne. evue dFAuvergne- "/0- )*/C))0. 3iga$t- &. 7)0 !8 =?arbre fo$rrager en ,$rope4 rrle et O%ol$tion des techniG$es. In4 La For^t et lFalevage en 0gion M0diterran0enne Franbaise. Fourrages- no. hors sOrie- 6"C"6. 31AIA >yrOnOes 7.**.8 =es e'ploitations pastorales pyrOnOennes- entre rOsistance et dynamisme. Agreste- +onnOes no. 0- p. 6. NanniLre- B.- Halop- +.- Aend$- Ch. and +a%asse- B. 7.**)8 &e$ et pratiG$es agro:pastorales dans les >yrOnOes: Orientales4 le cas de la montagne d?,n%eitg 7Cerdagne- >yrOnOes:Orientales- &rance8. *ud/Luest Euro50en )).0C6..

* Maintaining Cultural and .atural Biodiversit!

in EuropeAs Economic Centre and 4eripher!
>. Angelstam
Faculty of Forest *ciences, *c%ool for Forest Engineers, *-edis% University of Agricultural *ciences, *3inns3atteberg, *-eden

Introduction
,$rope is located in the so:called Old World. This means that the history of economic $se of renewable nat$ral reso$rces is %ery long. In principle- the nat$ral potential %egetation of terrestrial ecosystems in ,$rope is forest and woodland 7e.g.- #ayer- )0 6F Nera- .***8. Howe%er- in most of this continent h$mans ha%e been %irt$ally e%erywhere at all times since the last glaciation. Neolithic agric$lt$re entered so$theast ,$rope abo$t *** years ago- and co%ered all of central ,$rope /*** years later 7Nos and #eekes- )0008. This means that most landscapes can be %iewed as a total phenomenon where man and the physical landscape are integrated based on the $se of arable land- grasslands and trees 7Angelstam- )00!F Antrop)00!- .**"F Kongman- .**.8. Broadly speaking- the maintenance of biodi%ersity encompasses two main %isions- depending on the history of the act$al landscape. The .rst %ision in%ol%es biodi%ersity in forest ecosystems and with e'plicit reference to the concept of nat$ralness 7>eterken- )009F Aametsteiner and #ayer- .**68 incl$ding nat$ral dist$rbance regimes at the scales of stands and landscapes 7Angelstam and 2$$l$%ainen- .**68. In spite of the ambig$ity of the nat$ralness concept 7,gan and Howell- .**)8- it is ob%i o$s that compositional- str$ct$ral and f$nctional forest biodi%ersity indicators sho$ld represent elements fo$nd in nat$rally dynamic forests 7Noss- )00*8. This %ision dominates the boreal forest management- is widespread in mo$ntain forests and to some e'tent implicit in near:to:nat$re sil%ic$lt$re and e%en plantation forestry 7Hrabherr et al., )00 F #ason- .**/F Angelstam and +PnB:Bre$ss- .**68. The second %ision is that of the preind$strial agric$lt$ral landscape- which is an important aspect of ,$rope?s c$lt$ral heritage 7Aackham and #oody- )009F &raser Hart- )00 F Agnoletti- .***F Kongman.**.F Antrop- .**"F 3a$berer et al.- .**68. This traditional c$lt$ral landscape incl$des a wide range of more or less wooded %egetation types ranging from wooded grasslands with nat$ral forest elements to ancient forms of agroforestry- incl$ding agric$lt$re- animal h$sbandry- and with tree manage ment by pollarding- lopping and coppicing. Hence- altho$gh in.$enced by h$man land $se for a %ery long time- the pre:ind$strial c$lt$ral landscape contained str$ct$ral elements s$ch as dead wood and large old trees that are typically fo$nd in nat$rally dynamic forests. As a conseG$ence- rem
< CAB International .**9. T%e #onservation of #ultural Landsca5es 7ed. #. Agnoletti8

nants of pre:ind$strial c$lt$ral landscape pro%ide a ref$ge for many species adapted to a pristine or near: nat$ral forest en%ironment. Howe%er- %ery rapid changes in land:$se patterns d$e to socio:economic changes- especially since World War II 7e.g.- Angelstam et al., .**/aF #ik$siynski et al., .**/F Bender et al., .**"8- means that the maintenance of biodi%ersity and other %al$es are no longer a$tomatically pro%ided as a by:prod$ct of traditional land $se 7%on Haaren- .**.8. Th$s- most of the ,$ropean continent and especially the Atlantic and lowland broad:lea%ed decid$o$s forest regions has been se%erely altered thro$gho$t history 7Heckscher- )06)F +arby- )0"9F #ayer- )0 68. Today- reference landscapes for the %isions of nat$ral forests and pre:ind$strial c$lt$ral landscapes are $s$ally con.ned to regions in the periphery of economic de%elopment. The BialowieBa forest in north:east >oland is one of the few remaining reference areas for lowland temperate forests 7Nera- .***8. ,%en if this transformation of landscapes started a long time ago- the rate of change increased with the ad%ent of the ind$strial re%ol$tion 7+arby- )0"9F Hood- )0068. Already %on Thenen 7) !"8 noted that the type and intensity of land $se was related to the distance from the market. +$ring abo$t .** years of grad$ally intensi.ed land $se- the acc$m$lated h$man footprint of a growing ind$strialiBed pop$lation of ,$rope has res$lted in replicated gradients in landscape alteration from the centres of economic de%elopment into more remote regions 7#ik$siynski and Angelstam- )00 - .**68. The demand for timber- grain and other primary prod$cts was satis.ed by import from the periphery of the spreading ind$strial re%ol$tion 7H$nst)0 08. The first region to be e'ploited was the North 3ea coast- in the )9th to )!th cent$ries. ,%ent$ally the e'ploitation reached Aomania and 1kraine for grain in the ) th to )0th cent$ries 7>owelson- )0068and A$ssia for timber as a grad$ally spreading frontier de%eloped from the ) thC.*th cent$ries 7BDPrkl$nd- )0 6F Aedko and Babich- )00/8. The e'ploitation of these reso$rces was depend ent on the de%elopment of facilities for transportation of b$lky prod$cts s$ch as railways and roads 7T$rnock- .**)F Angelstam et al., .**6a8. As an e'ample- H$ngarian e'ports were initially restricted to li%e cattle- herded to the destination co$ntries $ntil the mid:)0th cent$ry when the de%elopment of railways reached H$ngary and grain replaced cattle for e'port 7H$nst- )0 08. In general- s$ch grad$al landscape changes ha%e e%ent$ally negati%ely affected the %iability of pop$lations of specialiBed species 7e.g. T$cker and Heath- )006F #ik$siynski and Angelstam- )00 8. #oreo%er- the associated intensification of h$man land $se res$lted in an increase in h$nting and persec$tion of larger %ertebrates 7Breitenmoser- )00 8. This means that landscapes ha%ing %irt$ally the same stand:scale local forest str$ct$res co$ld be affected differently at the regional scale regarding the loss of species with large area reG$irements- depending on the landscape?s location in relation to the centre and periphery of h$man economic acti%ity 7#ik$siynski and Angelstam- .**68. In his re%iew of r$ral ,$rope since the )9th cent$ry- Whyte 7)00 8 concl$ded that areas of retardation and tradition are concentrated in northern ,$rope- the Atlantic periphery and mo$ntain areas in central ,$rope and the #editerranean. There is also a clear westCeast trend with increasing ecological di%ersity of species 7Angelstam et al., .**6b8. Broadly speaking- economic remoteness in ,$rope has th$s both a westCeast dimension and a lowlandCmo$ntain dimension. In the Carpathian #o$ntains the two dimensions co:occ$rwhich e'plains why the region is still a hotspot for nat$ral and c$lt$ral biodi%ersity- and c$lt$ral heritage 7#iya- .***F T$rnock- .**.F Angelstam et al., .**/aF OpelB- .**6F OsBlfnyi et al., .**68. In this chapter I .rst brie.y introd$ce the Carpathian #o$ntain ecoregion- ha%ing a range of economically peripheral landscapes- in some of which biodi%ersity and c$lt$ral heritage are still relati%ely intact. I then propose how this can be $sed as a facility and a @labscape? approach 72ohler- .**.8 for landscape:scale research and de%elopment based on an impro%ed $nderstanding of the mechanisms behind the different traDectories of de%elopment towards maintenance- or degradation- of nat$ral and c$lt$ral biodi%ersity. I then o$tline how st$dies designed to G$antify how m$ch habitat is needed to maintain biodi%ersity can be carried o$t. &inally- I disc$ss the need for establishing arenas for practical management of relationships among elements of biodi%ersity s$ch as species- habitats and ecosystem processes on the one hand and the interaction with nat$re and c$lt$ral heritage on the other.

The Carpathian Mountains as a Landscape Laborator!

=eograph! and economic histor! The Carpathian #o$ntains form an arc:shaped mo$ntain range- abo$t )6** km long- from north:eastern A$stria- %ia the CBech Aep$blic- 3lo%akia- northern H$ngary- so$thern >oland and so$th:west 1kraineinto Aomania 7T$rnock- .**.F OpelB- .**68. +$ring the times of the Hapsb$rg ,mpire and $ntil World War I most of the Carpathians were one geo:political $nit. Today the area is di%ided among se%en different co$ntries. Already in the )0th cent$ry there was a clear gradient in the economic history from the centre to the periphery of the former Hapsb$rg ,mpire and the mo$ntain regions were characteriBed as traditional c$lt$ral landscapes based on animal h$sbandry 7Hood- )0068. =ater- the de%elopment of the railway net: work stim$lated the demand for nat$ral reso$rces- which was increasingly met by the growing economy at the end of the )0th cent$ry 7T$rnock- .**)8. The trends in agric$lt$ral and e%en to$rism de%elopment correlated strongly with the e'pansion of the transport str$ct$re. Beca$se of its location at the periphery of economic de%elopment- there are in the Carpathian #o$ntains still %illages where the pre:ind$strial traditional c$lt$ral landscape- once widespread in ,$roperemains 7#iya- .***8. At the local scale- $s$ally centred on the %illage itself- there is a characteristic Bonation from the centre to the periphery with different kinds of economic $se of renewable nat$ral reso$rces ranging from gardens and .elds to past$res and forest 7Angelstam et al., .**/aF #ik$siynski et al., .**/F Bender et al., .**"8. Open .eld systems and old forms of c$lt$ral heritage gi%e characteristic e'pressions to the landscape- and se%eral species that are declining or e%en endangered in intensi%ely managed regions are thri%ing 7T$cker and Heath- )0068. The landscape con.g$ration and farming models that most ,$ropeans $nderstand as a part of their history is the e%eryday reality for the people in this part of the world. This landscape is characteristic not only in parts of the Carpathian #o$ntains- and f$rther to the so$th:east in the Balkan and Aodopi #o$ntains- b$t was common in many other ,$ropean regions in the past 73porrong- )00 F Nos and #eekes- )0008. 3ince the break:$p of the A$stro:H$ngarian ,mpire the geo:political history has prod$ced different traDectories of de%elopment in the central Carpathian #o$ntains within a %ery small area where >oland3lo%akia- 1kraine and Aomania meet. With the pre:ind$strial c$lt$ral landscape as a common ancestordifferent parts of the Carpathian #o$ntains ha%e radiated in different directions. 1sing a combination of historical maps and satellite data- Angelstam et al. 7.**/a8 fo$nd that in so$th:east >oland %illages had de%eloped along three different traDectories4 7i8 remained traditionalF 7ii8 intensi.ed agric$lt$reF and 7iii8 become abandoned with encroaching forest as a conseG$ence. Within the .rst traDectory different conseG$ences for biodi%ersity are likely to be dependent not only on whether the traditional str$ct$re is fo$nd at the scale of the indi%id$al %illage or not- b$t also whether or not most %illages in the local landscape ha%e the traditional str$ct$re and f$nction. This is linked to differences in the area reG$irements of different species- and th$s the area of habitat reG$ired to maintain pop$lations in the long term 7Angelstam et al.- .**/b- .**6c8. &or e'ample- a foc$s on %asc$lar plants in the short term %ers$s specialiBed and area:demanding species in the long term yields G$ite different concl$sions regarding the siBe of the management $nit 7from hectares to tho$sands of sG$are kilo:metres8 for the maintenance of biodi%ersity.

The second traDectory is the characteristic grad$al degradation of traditional c$lt$ral landscape d$e to intensi.cation of the agric$lt$ral practices- which is characteristic of most agric$lt$ral landscapes today 7=arsson- .**68. In the north:east part of the Carpathian #o$ntains the past collecti%iBation of traditional agric$lt$re in 1kraine is a good e'ample. The third traDectory re.ects abandonment and s$bseG$ent encroachment of nat$ral %egetation for socio:economic reasons. As a conseG$ence- c$lt$ral landscapes may ret$rn to near:nat$ral forest conditions- and with few or no people. &or e'ample- the abandonment of the forest past$res and wooded meadows in the traditional c$lt$ral landscape now is the main habitat for decid$o$s forest birds in 3wedish boreal forest 7,noksson et al., )00"F Kansson and Angelstam- )000F #ik$siynski et al., .**/8. 3imilarly- a %ery specialiBed and area:demanding nat$ral decid$o$s forest species like the white:backed woodpecker 71endroco5us leucotos8 is increasing in n$mbers in >oland as the same process takes place there- b$t "* years later than in 3weden. The BiecBsBady national park established in )0!/ in so$th: east >oland is a good e'ample of this. Here tho$sands of %illagers were e'pelled after World War II- and the landscape ret$rned to a near:nat$ral @wilderness? condition. The area is now a hotspot for a wide %ariety of species incl$ding area:demanding and specialiBed birds and mammals 7Hlowaciynski- .***8and is a maDor to$rist attraction. As a conseG$ence of increased inaccessibility- $rbaniBation- globaliBation and e%en calamities s$ch as war and rapid socio:economic changes- traditional c$lt$ral landscapes ha%e been altered in three clear steps. Initially- c$lt$ral biodi%ersity in traditional pre:ind$strial landscapes was an $nintentional by: prod$ct of e'tensi%e agro:forestry. To enco$rage economically ef.cient growth- acti%e meas$res were then taken to make both forestry and agric$lt$re more economically %iable by separating them in space. A di%erse landscape with many shades of grey became essentially black and white. &inally- there is now a desire to maintain the c$lt$ral landscape for anthropocentric reasons 7Nos and #eekes- )000F Kongman.**.F Antrop- .**"F Table .)8. .atural and cultural biodiversit! and its management The Carpathian #o$ntain range is a ,$ropean hotspot for both c$lt$ral and nat$ral biodi%ersity. Of the ,$ropean continent?s different eco:regions the Carpathian #o$ntains form one of the most %al$able areas for biodi%ersity conser%ation in temperate conifero$s and broadlea%ed forest 73chnitBler and Borlea- )00 F OpelB- .**6F OsBlfnyi et al., .**68- as well as for conser%ation of c$lt$ral heritage 7T$rnock- .**.8. The region hosts pop$lations of large carni%ores and herbi%ores that ha%e become e'tirpated elsewhere 7>erBanowski et al., .**68- area:demanding specialist %ertebrates 7#ik$siynski and Angelstam- .**).**68- as well as many endemic species 7OsBlfnyi et al., .**68. This has long made the Carpathians a focal area for m$ltiple:f$nctional landscape management 7OsBlfnyi et al., .**6F 3. 3toyko and #. ,lbakidBe- personal comm$nication8 and eco:regional planning aiming at f$nctional networks of habitats for the maintenance of %iable pop$lations of a range of specialiBed andIor area:demanding focal species 7T$rnock- .**.8. In addition- ancient wooden ch$rches and %illage b$ilding traditions ha%e been maintained and are still practised 7#iya- .***8. The mi't$re of nat$ral and c$lt$ral biodi%ersity- howe%er- makes it necessary to form$late strategies for how conser%ation tools s$ch as habitat protection- management- and- if necessary- restoration can be integrated. A common %iew is that satisfying the nat$ral biodi%ersity %ision is associated with non: inter%ention- and that There is scienti.c agreement that the the c$lt$ral biodi%ersity %ision is associ: conser%ation of biodi%ersity reG$ires a range ated with management. In this chapter it of dist$rbance regimes 7Table ..8 that ha%e will be arg$ed that this is too simpli.ed a res$lted in forest and woodland en%iron%iew- and that there is sometimes a need for ments to which species ha%e adapted. To management to reach the @nat$ralness? maintain biodi%ersity this ecological dimen%ision- and non:inter%ention for that of the sion m$st be $nderstood and a s$f.ciently c$lt$ral landscape 7&ig. .)8. wide range of different land: management

=e%el of organiB ation 7see &ig. ./8 >olicy: le%el desires Admini strati%e acti%itie s

Traditional c$lt$ral landscape

#odi.cation of landscapes d$ring the agric$lt$ral and ind$strial re%ol$tions ,nco$ragin g intensi.ed $se =and reforms to increase the intensity of $se

>ost: ind$strial society

#erge local regions into states Collecting ta'

Aole of people in %illages The landsca pe

#aintain local s$stainable landscapes 3emi: nat$raldi%erse

1rbaniBatio n- intensi%e prod$ction #ore and more ind$strial

#aintain biodi%ersi ty and c$lt$ral heritage Attempts to mitigate negati%e conseG$e nces of intensi%e prod$ctio n by s$bsidies and restoratio n- r$ral de%elopm ent Aecreatio n- to$rism 3trong contrast between intensi%el y managed matri' and semi: nat$ral remnants The role of non: tangible %al$es has increased in post: ind$strial society

Aole of biodi%er sity and c$lt$ral heritage

Biodi%ersit y and c$lt$ral heritage a by:prod$ct

An obstacle for economic de%elopmen tF degradation of nat$ral and c$lt$ral %al$es

Nat$ral biodi%ersity Wind 1prooting creates dead wood- bare soil and special microhabitats Nat$ral stream dynamics create

C$lt$ral biodi%ersity +ead wood is often remo%ed and $sed as f$el Irrigation and draining often

&loo ding

important aG$atic and riparian habitat &ire =arg e herbi %ores H$m an =arger patcheslower freG$ency +omination of browsers Not important$nless restoration meas$res are needed

occ$r- as well as acti%e .ooding to bene.t meadows and past$res 3maller patcheshigher freG$ency +omination of graBers Nital- and incl$des mowing- pollardingcoppicingshredding- etc.

=overnance dimension Non:ind$strial pri%ate B$siness >$blic

Fig# *#%# Based on the two complementary main %isions of nat$ral and c$lt$ral landscapes for maintaining biodi%ersity in ,$rope?s landscapes- this .g$re ill$strates the need to balance acti%e management and noninter%entional strategies. The shading on the arrows indicates a gradient in the need for acti%e management 7lower left- darker8 and non: inter%ention 7$pper right- darker8 to maintain the different elements of biodi%ersity. Additionally- the %ision of c$lt$ral landscapes pre%ails where the economic history is long and land is pri%ately owned- whereas the %ision of nat$ral landscapes pre%ails where the economic history is short and land is p$blicly owned 7Angelstam and TPrnblom- .**68.

regimes m$st then be at hand. As ad%ocated within the nat$ral dist$rbance regime paradigm for near:to: nat$re forest management 7H$nter- )0008- the management regimes chosen for different forest en%ironments m$st harmoniBe with the ecological past of different forest types 7Angelstam- .**/- .**"8. The wide range of different e%en:aged- m$lti:aged and $ne%en:aged sil%ic$lt$ral systems a%ailable 7#atthews- )0 08 means that there is in principle good potential for em$lating nat$ral dist$rbance regimes by combining protection and management for both maintenance and restoration of biodi%ersity 7Table ./8. The &ennoscandian boreal forest is a well:st$died e'ample- where management alternati%es ha%e been de%eloped 7&ries et al., )00!8. Three main dist$rbance regimes are characteristic 7Angelstam and 2$$l$%ainen- .**684 7i8 s$ccession from yo$ng to old growth with shade:intolerant decid$o$s

Table *#(# Table ill$strating that to maintain nat$ral biodi%ersity- depending on the %egetation type and its a$thentic dynamics- both acti%e management and non:inter%ention may be needed.

=andscape:scale management Non:inter%ention #anagement Non: Aa%ine with To link remnant inter old:growth patches of old: %enti forest- nat$ral growth forest on on spring wet sites along a streammanagement of hydrology is restored #an &ire:dependent &ire:dependent agem plants 7small insects and ent area species $sing reG$irements8 different stages in the s$ccession reG$ire habitat connecti%ity at the landscape scale >atch:Istand:scalemanagement

species in the beginning and conifero$s shade:tolerant species later onF 7ii8 cohort dynamics in dry 3cots pine- &inus sylvestris, forestF and 7iii8 gap dynamics in moist and wet Norway spr$ce- &icea abies, forest. In addition- approaches for landscape:scale planning ha%e been de%eloped 7&ries et al., )00 8- and are partly also applied 7Angelstam and Bergman- .**68. 3imilarly- to maintain c$lt$ral biodi%ersity the methods employed in the preind$strial c$lt$ral landscape need to be considered 7Table .68. +$e to the occ$rrence of species fo$nd in elements of nat$: rally dynamic forests s$ch as large old trees- both c$lt$ral and nat$ral dist$r bances need to be considered. Agri:en%ironmental schemes do consider the maintenance of hedgerows- pollarded trees and processes incl$ding mowing and graBing. Howe%er- there are few efforts towards enco$raging the maintenance of f$nctional connecti%ity. This also applies to reforestation programmes- which need to employ a spatially e'plicit approach 7#_ller #adsen- .**.8. Howe%er- beca$se of the small amo$nt remaining of traditional c$lt$ral landscapes and temperate decid$o$s forests- G$antitati%e knowledge abo$t their a$thentic composition- str$ct$re and dynamics is limited. Aegarding the e%ol$tionary backgro$nd of the temperate decid$o$s forest- the ideas re%ol%e aro$nd both abiotic dist$rbances- s$ch as wind- and the interaction between herbi%ores and %egetation 7Bengtsson et al.- .**/8. The latter may also ha%e incl$ded megaherbi%ores s$ch as the forest elephant present d$ring most of the e%ol$tionary history of the present fa$na and .ora- as well as wild and domestic large herbi%ores incl$ding deer 7Cer%idae8- cattle 7Bo%idae8 and horses 7,G$idae8 7Nera- .***8.

&iscussion
Implementing ecological sustainabilit! and the governance of landscapes The inhabitants of economically remote areas desire the same de%elopment and impro%ement of economic standards as the rest of ,$rope has e'perienced in the last decades. It looks like a parado'- b$t it is reality4 at the same time that the ,1 distrib$tes more and more of its b$dget to impro%e biodi%ersity and r$ral s$stainability- we can .nd an increasing moderniBation in economically remote regions- which is promoted with increasing .nancial s$pport- sometimes from similar so$rces. The e'tensi%e plan to de%elop the transport infrastr$ct$re within the e'panding ,$ropean 1nion is a good e'ample. 1nless effecti%e mitigation meas$res are implemented- this will s$bseG$ently res$lt in a decrease in the f$nctionality of e'isting habitat networks- and threaten the last remaining reference landscapes for both nat$ral and c$lt$ral biodi%ersity 7e.g.- Antrop- .**"F Bender et al., .**"8. The de%elopment of the c$lt$ral landscape as a social:ecological system has gone thro$gh three main phases 7see Table .)8. In the past- traditional low:intensity

Table *#-# Table ill$strating that to maintain c$lt$ral biodi%ersity- depending on the %egetation type and its a$thentic dynamics- both acti%e management and non:inter%ention @laisseB:faire? are needed. >atchIstand:scalemanagement =andscape:scale management Non:inter%ention #anagement Non: Not rele%ant Temporarily inter% rela'ed entio management n intensity sho$ld be enco$raged to allow regeneration of trees #ana HraBing and tree 3pecies $sing geme management different stages

nt fa%o$r a wide range of plant and animal species

in the s$ccession reG$ire habitat connecti%ity at the landscape scale

agric$lt$re was the norm 7Nos and #eekes)0008- and the maintenance of biodi%ersity was an $nplanned by:prod$ct 7%on Haaren- .**.8. Then followed a transition from primary to secondary economicsand ind$strialiBed agric$lt$re led to loss of biodi%ersity and other %al$es 7HPll and Nilsson- )0008. &inally- the present post:ind$strial society represents a third phase C a desire to maintain the @grandparents? landscape?. While it is certainly possible to satisfy some c$lt$ral heritage %al$es and elements of biodi%ersity- the maintenance of s$stainable r$ral landscapes and ecosystem integrity is a maDor challenge 7Anon.- .**68. Beca$se there is a risk that traditional economic de%elopment will e%ent$ally res$lt in a decrease in landscape di%ersity regarding both biodi%ersity and c$lt$ral heritage- remedial meas$res are needed. An e'ample of a large:scale attempt to mitigate s$ch problems is the de%elopment of agri:en%ironmental schemes- for e'ample- within the framework of the Common Agric$lt$ral >olicy 7CA>8 of the ,1 7Arler- .***F B$ller et al., .***F Omate et al., .***F Kordan- .**.F Nal%e- .**.F >rimdahl et al., .**/8. Howe%eraccording to =arsson 7.**68 the system of s$bsidies in place in the ,$ropean 1nion to s$pport the maintenance of biodi%ersity linked to agric$lt$ral landscapes seems not to be a remedyF the ,1 has b$rea$cracy and considers non:mod: erniBed agric$lt$re as a problem to handle- and as a hindrance to ,1 enlargement. In this process- it is ob%io$s that different interests and ideals collide. &or e'ample- stereotypical ad%ice and lack of landscape:scale incenti%es in CA> agri: en%ironmental schemes 7=arsson- .**68 hamper planning and management for f$nctional connecti%ity of habitat patches. How can the maintenance and- if necessaryrestoration of the nat$ral and c$lt$ral biodi%ersity and c$lt$ral heritage of pre:ind$strial c$lt$ral landscapes really be plannedW To a%oid the grad$al degradation of c$lt$ral landscapes iterated $se of both top:down and bottom:$p approaches for go%ernance are needed 7Anon..**/F 3ayer and Campbell- .**/- .**68. As disc$ssed in detail by Angelstam 7)00!8- Nos and #eekes 7)0008- Kongman 7.**.8 and Antrop 7.**"8- an incl$si%e holistic approach $sing the landscape concept is needed. To $nderstand landscapes in this way reG$ires interaction among different actors in society. This applies to

policymakers- instit$tions and the act$al actors within one sector affecting landscapes on the one hand- and among the different sectors acting at all le%els with the chosen landscape on the other. Within a gi%en sector or policy area there are se%eral le%els 7>rimdahl and Brandt- )00!F =arsson.**6F see &ig. ..8. &irst- at the international policy le%el- the Con%ention on Biological +i%ersity?s @ecosystem approach? can be $sed as one starting point. The ecosystem approach is a strategy for the integrated management of land- water and li%ing reso$rces that promotes conser%ation and s$stainable $se in an eG$itable way. Application of the ecosystem approach will help to reach a balance of the ecological- economic and socio:c$lt$ral obDecti%es of the Con%ention. The approach sho$ld be based on the application of appropriate scienti.c methodologies foc$sed on le%els of biological organiBation- which encompass the essential processes- f$nctions and interactions among organisms and their en%ironment. It recogniBes that h$mans- with their c$lt$ral di%ersity- are an integral component of ecosystems 7see http4IIwww.biodi%.orgIprogrammesIcross: c$ttingIecosystemI8. &or forests- s$stainable forest management as defined by Aametsteiner and #ayer 7.**68 can be interpreted as an e'ample of an ecosystem approach 7Angelstam et al., .**6d.**"8. 3econd- at the national le%el- policy instr$ments are then grad$ally de%eloped- and may incl$de legislation- information- s$bsidies- monitoring%ocational training- etc. Howe%er- the maintenance of nat$ral and c$lt$ral biodi%ersity is $s$ally not maintained by instit$tions- b$t rather by local people acting in different formal and informal go%ernance systems. ConseG$ently- se%eral policy areas with their respecti%e planning traditions coincide4 forestry- agric$lt$re- transport infrastr$c: t$re and the energy sector- as well as regional and $rban planning.

Third- beca$se different landscapes ha%e different go%ernance systems- it is important to $nderstand the actors? knowledge- attit$des and willingness to act in line with the policy 7Clark.**.8. The s$ite of policy instr$ments $sed sho$ld ideally be adapted to the composition and str$ct$re of the actors in the act$al landscape in foc$s. The effects of policies on act$al landscapes are th$s indirect- and therefore s$bDect to se%eral potential barriers 7Clark- .**.8. &o$rth- the effecti%eness of the whole policy implementation process cannot be e%al$ated $nless the de%elopment of different indicators is monitored in act$al landscapes 7B$sch and Tre'ler- .**/8. Additionally- res$lts from monitoring sho$ld be compared with G$antitati%e performance targets 7Angelstam et al., .**/b.**6e- f8. 1sing the compositional dimension of biodi%ersity 7i.e.- with species as an e'ample8this means that planners and managers need to $nderstand that different species ha%e different habitat af.nities. #oreo%er- species also ha%e different G$antitati%e reG$irements- and %iable pop$lations need more habitats than are fo$nd in one patch of habitat 7Angelstam et al., .**6c8. Hence- the s$ccessf$l maintenance of all representati%e land:co%er types in a landscape can be %iewed as a series of partly o%erlapping and complementary @green infrastr$ct$res?- each of which has different properties to which species are adapted. The reG$ired G$ality and e'tent of s$ch habitat networks depends on the reG$irements of the species. &or e'ample- an old: growth forest:specialiBed species with large area reG$irements will need more habitat area than one with small area reG$irements. To steer towards agreed policy goals- there is a need for hier: archical planning with increasing resol$tion from broader to finer spatial and temporal scales 7Angelstam et al., .**"8. In addition- there is a need for bottom:$p approaches to engage the range of owners- managers and workers in local landscapes 7Angelstam et al., .**/cF 3ayer and Campbell- .**68. There is also often a need for international cooperation between adDacent regions in different co$ntries 7OpelB- .**68.

&or large:scale forestry- hierarchical planning from the top to the bottom within a forest management $nit 7&#18 is well de%eloped. In ,$ropean boreal forests the siBe of a &#1 for the ecological landscape plans in &ennoscandia ranges from )*/ ha in the so$th to )* 6 ha

in the north. &#1s can th$s be %iewed as replicates of landscape $nits on coarser scales s$ch as ecoregions. The planning problem is $s$ally di%ided into three s$b: processes. The .rst le%el is strategic planning to decide on long:term goals co%ering an entire rotation. The second le%el is tactical planning to select from different alternati%es based on the strategic goals- b$t on a shorter time scale and for a smaller area. &inally- operational planning is needed to administer the act$al operations within a year 7ann$al plan of operations8. The same logic can be $sed to b$ild a toolbo' of analytical tools for the e%al$ation of the str$ct$ral elements of forest biodi%ersity- s$ch as trees and riparian corridors left d$ring loggingtree species composition and the age:class and patch:siBe distrib$tion in the landscape- all of which managers affect by planning and operational management 7Angelstam et al., .**"8. At the strategic le%el- gap analysis 73cott et al., )0098 is a way to estimate the relati%e loss of different %egetation co%er types. Haps can also be G$anti.ed by com: paring knowledge abo$t how m$ch habitat is needed to maintain %iable pop$lations on the landscape scale with the act$al amo$nt 7Angelstam

and Andersson- .**)8. Ne't- at the tactical le%el- habitat s$itability inde' modelling 73cott et al., .**.F Angelstam et al., .**6c8 can be $sed for selecting patches or cl$sters of patches to be protected- managed or restored to maintain f$nctional connecti%ity. The same approach can be employed in $rban landscapes. In 3weden local m$nicipal go%ernments are responsible for water s$pplyref$se disposal- social welfare and ed$cation. The local go%ernments also ha%e a comprehensi%e planning monopoly 7Alfredsson and Wiman)00!8. I arg$e that in principle this sho$ld alle%iate systematic efforts towards the maintenance of biodi: %ersity in $rban en%ironments. #$nicipal go%ernments th$s ha%e a key role in e'plaining to the p$blic what biodi%ersity maintenance reG$ires in practice 7Nilon et al., .**/8. So$ng citiBens of today are f$t$re decision:makers and need knowledge abo$t the conseG$ences for biodi%ersity of e'ploitation of landwhich is closest to the people. ConseG$ently- m$nicipal go%ernments are cr$cial in realiBing s$stainable de%elopment in practice- both directly in the $rban setting and indirectly by taking decisions abo$t the whole land: scape 73andstrPm et al., .**98. An $rban landscape $s$ally contains parks and other near:nat$ral en%ironments. Howe%er- these constit$te a green infrastr$ct$re only if they are organiBed with an o%erriding strategyF

for e'ample- with identi.ed %al$able green core areas with connecting greenways both among core areas and between core areas and the s$rro$nding land 7+ramstad et al., )0098. By and large- agric$lt$re appears to lack landscape planninge%en if there are attempts at the local le%el 73meding and KoenDe- )0008. 3imilarly #_ller #adsen 7.**.8 did not .nd landscape:le%el planning efforts in afforestation planning. Ne%erthelesstwo critically important additional prereG$isites to be satis.ed for the maintenance of biodi%ersity are4

). =andscape:scale performance targets for the amo$nt and con.g$ration of habitats needed to maintain species. .. Arenas for go%ernance where owners- managers and stakeholders can resol%e con.icts within a landscape. &eriving performance targets using gradients in economic development To maintain- and if necessary restoredifferent elements of biodi%ersity s$ch as

species? pop$lations- habitats or processesreference areas are essential as benchmarks for both nat$ral and c$lt$ral biodi%ersity 7,gan and Howell- .**)8. &$rther- both %isions need to be complemented by knowledge abo$t the G$antity and spatial config$ration of different habitat elements C and their dynamics o%er time C that is reG$ired to maintain %iable pop$lations of different species 7Angelstam et al., .**6c8. Theoretical and empirical st$dies clearly indicate that there are thresholds for how m$ch habitat can be lost witho$t e'tirpation of specialiBed species 7&ahrig.**.8- and that the absol$te %al$e %aries among species 7Angelstam et al., .**6f8. As an analogy to the concept of critical load of airborne poll$tion the forest ecosystems can stand witho$t lost ecological integrity 7Nilsson and Hrennfelt- )0 8one co$ld speak abo$t critical loss of habitat leading to non:f$nctional habitat networks. If and when s$ch critical %al$es for the acceptable loss of habitat are a%ailable for indi%id$als and pop$lations for a s$ite of focal species- there is an empirical base for assessment and planning for the maintenance of s$f.ciently connected areas with habitat that make $p f$nctional habitat networks. Hap analysis is a strategic and habitat modelling tactical tool for s$ch analyses. While this is a well:established proced$re for the nat$ral biodi%ersity %ision 73cott et al., .**.8- it is apparently not disc$ssed for the c$lt$ral biodi%ersity %ision. ,%en if knowledge abo$t ecological thresholds is of paramo$nt importance for the maintenance of biological di%ersity in the long term- the present empirical knowledge is limited 7&ahrig- .**.F Angelstam et al., .**6f8. One important reason is that establishing st$dies of dose:response- where the amo$nt of habitat is the dose gi%en to a pop$lation and the response can be meas$red as the occ$pancy- or preferably .tness- of a species reG$ires systematic macroecological st$dies that are costly and complicated to design 7e.g.- Betler et al., .**6F #ik$siynski and Angelstam- .**68. Angelstam et al. 7.**6c8 presented a general proced$re for identifying m$ltiple thresholds to be $sed in the determination of conser%ation targets in forests in si' steps. These were4

..

/.

+escribe the historical spread of different anthropogenic impacts in the boreal forest that mo%ed the system away from nat$ral: ness. Identify appropriate response %ariables

7e.g. focal species- f$nctional gro$ps or ecosystem processes8 that are affected by habitat loss and fragmentation. ). &or each forest type identi.ed in step )combine steps . and / to look for the pres: ence of non:linear responses and to identify Bones of risk and $ncertainty. .. Identify the @c$rrencies? 7i.e. specieshabitats- and processes8 which are both rel: e%ant and possible to comm$nicate to stakeholders. /. Combine information from a s$ite of dif: ferent indicators selected. This proced$re can be employed $sing at least three approaches. The .rst in%ol%es geographical comparisons with gradient in the %ariable of interest 72ohler- .**.F Angelstam and +PnB:Bre$ss- .**68. The plot siBe m$st then be scaled to the response %ariable. 1sing plot siBes of

).

3tratify the forests into broad co%er types as a f$nction of their nat$ral dist$rbance regimes.

Betler et al. 7.**68- Kansson and Angelstam 7)0008- Angelstam 7.**68 and #ik$si ynski and Angelstam 7.**68respecti%ely- fo$nd that the local occ$rrence and %iability of different bird species responded in a non:linear fashion. Aegions with the different economic histories needed to achie%e a sample with s$f.cient %ariation in the dose of a certain habitat elements$ch as dead wood or old trees- are $s$ally geographically far apart. There is th$s a risk that the reG$irements of species are not the same. A second G$asi:e'perimental approach can be $sed in the Carpathian #o$ntain landscapeswhich once had a common c$lt$re)- /- )9 and ."** km.-

b$t has radiated in different directions for socio:political reasons. By re%isiting replicates of the different treatments it is possible to st$dy the conseG$ence for biodi%ersity 7Angel: stam et al., .**/a8. The break:$p of the former A$stro:H$ngarian ,mpire can th$s be %iewed as a landscape laboratory with borders between new co$ntries that ha%e created stark contrasts regarding biodi%ersity and c$lt$ral heritage- with clearly %isible state borders in satellite images. &inally- historical ecology methods can be $sed 7,gan and Howell- .**)8. This co$ld for e'ample in%ol%e retrospecti%e st$dies of how the species composition has changed o%er time in relation to land:co%er changes as re%ealed by analyses of historical maps 7No$rela et al., .**.8. Nat$rally- there will be a trade:off between the resol$tion and sample siBe of the different approaches 7Table ."8.

The need for arenas encouraging transdisciplinar! applied approaches #anagers in different sectors and researchers in different disciplines traditionally accomplish most of their work in isolation. The o$tcomes of landscape changes become grad$ally e%ident by monitoring- b$t are e%al$ated at the policy le%el with a considerable time lag. #oreo%erplanners ha%e a top:down approach that often ignores the @real? world with the people in it 7%on Haaren- .**.8. What sho$ld ideally form an iterated policy cycle based on effecti%eness monitoring in local act$al landscapes is- in fact- a rather slow process of policy implementation with inef.cient feed:back loops from landscapes and actors to policymakers. There are hence a n$mber of barriers- in partic$lar when attempting to apply a landscape approach for the conser%ation of nat$ral and c$lt$ral biodi%ersity by a wise combination of management and non:inter%ention 7Holling- )00"F H$tBwiller- .**.F see &ig. .)8. 3$ccessf$l planning for the maintenance of f$nctional habitat networks for nat$ral and c$lt$ral biodi%ersity reG$ires sim$ltaneo$s consideration of ecological- c$lt$ral and economic dimensions of land: scapes. To handle s$ch a di%ersity of information- modern techniG$es s$ch as geographical information systems 7HI38 are %ery $sef$l. 3andstrPm et al. 7.**98 e%al$ated $rban planners?

$se of this tool in si' 3wedish cities. HI3 was a%ailable in .%e of the si' cities- b$t it was not de%eloped or $sed to its f$ll capacity beca$se of ins$f.cient knowledge abo$t spatial data- ecological %ariables and planning algorithms. The planners did not realiBe the %al$e of this tool. Cooperation between the city and a $ni%ersity may be one fr$itf$l way to deal with obsolete ed$cation and conser%ati%e thinking- and to de%elop planning tools based on HI3. This offers ad%antages for both parties. &or e'ample- in a speci.c planning proDect the planners can make $se of rele%ant research res$lts and recei%e ed$cation at the same time as their ordinary work is being done. 3$ch a system wo$ld open $p possibilities for f$rther ed$cation for plannerssa%e time for the department- and de%elop the $rban green planning as well as the local planning department. A prereG$isite is an attit$de of a @learning organiBation?4 in other words- the organiBation m$st be .e'ible and allow personnel to work and learn on a proDect at the same time 7=ee- )00/F Chapin et al., .**6F 3ayer and Campbell- .**68.
\$asi:e'periments $sing borders Heographical comparisons =an dsca Hood pe data 3pec Hood ies data 3am =arge ple siBe Othe +ifferent between co$ntries Hood Hood Nery limited 3ame Historical ecology Nariable =imited =imited Hard to .nd

r aspe cts

speciesC habitat relationship in different

ecoregion

rele%ant data abo$t the occ$rrence of

regions may precl$de %alid comparisons

different species

There are se%eral approaches to establish arenas for integration towards b$ilding bridges among stakeholders and different kinds of land $se in a landscape. The international model forest network- which forms a partnership between indi%id$als and organiBations sharing the common goal of s$stainable forest management- is one e'ample 7Bessea$ et al., .**.8- and 1N,3CO?s biosphere reser%e concept is another 71N,3CO.**.8. Both approaches imply that a management $nit consisting of an act$al landscape with its characteristic ecosystems- actors and economic acti%ities is $sed as a site for synthesesinno%ation- de%elopment and ed$cation. Ideallyadapti%e management teams 7Bo$tin et al., .**.8 sho$ld be formed whereby researchers- land managers and policymakers share decisions and responsibilities toward the s$ccess or fail$re of the strategy they Dointly adopted. I th$s arg$e in fa%o$r of a no%el winCwin oriented approach to research and de%elopment- which is based on e'changing knowledge and e'perience gathered o%er a long time in different co$ntries and regions. This will be of m$t$al bene.t for both science and practice as a whole- and th$s for contin$ed s$stainable $se of nat$ral reso$rces pro%iding a basis for h$man welfare in a changing world. 1ltimately- acknowledging and adopting this perspecti%e reG$ires the grad$al de%elopment of a new transdisciplinary profession able to facilitate ecosystem management at the landscape le%el. This reG$ires an impro%ed m$t$al feedback between the science- engineering and art of integrated nat$ral reso$rce management. "eference areas for cultural and natural biodiversit!/ but for ho) longK +epending on the le%el of ambition regarding maintenance of biodi%ersity one can form$late at least fo$r different performance target le%els. A .rst le%el is that the compositional elements of biodi%ersity are maintained. This is represented by occ$pancy of one of se%eral species within a stand or landscape in the short term. Occ$pancy is often the only information a%ailable for conser%ation areas. Howe%er- policies are $s$ally e'plicit abo$t the fact that occ$pancy is ins$f.cient- and incl$de statements s$ch as @all nat$rally occ$rring species sho$ld maintain %iable pop$lations?. A second target le%el is therefore to ens$re pop$lation

%iability o%er a long period of time. Increases in the area of habitat needed for probability of occ$pancy %s. probability of breeding 7Angelstam- .**68 s$ggest considerably higher conser%ation costs of this increased le%el of ambition. The e'plicit reference to area:demanding specialiBed speciess$ch as those listed in the ,1 Birds and Habitats +irecti%es- makes it imperati%e to de.ne thresholds 7#PnkkPnen and Ae$nanen- )0008 for a s$ite of rele%ant focal species 7Aoberge and Angelstam.**68. As ecosystems are open and dynamic- the area needed to ens$re the long:term persistence of interacting species- s$ch as herbi%ores and predators- increases f$rther. A third le%el of ambition is conseG$ently to ens$re ecosystem integrity 7>imentel et al., .***8. To achie%e thisminim$m dynamic areas are needed that con: tin$o$sly pro%ide habitat for representati%e s$ites of %iable pop$lations- as well as for the interactions among them 7Bengtsson et al., .**/8. &inally- a fo$rth target le%el is to ens$re ecological resilience meas$red as the magnit$de of dist$rbance that can be absorbed before the system is $nable to reco%er to its pre%io$s state 7H$nderson and >ritchard.**.8. These fo$r target le%els for the maintenance of biodi%ersity ill$strate that there is a contin$o$s gradient with increasing spatial dimensions reG$ired for maintaining biodi%ersity. There is th$s a s$ite of targets that can be speci.ed for the maintenance of biodi%ersity in an area- each target representing an increasing probability of maintaining a f$nctional ecosystem 7&ig. ./8. To ill$strate this- e'amples are gi%en for three str$ct$ral

3olume of dead )ood 5m(8ha: * .C6 ). )"C.* "* *C).* Fig# *#(# 1sing the gradient from 3cotland 7%ery long history8 to No%gorod region 7short history8 and nat$rally dynamic forest landscapes as e'amples- the effects of the history of forest $se on the amo$nt of dead wood are ill$strated 7Angelstam and +PnB:Bre$ss- .**68. ,mpirical st$dies of %ertebrates- in%ertebrates and f$ngi clearly indicate that there are thresholds in the amo$nt needed to maintain specialiBed species dependent on dead wood 7Angelstam et al.- .**.F H$mphrey et al.- .**68.

elements4 dead wood- s$fficiently connected patches of semi:nat$ral woodland and large intact landscapes. +ying and dead trees ha%e been recogniBed as being of prime importance for n$mero$s animalsf$ngi and lichens 7Konsson and 2r$ys- .**)8. The amo$nt of dead wood has also been accepted as a new indicator of forest biodi%ersity by the #inisterial Conference on the >rotection of &orests in ,$rope 7Aametsteiner and #ayer- .**68. &or spr$ce:dominated forests- Betler et al. 7.**68 $sed empirical thresholds to de%elop performance targets for standing dying and dead trees at the le%el of forest habitat patches. This was based on the G$antitati%e habitat reG$irements of the three: toed woodpecker- &icoides tridactylus- a focal species of nat$rally dynamic spr$ce:dominated forests 7#ik$siynski et al., .**)8. Both a theoretical model and empirical data res$lted in similar estimates 7)"C.* m/ of standing dead

wood per ha o%er a )** ha area8 of the minim$m snag G$antities for woodpecker occ$rrence. In hemiboreal forest- Angelstam et al. 7.**.8 st$died the relationships between deadwood %ariables and the presence of different woodpecker species in .%e different coarse landscape types in north:eastern >oland. The mean n$mber of woodpecker species per km. %aried from *.9 7plantations8 to 6. 7BialzowieBCa National >ark8 and was positi%ely correlated with the amo$nt of dead wood. The reG$ired %ol$me of decid$o$s dead wood was estimated

at abo$t .* m/ of dead wood per ha o%er a )** ha area 7Angelstam et al., .**.8. Comparisons of the species:richness of sapro'ylic beetles and the amo$nt of dead wood in Norwegian and &innish forests also indicate a threshold at abo$t .* m/Iha 7#artikainen et al., .***F H$mphrey et al., .**68. The threshold %al$es for both decid$o$s and conifero$s snags at the le%el of habitat patches are th$s "C)* times higher than the %ol$me fo$nd in a managed forest in &ennoscandia- and abo$t a .fth of what is fo$nd in nat$rally dynamic forest 7see 3iitonen- .**)F &ig. ./8. With a broad perspecti%efragmentation is a $nifying theme of the history of the ,$ropean forests as well as an e'planation for these local and regional e'tinctions of forest species. &ragmentation occ$rs when a contin$o$s habitat is transformed into a n$mber of smaller patches of decreasing area- isolated from each other by a matri' of habitats $nlike the original. Both of these two com: ponents may ca$se e'tinctionsF red$ction in total habitat area affects pop$lation siBe and th$s e'tinction rates- and redistrib$tion of the

remaining habitat into more or less isolated patches affects dispersal- and th$s immigration rates. This is e%ident from the historic loss of species in more central regions of economic de%elopment- for e'ample in so$thern 3weden 7Osbeck- )0098.

On the scale of entire ecoregionsthe maintenance of large intact forest areas is necessary for the maintenance of wide:ranging species s$ch as large carni%ores and herbi%ores 7Breitenmoser- )00 F #ik$siynski and Angelstam- .**68. The ,$ropean bison is a good e'ample. In a re%iew of the constraints for re:establishing a meta:pop$lation of this large herbi%ore- >erBanowski et al. 7.**68 identi.ed se%eral barriers- and concl$ded that d$e to fragmentation and loss of large areas of nat$ral habitats this species wo$ld ha%e no chance of nat$ral e'change of genes. The pop$lation %iability is th$s dependent on acti%e conser%ation management. Conclusions Biodi%ersity conser%ation in ,$rope?s landscapes is based on both nat$ral

and c$lt$ral dimensions. The introd$ction of s$stained:yield forest management and intensi%e agri: c$lt$re generally leads to a red$ction of the amo$nt of dead woodf$nctional connecti%ity and intact areas of nat$ral woodland and c$lt$ral landscapes. In a globaliBed world- the maDor challenge is to $se ecological targets rather than the state of the en%ironment in already managed and altered landscapes as g$idelines for management. It is th$s critically important that land management becomes spatially e'plicit on se%eral spatial scales ranging from trees and stands to land: scapes and regions. To de%elop societal arenas for combining top: down planning with bottom:$p implementation is a maDor challenge. "eferences

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@ "ethin2ing Traditional 4reservation

Approaches for Managing a Forested Cultural Landscape: the Case of MarshBillings "oc2efeller .ational 'istorical 4ar2As Mount Tom Forest
A. +iamant- C. #arts and N. #itchell% Mars%DBillingsD oc3efeller 2ational +istorical &ar3, ,oodstoc3, )ermont, U*A

We m$st concei%e of stewardship not simply as one indi%id$al?s practice- b$t rather as the m$t$al and intimate relationship- e'tending across the generations- between a h$man comm$nity and its place on earth. Kohn ,lder Introduction O%er the last decade there has been an increased recognition of the %al$e of landscapes- and their associated nat$ral and c$lt$ral systems- as heritage. This recognition deri%es from new directions in the .elds of historic preser%ation and nat$ral reso$rce conser%ation.. =andscapes are a meeting gro$nd for these di%erse perspecti%es and %al$es- howe%er- key management challenges remain. In this chapter- we e'plore c$rrent theory and practice of conser%ation thro$gh a case st$dy of the historically signi.cant forest at #arshCBillingsC Aockefeller National Historical >ark in Woodstock- Nermont- a c$lt$ral landscape.

This national park is the only 13 national park to tell the e%ol%ing story of conser%ation history and land stewardship in America. The park seeks to strengthen the commitment to stewardship by engaging in ed$cational and reso$rce management acti%ities that4 7i8 tell the e%ol%ing story of conser%ationF 7ii8 connect that story of conser%ation to the personal li%es of its many a$diencesF and 7iii8 demonstrate the s$stainable management of the #o$nt Tom forest. The park?s ""*:acre #o$nt Tom forest is one of the earliest s$r%i%ing e'amples of planned and managed reforestation in the 13A. It is a li%ing e'hibit that ill$strates the e%ol$tion of forest stewardship in America- from the earliest scienti.c sil%ic$lt$ral practices borrowed from )0thcent$ry ,$rope to contemporary practices of s$stainable forest management. The national park and the forest are a designated national historic landmark- the highest le%el of national recognition in the 13A for places of e'ceptional c$lt$ral %al$e. The park is closely associated with the li%es of the prominent American conser%ationists Heorge >erkins #arsh- &rederick Billings and =a$rance 3. Aockefeller- and a legacy of o%er )/* years of contin$o$s- caref$l forest stewardship. Old trees- $pwards of /** years in age- s$ch as open:grown s$gar maples dating to the #arsh period and < CAB International .**9. T%e #onservation of #ultural Landsca5es 7ed. #. Agnoletti8

Aethinking Traditional >reser%ation Approaches

hemlocks can still be fo$nd thro$gho$t the property. Nine of the plantations set o$t by &rederick Billings in the late ) **s are still standing. The network of carriage roads designed and b$ilt by Billings pro%ides p$blic accessshowcases early forestry e'periments and re%eals breathtaking scenery. The forest is a key component of the park?s c$lt$ral landscape and plays an important role in the interpretation and demonstration of stewardship. In de%eloping the management strategy for the #o$nt Tom forest- we were challenged by the following key G$estions4

How can the @readable? history and essential character of the forest be retained by working with dynamics of forest growth and changeW Q How can knowledge of nat$ral and c$l: t$ral systems be applied to shape an integrated management strategyW Q Can we s$ccessf$lly retain eno$gh of the forest?s character and also preser%e the o%erall integrity of the c$lt$ral landscape incl$ding its biodi%ersity- habitat- water G$ality and recreational opport$nitiesW Q In what way can this e'perience help $s rethink traditional approaches to c$lt$ral and nat$ral reso$rces managementW Q In a world where polariBation o%er forest management is more the norm than the e'ceptioncan we c$lti%ate a ci%il dialog$e and $se this p$blic land to demonstrate a better path to s$stain: ability and stewardshipW

Management Conte$t: "ecent Trends and Challenges in Cultural Landscape Conservation

The increasing recognition of the importance of c$lt$ral landscapes o%er the last decade has been challenging for the .elds of historic preser%ation and conser%ation. In historic preser%ation- this trend has enco$raged an e'panded %ision of preser%ation- greater integration with nat$ral reso$rce conser%ation- and a stronger emphasis on the social rele%ance of historic properties. >re%io$sly- historic preser%ation was foc$sed on primarily historic %al$es of material fabric. /

=andscapes- in contrast- are de.ned by h$man relationships to place o%er time C the material e%idence of how people ha%e adapted to- and shaped the land on which they li%e C and are characteriBed by patterns and interactions- rather than solely by physical feat$res. =andscape characteristics incl$de ecological and c$lt$ral change- intergenerational $se and contin$ity- and %al$es held by associated c$lt$ral gro$ps. C$lt$ral landscape e%al$ations ha%e demonstrated that dynamic characteristics s$ch as broad spatial patterns- contin$ity of land $se- and di%erse c$lt$ral %al$es are critical components of landscape systems.6 In addition- intangible %al$es of landscapes incl$de social systemsed$cation and sense of place. This broadened perspecti%e is ill$strated by the incl$sion of c$lt$ral traditionssocioeconomic iss$es and elements of the nat$ral en%ironment as important %al$es and as management obDecti%es for c$lt$ral landscapes. Conc$rrently- the field of nat$ral reso$rce conser%ation has $ndergone shifts from a traditional foc$s on pristine en%ironments and ecosystem integrity to biodi%ersity conser%ation fo$nd across a mosaic of land $ses. Traditionallyfor nat$ral scientists- the protection of threatened species and of @$nto$ched?

nat$ral areas from h$man in.$ence was the main goal. Nat$re modi.ed by h$mans seemed beside the point to themhad little %al$e and was not recogniBed as a gen$ine problem for conser%ation. 7>lachter and Aossler)00"8 ,cological research and other recent trends ha%e broadened this perspecti%e. Aesearch has demonstrated the per%asi%eness of h$man in.$ence and ill$minated an appreciation of the role of dist$rbance C either nat$ral or h$man:generated C in shaping ecological systemspartic$larly in areas with a c$lt$ral history. There has also

A. +ia mant
been e%idence that species and ecosystem protection reG$ires a large:scale landscape approach- bringing nat$re conser%ation and people together. Integrating perspecti%es from nat$ral and c$lt$ral reso$rce conser%ation- co$pled with the dynamic G$alities of landscapes- poses challenges for management. Adrian >hillips- I1CN?s World Heritage Ad%isor- has noted that the long tradition of
the separation of nat$re and c$lt$re C of people from the en%ironment which s$rro$nds them C which has been a feat$re of western attit$des and ed$cation o%er the cent$ries- has blinded $s to many of the interacti%e associations which e'ist between the world of nat$re and the world of c$lt$re. 7>hillips- )00 8

et al.

inter5reting t%e cultural im5ortance of t%e landsca5e.E"

O$r e'perience with the #o$nt Tom forest reaffirms and e'pands $pon the $nderlying thesis that many types of c$lt$ral landscapes m$st be e%al$ated and managed as dynamic entities that are contin$ally shaped o%er time by both nat$ral and h$man forces.

The park?s )00 Heneral #anagement >lan 7H#>8 established the basic management philosophy to g$ide f$t$re decision:making for the park and forest 713 +epartment of the Interior- .**)8. The H#> calls for the National >ark 3er%ice to treat the forest as a c$lt$ral landscape and con: tin$e to acti%ely manage the forest in order to con%ey a sense of the site?s e%ol$tion thro$gh the occ$pancy of the #arsh- Billings and Aockefeller families- and to contin$e the tradition of professional forest management as an ed$cational demonstration of conser%ation stewardship. This management approach necessarily incl$des acti%e management- incl$ding appropriate har%esting- to preser%e the character:de.ning feat$res of the forest while perpet$ating its historic $se as a model forest. >$blic participation thro$gho$t the process will ens$re that the p$blic $nderstands the practices of good forest stewardshipE.A %ariety of ed$cational programs will be de%eloped that demonstrate the basic principles of forestry. >rogramming will stress the importance of balance in forest management respecting historic

The Mount Tom Forest as a Cultural Landscape: &e#ning an Approach

La!ing the foundation The direction for managing the forest as a c$lt$ral landscape was $nderscored in a letter by the then +irector of the National >ark 3er%ice- Kames Aideno$r- appended to the park?s )00. legislation 7italics added84
Important historical and c$lt$ral aspects of the #arshIBillings National Historical >ark are the forest management practices instit$ted by &rederick Billings. #any of the trees on the property were planted $nder the direction of Billings and represented a maDor ad%ance in reforestation practices at that timeE.Acti%e forest management is an important part of not only preser%ing the reso$rce b$t of

character- nat$ral %al$esaesthetics- and recreational $se. 713 +epartm ent of the Interior)000- p. ..8 The H#> directed the park to identify and retain feat$res and characteristics that contrib$te to the forest?s historical or ecological signi.canceand to apply best management practices in the care of the forest 713 +epartment of the Interior- )000- p. .!8. The H#> f$rther recommended @rehabilitation? as the o%erall c$lt$ral landscape treatment strategy for the park. Aehabilitation is an approach to preser%ation de.ned by the National >ark 3er%ice that allows for repairsalterations and additions necessary to make the property operational while preser%ing those portions or feat$res that con%ey historical and c$lt$ral %al$es. With the general management philosophy established by the H#>park staff began to grapple with identifying those characteristics of c$lt$ral and ecological

Aethinking Traditional >reser%ation

importance and de%eloping a strategy to retain the character of the forest and work with the dynamic nat$re of forest change.

Approaches for open land for sheep past$re. The creation of commercial markets for this relati%ely brief boom in #erino sheep precipitated one of Nermont?s earliest en%ironmental catastrophes. Almost *** wooden rails were needed to enclose a 6*:acre past$re. In a historical blink of an eye- places like Woodstock?s #o$nt Tom were stripped of most of their %egetationthen were G$ickly eroded and left deeply g$llied and infertile. 1pland top soil was washed into streams and ri%ers- threatening drinking water and creating massi%e .sh kills. #eanwhilestr$ggling lowland %illages were af.icted by freG$ent m$d slides and .ooding. Both Heorge >erkins #arsh and &rederick Billings witnessed this rapid degradation of the Nermont landscape. Sears later- while ser%ing as 13 Ambassador to Italy- #arsh wrote passionately abo$t the conseG$ences of deforestation and arg$ed for a new ethic of stewardship in his ) 96 landmark book- Man and 2ature 7#arsh- ) 968. &rederick Billings- a Nermont nati%elawyer- railroad e'ec$ti%e and pioneer conser%ationist p$rchased the #arsh property incl$ding the #o$nt Tom forest in ) 90. Billings was a belie%er in material progress and s$stainable $se- an o$tlook characteristic of American conser%ation $p to the middle of the .*th cent$ry. In the west- he had directed efforts to enco$rage settlement and commerce along the ro$te of the Northern >acific

Evaluating Cultural Landscapes: &e#ning 'istoric Character

The #o$nt Tom forest is an $n$s$al forest. It represents a remarkable milestone in American conser%ation C the beginning of a long road from what appeared in the middle of the )0th cent$ry to be an endless spiral of forest destr$ctionstretching from the mo$ntains of New ,ngland to the shores of the >aci.c. The e%ol$tion of that reco%ery is the res$lt of three generations? commitment- o%er nearly )/* years- to contin$o$s forest management and ecological s$ccession. 'istor! from the cultural perspective To $nderstand the c$lt$ral signi.cance of the #o$nt Tom forest- the park worked with a broad set of collaborators to de%elop se%eral reso$rce in%entories and historic conte't st$dies.9 This

research pro%ided the framework for $nderstanding the comple'ities of the park?s historical signi.cance and interrelationships between the land: scape of #o$nt Tom and the people who worked with and learned from it. Heorge >erkins #arsh grew $p on the property that is now the national park d$ring a time of enormo$s social and en%ironmental $phea%al. By the mid:)0th cent$ry#o$nt Tom- like tho$sands of other once:forested landscapes in New ,ngland- had s$cc$mbed .rst to clearing for hill farms- potash and .rewood and then to f$rther clearing to meet an almost insatiable demand

Aailroad- by planting trees- b$ilding windbreaks and other meas$res to stim$late r$ral de%elopment 7A$waerter et al.- .**68. In Woodstock- Billings set abo$t creating a farm and forest on the former #arsh property that wo$ld ser%e as a model of land stewardship for the depressed agric$lt$ral economy of his home state. He harbo$red a %ision of social impro%ement and r$ral reco%ery based in part on reforestationagric$lt$ral impro%ement and conser%ation. As Billings was planting trees by the tho$sands- he sim$ltaneo$sly de%eloped ). miles of carriage roads to showcase his pioneer forestry work to the p$blic. He worked to enhance his new estate?s prod$cti%ity and bea$ty. =andscape architect Aobert #orris Copeland- who worked with Billings on the layo$t of his estate- wrote of a synthesis of the @$sef$l and the bea$tif$l? 7A$waerter et al.- .**68. When Billings started this bold e'periment- forestry was not yet an established profession in America. He $sed scienti.c practices borrowed from )0th:cent$ry ,$ropean forestrydrawing hea%ily on his personal library of Herman and &rench forestry

A. +ia man
te'ts. The earliest plantations established by Billings on #o$nt Tom were Norway spr$ce 7&icea abies8- ,$ropean larch 7LariM decidua8and 3cots pine 7&inus sylvestris8 D fast: growing ,$ropean species tho$ght to be best s$ited to the New ,ngland climate 7&ig. 0.)8. The $se of these species is one demonstration of the dominant in.$ence of ,$ropean scienti.c forestry on the nascent profession in America 7A$waerter et al.- .**68. In some places on the property Billings simply added desirable nati%e hardwood species into the mi' of other trees that were nat$rally regenerating. In other places- partic$larly on more s$btly graded open land- Billings established plantations 7$sing row plantings of single species8 of fast:growing conifer trees. Billings? scienti.c forestry programme on worn:o$t agric$lt$ral lands in.$enced other efforts of forestry conser%ation thro$gho$t Nermont and the New ,ngland

t et al.
These later plantings were conc$rrent with the rapid growth of the forestry profession in America and the rise of forest conser%ation in the p$blic sector- partic$larly with the establishment of m$nicipal- state and national reforestation programmes. Aeforestation on #o$nt Tom contin$ed thro$gh the mid:.*th cent$ry. By that time most of the open land had been planted and forestry work shifted to maintaining e'isting plantations and managing the property for additional recreational $ses- s$ch as hiking and skiing. Billings? gently graded carriage roads pro%ide in%iting portals into the forest- while o%erhead- the sky is almost completely blocked by a dense canopy of mat$re trees. Along the %erge on either side of the roadthe $nder:storey has been thinned and opened $p so one can peer deeply into the forest- a legacy of Aockefeller?s emphasis on aesthetics and recreation C hallmarks of his stewardship d$ring the later half of the .*th cent$ry. 'istor! from the ecological perspective

Fig# @#%# This stand of Norway spr$ce was planted in ) ! as part of &rederick Billings? efforts to create a model forest that demonstrated progressi%e forestry techniG$es of the late )0th cent$ry. Today- the #o$nt Tom forest is one of the oldest planned and managed forests in the 13A. 7>hoto feat$red in American Forests- &ebr$ary )0)*.8

While the c$lt$ral dimension of the reforestation practices of Billings and his heirs is critical to $nderstanding the #o$nt Tom forest- this story is incomplete witho$t the ecological history. As the park was de%eloping the baseline information on the c$lt$ral signi.cance of the site- sim$ltaneo$sly research was also cond$cted on the

region. Billings promoted the .rst state commission to st$dy forestry in Nermont- and was a principal a$thor of its .nal report which emphasiBed the role of forestry in the re%italiBation of r$ral Nermont 7A$waerter et al..**68. In the conte't of American conser%ation history- his forestry work was far:sighted and pioneering for its time. As the cent$ry t$rned&rederick Billings? da$ghters s$cceeded him in the reforestation work on #o$nt Tom. The plantations set o$t by Billings? da$ghters incl$ded both nati%e white pines 7&inus strobus8 and red pines 7&inus resinosa8 that wo$ld dominate the .*th: cent$ry reforestation techniG$es in the 13A.

Aethinking Traditional >reser%ation Approaches

nat$ral processes that ha%e in.$enced the creation and e%ol$tion of the forest 7A$waerter et al..**68. This research pro%ided the framework for $nderstanding the comple'ities of the park?s ecological significance and interrelationships between ecological change- h$man acti%ity and the res$lting landscape character. These st$dies ill$minated the important role of nat$ral s$ccession in the de%elopment of the #o$nt Tom forest. While part of #o$nt Tom was being reforested with tho$sands of seedlings- other abandoned .elds slowly began the transition from .eld to a mi'ed northern hardwood forest thro$gh nat$ral s$ccession. As this process $nfolded- early @pioneer? tree species s$ch as white pine 7&inus strobus8- white and grey birch 7Betula 5a5yrifera and B. 5o5ulifolia8- and aspen 7&o5ulus tremuloides8 were the .rst to coloniBe the $nmanaged- open .elds. These trees co$ld spro$t and grow in the thick past$re grassestolerate n$trient:poor soils- and thri%e in the drys$nny open land. As these @pioneers? became established and grew- they began to in.$ence the site by adding n$trients to the soil- and forming dense canopies that shaded the grasses and dense herbaceo$s plants. 1nder these conditions- the shade:tolerant tree species s$ch as s$gar maple 7Acer sacc%arum8- American beech 7Fagus grandifolia8 and eastern hemlock 7Tsuga canadensis8 became established and to this day dominate the composition of the forest. &rom Billings? time forward- s$ccession in this part of the forest has been in.$enced by management. As pioneer species mat$red- they were har%ested or thinned to fa%o$r the more shade:tolerant- longer: li%ed hardwood species. >oor G$ality and diseased trees were also remo%ed. The res$lting managed hardwood forest has readable signs that tell this story- incl$ding the high G$ality of the remaining trees. #eanwhile- in the decades following the establishment of Billings? .rst plantations in the ) !*s- s$ccession began to in.$ence the plantation de%elopment as well. #any of the conifer species $sed in the reforestation efforts- s$ch as the white pine 7&inus strobus8- Norway spr$ce 7&icea abies8 and red pine 7&inus resinosa8- were

selected beca$se they were fast:growing- co$ld tolerate n$trient:poor soils and co$ld compete with the grasses of the agric$lt$ral .elds. These species G$ickly established a contin$o$s co%er that inhibited the growth of nati%e seedlings. &or a while- these planted trees enDoyed a competiti%e ad%antage o%er other plants that might ha%e nat$rally coloniBed the site. Howe%er- in order to maintain the health of plantation treesperiodic thinning is reG$ired to a%oid the potential stagnation of the plantation from o%ercrowding. The thinning increases the amo$nt of s$nlight reaching the forest .oor and res$lts in a b$rst of regeneration from nati%e seedlings. K$st like the pioneer species- the plantations enhanced the soil n$trients and created a mat$re forest canopypro%iding the necessary conditions for the establishment of shade:tolerant nati%e seedlings s$ch as s$gar maple- beech- yellow birch- white ash and hemlock. After a thinning- plantation trees G$ickly responded with a growth sp$rt that once again closed the canopy and repressed the growth of the nati%e hardwood seedlings. Howe%er- as the plantations age and the openings created thro$gh thinning become larger- the hardwoods become a significant component of the plantation composition 7&ig. 0..8.

Man and nature on Mount Tom: an integrated approach to landscape character It is the interplay between h$man intention and nat$ral processes that $ltimately shapes the character of the forested landscape of #o$nt Tom. The landscape character can be described as4

the patchwork con.g$ration of .eldshardwoods- and plantationsF Q the di%ersity of forest architect$re incl$ding hardwood stands and e%en:aged conifer plantations of %arying ages and le%els of mat$rityF and Q scattered indi%id$al @legacy trees?.

A. +iaman t et al.

Fig# @#+# This red pine stand planted in )0)) has a well: established $nder:storey of nat$rally regenerated nati%e hardwoods- incl$ding s$gar maple and beech- that co$ld e%ent$ally become a signi.cant component of the o%er: storey as the plantation contin$es to mat$re.

Landsca5e 5atc%-or3 The character of the forest is de.ned by a mosaic of spaces formed by the interrelationship of nat$ral and planted forest stands- meadows- the >og$e 7a )6:acre pond8 and %ista clearings. Woodlandpast$re and water feat$res are wo%en together by the network of carriage roads. This is a forest of contrast C light and dark- open and enclosed- intimate and e'pansi%e. This patch:like character re.ects the agric$lt$ral origin of the landscape- the in.$ence of late )0th:cent$ry landscape design- and o%er )/* years of contin$o$s forest management 7&ig. 0./8. This land:$se history- co$pled with nat$ral s$ccession- has created )9 different %egetation comm$nities in the park 7e'cl$ding the plantations8. The c$rrent
Fig# @#(# The #o$nt Tom forest?s patchwork represents an e%ol$tion in land $se. This hay .eld is one of the remaining agric$lt$ral .elds that date back to the early ) **s. The trees in the foregro$nd are an allee of s$gar maples which line a former farm road that is part of the .*:mile carriage road system de%eloped by Billings. In the backgro$nd a )0". red pine stand represents one of the yo$ngest and most dense plantations on #o$nt Tom. 7>hoto pro%ided by Nora #itchell.8

di%ersity of the forest o%er a relati%ely small spatial scale is %al$able habitat for many wildlife species.

Forest arc%itecture The #o$nt Tom forest has a wide %ariety of

stands. In some areas- s$ch as the mat$re conifer plantations and hardwood stands- the open $nder: storey and high canopy offer sweeping %iews into the forest. In other stands- s$ch as in yo$nger hardwood stands and nat$raliBed plantations- the thick $nder:storey creates enclosed- intimate forest e'periences. The comple' str$ct$re of the park?s forest pro%ides a di%ersity of wildlife habitats and other ecological f$nctions. #any

Aethinking Traditional >reser%ation Approaches

forest stands are de%eloping greater %ertical di%ersity as intentional forest thinning and nat$ral ageing of the stands opens $p the canopyincreasing light for shade:tolerant trees in the $nder:storey. &orest in%entory and monitoring s$ggest that low intensity forestry in the park appears to mimic nat$ral dist$rbances in both plantations and semi:nat$ral stands- s$pporting increased str$ct$ral and species di%ersity within these stands. 3ome of the park?s oldest plantations are starting to de%elop @old growth?- late: s$ccession str$ct$ral characteristics. Legacy trees This is a forest of big trees. There are st$rdy white pines- gracef$l Norway spr$ces swaying in the wind high abo%e the forest canopy- giant old: growth hemlocks and allees of stately s$gar maples C s$r%i%ing sentinels still at their posts along the old hill farm roads. These old hemlocks and s$gar maples- also referred to as legacy trees- are witnesses to the march of history. They ha%e been spared the a'e- often growing wildly and de.ant with their gnarled tr$nks and branches in the midst of the otherwise orderly geometry of pine plantations. One can spec$late that perhaps these s$r%i%ors commanded special respect from Billings and his foresters 7&ig. 0.68.

These @legacy trees? also biologically enrich the park?s forested ecosystems. They pro%ide an ab$ndance of habitat attrib$tes incl$ding ca%ities $tiliBed by a host of species. Old:growth trees increase the representation of large:diameter trees in mat$re forests and enhance %ertical str$ct$re. +iameter distrib$tions of the remnant old:growth trees in the park e'tend well beyond the siBes reported for nat$ral hardwood stands in the north: east.

The Challenges of 4reserving Character in a &!namic Landscape

In preparing a management approach for #o$nt Tom- the National >ark 3er%ice identi.ed the following challenges. 4reserving historic character )ithin the nature of forest change &orest management needs to work with the long: term nat$re of forest growth and the nat$ral life: span of trees- in this case- between )** and .** years. The character and composition of the forest are the res$lt of both h$man inter%ention and nat$ral s$ccession. As s$ch- the cycles of forest change are part of the historic character of the forest. #anagement needs to work with

Fig# @#-# The wide:spreading character of the branches of this s$gar maple is a testament to the open- agric$lt$ral origins of this area that is now a dense red pine plantation. 7>hoto pro%ided by Christina #arts.8

A. +iamant et al.

the dynamics of forest growth and change in a way that contin$es the legacy of stewardship and retains forest characteristics that ill$strate the rich history of forest management on #o$nt Tom. Integrating forestr! and agricultural practices to retain traditional land uses )ithin the forest The di%ersity of forests and .elds on #o$nt Tom is the res$lt of o%er )/* years of contin$o$s forestry and agric$lt$ral practices incl$ding thinning- pr$ning and har%esting. These acti%ities need to contin$e to be $sed as both a tool to retain the historic character of the forest and as a demonstration of the processes that ha%e shaped the landscape. Embracing BillingsA legac! of sustainable forestr! and public education &rederick Billings reforested #o$nt Tom as a model of s$stainable- inno%ati%e forestry and p$blic ed$cation. The park recogniBes that forestry and best forest management practices ha%e e%ol%ed since the time Billings began his reforestation campaign. #anagement acti%ities need to model contemporary s$stainable management while still retaining characteristics that represent the historical e%ol$tion of conser%ation tho$ght.

A 0trateg! for Transition and Integration

"etaining forest character The remaining e%en:agesingle:species plantations on #o$nt Tom pro%ide an ill$strati%e e'ample of Billings? pioneering reforestation techniG$es and a contin$$m of forest management that followed in the .*th cent$ry. Howe%er- all of these stands face strong competition from nati%e hardwood trees. The distincti%e- cathedral character of mat$re plantation reflects a snap:shot of history- a moment in time- along an almost irre%ersible traDectory of forest s$ccession. ,%ent$ally all of the historic plantations will reach mat$rity and

will no longer con%ey the same sense of original planting patterns or species composition that ill$strates the historic reforestation efforts. The e'tent that these softwood plantations might be perpet$ated or re:created into the f$t$re is problematic and presents a maDor challenge in managing this c$lt$ral landscape. To re:establish plantations in their e'isting locations and with the e'isting e%en:aged str$ct$re wo$ld reG$ire management techniG$es incl$ding o%er: storey remo%al by clear:c$tting and the remo%al of the e'isting regeneration thro$gh aggressi%e hand c$tting or the $se of herbicides. These management options wo$ld r$n co$nter to the moment$m of forest s$ccession- wo$ld be e'tremely costly and labo$r intensi%e- and co$ld ha%e ad%erse ecological impacts. This approach to preser%ation wo$ld also be at %ariance with a long legacy of forward: thinking forest stewardship. Accepting the reality that the forest on #o$nt Tom is a dynamic reso$rce with $nderlying ecological processes at work is a necessary step in concept$aliBing strategies for the preser%ation of the c$lt$ral landscape. Tho$ghtf$l- $ncon%entional approaches to retaining and enhancing character are being implemented that respect the $niG$e history of the land and its long and intimate connection to a long line of well:intentioned stewards. The 13 National >ark 3er%ice has had to work with a philosophical framework that addresses preser%ation at bot% the broad characteristic and feat$re le%el. >reser%ation in a forested c$lt$ral landscape transcends the traditional architect$ral .'ation on @fabric integrity? and the perpet$ation of indi%id$al obDects or feat$res. As the forest planta: tions e%ent$ally age and decline o%er timemanagement emphasis will shift more to renewing broad distincti%e patterns and characteristics of the forest as a whole- and the tradition of forward: thinking forest stewardship. &or e'ample- new plantings- where%er

Aethinking Traditional >reser%ation Approaches

they occ$r- may draw on a @palette? of historic species and the forest will contin$e to be managed for its characteristic large trees. New generations of @legacy? trees will also be c$lti%ated. It may be possible to re:establish a few conifer plantations on a m$ch smaller scale by hand c$tting competing hardwoods. 7A few new plantations co$ld be established in the few e'isting open .elds and past$resF howe%er- these agric$lt$ral lands are also now a %al$ed character:de.ning feat$re of the c$lt$ral landscape.8 Opport$nities will also be p$rs$ed to either retain and renew the edges of plantations or seek o$t new locations where scaled:back plantings of new softwoods might be accomplished. The greatest effort will be made along the principal carriage roads where there is the highest concentration of park %isitors. This work is already being started with the realiBation that action m$st be initiated long before the historic plantations begin to decline and signi.cantly change. It may take decades if not a generation of work to s$ccessf$lly effect this transition. Continuing a legac! of education and sustainabilit! The forest is a place not only to interpret conser%ation?s early history- b$t also to demonstrate principles of contemporary forest management and s$stainability. &orest management is cond$cted in a way that makes the intent and process of management practices transparent to the p$blic. >rogrammes and interpreti%e displays are created in association with management acti%ities to pro%ide f$rther e'planation of what is being done and why. Whene%er possible- management operations are cond$cted as p$blic acti%ities- pro%iding hands:on learning opport$nities. ,d$cational acti%ities address the comple' social- economical and ecological iss$es associated with c$lt$ral landscape in a local and global conte't. The park has initiated se%eral proDects to contin$e the tradition of inno%ati%e- s$stainable forest management. #erti.cation 5ilot 5roCect The park is $ndergoing %ol$ntary assessment

$nder the &orest 3tewardship Co$ncil certification system to demonstrate and interpret certi.cation as a new chapter in the park?s legacy of conser%ation inno%ation. Third:party certi.cation is one of the fastest growing new de%elopments in s$stainable forestry. The p$rpose of certi.cation programmes is to pro%ide market recognition of good forest management thro$gh credible- independent %eri.cation of best forest practices.

)alue/added economics Nal$e is added to forest prod$cts thro$gh their association with a special placeF responsibles$stainable managementF and craftsmanship. To interpret these important connections- the park is working with ,astern National- the park?s cooperating association- to commission prod$cts made by artists from wood har%ested in the parkincl$ding bowls and pens which are for sale at the park?s %isitor centre bookstore. Wood from #o$nt Tom has also been $sed for f$rnit$re for the %isitor centre- rehabilitating historic b$ildings and other park maintenance proDects. The park demonstrates and interprets practical- low:impact techniG$es for har%esting- and on:site milling and drying of l$mber. Where%er practical- wood har%ested from the forest will be $sed for %al$e:added p$rposess$pplying local crafts people and man$fact$rers 7&ig. 0."8.

#ro5 tree release demonstration Crop tree management enhances the growth of selected forest trees and impro%es wildlife habitatrecreational opport$nities and forest aesthetics. The demonstration site was created thro$gh a p$blic workshop held in cooperation with the 13+A &orest 3er%ice and the Nermont +epartment of &orests- >arks and Aecreation. The growth of the crop trees will be meas$red and monitored o%er time to e%al$ate the effecti%eness of the treatment.

A. +iaman t et al.

Aolf +iamant.8

Fig# @#># A local f$rnit$re maker demonstrates the art of his craft while disc$ssing how local s$stainably managed forests inspire and s$pport the tradition of regional wood prod$ct craftsmanship and his work. 7>hoto pro%ided by

,aters%ed and community connections AecogniBing that the forest?s ecological and historical connections e'tend beyond the park bo$ndary- the park is working with local land owners and comm$nity organiBations on collaborati%e proDects s$ch as the de%elopment of an integrated comm$nity trails system. The park also in%ol%es the local comm$nityed$cators- interested professionals and the broader p$blic as acti%e participants in the management of the forest. The park will contin$e to b$ild a network of partners to enhance research- management and ed$cational efforts related to forest stewardship. A forest for every classroom; learning to ma3e c%oices for t%e future Inspired by a common %ision of st$dents learning from and caring for p$blic lands- the park has Doined with 3helb$rne &arms- the Conser%ation 3t$dy Instit$te- Hreen #o$ntain National &orest and the North : east Of.ce of the National Wildlife &ederation to create A Forest for Every #lassroom - a professional de%elopment programme for ed$cators on place:based ed$cation. The p$blic and pri%ate partner organiBations share a common %ision that if today?s st$dents are to become responsible en%ironmental decision makers- they m$st $nderstand the landscapes in which they li%e- and they m$st ha%e ed$cational opport$nities based on real:life iss$es that enco$rage them to practice en%ironmental citiBenship in their own comm$nities. The c$rric$l$m de%eloped by the teachers integrates hands:on learning abo$t concepts in c$lt$ral landscapes- forest ecology- sense of place- stewardship and ci%ic responsibility. 3t$dents immersed in the interdisciplinary st$dy of @place? are more eager to learn and be in%ol%ed in the stewardship of their comm$nities and p$blic lands.

Ada5tive management A programme of adapti%e management is $sed to $nderstand site:speci.c change and to e%al$ate and re.ne forest management acti%ities. Working with the 1ni%ersity of Nermont?s A$benstein 3chool of the ,n%i: ronment and Nat$ral Aeso$rces- the park has established 96 permanent plots to assess s$ccessional dynamics and str$ct$ral changes associated with forest stands. This is an important tool for monitoring c$lt$ral landscape change o%er time and assessing o%erall ecosystem health 7forest growth and str$ct$ral changes- regeneration- biological di%ersity- forest pests and diseases- in%asi%e plant pop$lations- and water G$ality8. These efforts ens$re that ongoing forest management is contin$o$sly modi.ed to re.ect insights gained from on:site monitoring and knowledge emerging from new research.

Aethinking Traditional >reser%ation Approaches

Conclusion
In reclaiming and reocc$pying lands laid waste by h$man impro%idence or malicebman m$stc become a co:worker with nat$re in the reconstr$ction of the damaged fabric. Heorge >erkins #arsh

In de%eloping the forest management programme for #arshCBillingsCAockefeller National Historical >ark- we were confronted with a tradition of historic preser%ation that emphasiBed retaining fabric and feat$res of historic places and an ecological perspecti%e that was ahistorical. Howe%er- management of this historic forest chal: lenged these traditions. The forest character we see today is only a snap:shot in timeF change is constant- b$t the nat$re of that change is in.nite. Trees are mo%ing along their own $niG$e traDectories in.$enced by the dynamics of competition and disease- and the a%ailability of light- soil- water and n$trients. The p$ll of forest s$ccession ne%er rests. 3oftwood plantations were planted in the late )0th and early .*th cent$ries in open- abandoned agric$lt$ral .elds witho$t the powerf$l competition from nati%e hardwoods. Today- all b$t a few of the .elds are co%ered with trees and competition from hardwoods is intense. To maintain new generations of softwoods- e'act replicas of today?s stands- may well be beyond o$r reach or simply impossible witho$t clearing land on the scale of early settlement. The response to this challenge is not so m$ch in the preser%ation of detail- s$ch as in situ replication of forest stands and species composition- b$t rather in the

preser%ation of landscape character and an end$ring legacy of responsible- s$stainable forest management. This approach to forest management re.ects a new direction in conser%ation philosophy and practice. There are lessons learned from this storied forest ecosystem where the combination of h$man inter%ention and nat$ral processes has created a place of $tility and bea$ty- of nat$re and c$lt$re. These lessons can be applied in other places where nat$ral and c$lt$ral systems are not simply parallel- nor distinct reso$rce sets that co:e'ist. In these c$lt$ral landscapes- we need to transcend a traditional historic preser%ation approach that %iews landscape as historic artefact and a solely nat$ral ecosystem approach that regards h$man inter%ention as $ndesirable or $nnecessary. Instead- we need a historic preser%ation perspecti%e that incorporates the role and in.$ence of nat$ral s$ccession and ecological processes- and a nat$ral reso$rce conser%ation perspecti%e that is informed and shaped by a sense of history and stewardship. The dynamic character of these landscapes- by de.nition- is a prod$ct of a long history of %ery comple' interactions. >lanning therefore needs to take into acco$nt a longer time horiBon- thinking abo$t landscape change in terms of h$ndreds of years. This challenges the tradi: tional perception of the past as separate and distinct from the present. Inherent in the recognition of this broad set of nat$ral and c$lt$ral %al$es is the opport$nity to manage c$lt$ral landscapes in a manner that respects ecologyhistory- contin$ing c$lt$ral traditions- principles of s$stain:ability and ed$cation.

.otes

) .

Aolf +iamant is 3$perintendent of #arsh:Billings:Aockefeller National Historical >ark 7#BANH>8- 13 National >ark 3er%ice- Christina #arts is Chief of Aeso$rces #anagement 7#BANH>8 and +r. Nora #itchell is +irector of the National >ark 3er%ice Conser%ation 3t$dy Instit$te. #ultural Landsca5es; T%e #%allenges of #onservation- World Heritage >apers !. >aris4 1N,3CO World Heritage Centre- .**/F Nora #itchell and 3$san B$ggey- u>rotected =andsdcapes and C$lt$ral =andscapes4 Taking Ad%antage of +i%erse Approaches-v T%e !eorge ,rig%t Forum )! 7)84 /":69- .***F A +andboo3 for Mangers of #ultural Landsca5es -it% 2atural esource )alues- a web:based p$blication- .**/- see http4IIwww.nps.go%IcsiIcsihandbookIhome.htm.

In the 1nited 3tates- a n$mber of p$blications ha%e pro%ided m$ltiple tools for identifying- $nderstandingand managing c$lt$ral landscapes. &reservation Brief 7B; &rotecting #ultural Landsca5es; &lanning, Treat

A. +iamant et al.

ment and Management of +istoric Landsca5es - by Charles A. Birnba$m. Washington- +.C.4 13 +epartment of the Interior- National >ark 3er%ice- )006F and A !uide to #ultural Landsca5e e5orts; #ontents, &rocess, and Tec%niPues, by Aobert A- >age- Cathy A. Hilbert- and 3$san A. +olan- )00 - both offer g$idance in analysing- doc$menting and protecting c$lt$ral landscapes. T%e *ecretary of t%e InteriorFs *tandards -it% !uidelines for t%e Treatment of #ultural Landsca5es edited by Charles A. Birnba$m and Christine Capella >eters- Washington- +.C.4 1.3. +epartment of the Interior- National >ark 3er%ice- )009pro%ides direction for decision:making abo$t c$lt$ral landscapes- which is partic$larly $sef$l for designed historic landscapes. 6. 2ational egister Bulletin 79; !uidelines for Evaluating and 1ocumenting ural +istoric Landsca5es- =inda &lint #cClelland- K. Timothy 2eller- Hene%ie%e >. 2eller- and Aobert X. #elnick- Washington+.C.4 1.3. +epartment of the Interior- National >ark 3er%ice- )00*.

) .

>$blic =aw )*.:/"*. A$g$st .9- )00.- )*.nd Congress- 3. .*!0.

!eneral Management &lan Mars%/Billings/ oc3efeller 2ational +istorical &ar3 7H#>8Washington- +.C.4 1.3. +epartment of the Interior- National >ark 3er%ice- )000- ...

"eferences
A$waerter- K. et al. 7.**68 #ultural Landsca5e e5ort for t%e Forest at Mars%/Billings/ oc3efeller 2ational +istorical &ar3, ,oodstoc3, )ermont )olume ?; Analysis . National >ark 3er%ice- Brookline#assach$setts. A$waerter- K. and C$rry- H. 7.**.8 1 AFT #ultural Landsca5e e5ort for t%e Mansion !rounds; Mars%/ Billings/ oc3efeller 2ational +istorical &ar3, )olume 6; *ite +istory . National >ark 3er%ice- Boston#assach$setts. Beck- K. 7)0068 e5ort for t%e 2ational &ar3 *ervice based on Intervie-s #onducted about t%e Mars%/ Billings 2ational +istorical &ar3. Nermont &olklife Center- #iddleb$ry- Nermont. Birnba$m- C. A. 7)0068 &reservation Brief 7B; &rotecting #ultural Landsca5es; &lanning, Treatment and Management of +istoric Landsca5es. 13 +epartment of the Interior- National >ark 3er%ice- Washington+C. Birnba$m- C.A. and >eters- C.C. 7,ds8 7)0098 T%e *ecretary of t%e InteriorFs *tandards -it% !uidelines for t%e Treatment of #ultural Landsca5es . 13 +epartment of the Interior- National >ark 3er%ice- Washington+C. &o$lds- ,.- =acy- 2. and #eier- =.H. 7)0068 =and 1se History for #arsh:Billings National Historical >ark. National >ark 3er%ice- Boston- #assach$setts. #adison- #. 7)0008 =andscapes of 3tewardship4 the History of the #arsh:Billings 3ite. 1np$blished. #arshH.>. 7) 968 Man and 2ature, or, &%ysical !eogra5%y as Modi.ed by +uman Action . New Sork and =ondon. #cClelland- =.&.- 2eller- K.T.- 2eller- H.>. and #elnick- A.X. 7)00*8 2ational egister Bulletin 79; !uidelines for Evaluating and 1ocumenting ural +istoric Landsca5es. 13 +epartment of the Interior- National >ark 3er%ice- Washington- +C. #itchell- N. and B$ggey- 3. 7.***8 >rotected landscapes and c$lt$ral landscapes4 taking ad%antage of di%erse approaches. T%e !eorge ,rig%t Forum )! 7)84 /":69. Nadenicek- +. 7.**/8 Frederic3 Billings; t%e Intellectual and &ractical In.uences on Forest &lanning, 6@?7/6@>9. >age- A. A.- Hilbert- C. A. and +olan- 3. A. 7)00 8 A !uide to #ultural Landsca5e e5orts; #ontents, &rocess, and Tec%niPues.

>hillips- A. 7)00 8 The nat$re of c$lt$ral landscapes C a nat$re conser%ation perspecti%e. Landsca5e esearc% ./ 7)8 /9. >lachter- H. and Aossler- #. 7)00"8 C$lt$ral landscapes4 reconnecting c$lt$re and nat$re. In4 %on +roste- B.- >lachterH. and Aossler- #. 7eds8 #ultural Landsca5es of Universal )alue, #om5onents of a !lobal *trategy. Kena- 3t$ttgart and H$sta% &ischer Nerlag- New Sork- with 1N,3CO. >$blic =aw )*.:/"*. A$g$st .9- )00.- )*.nd Congress- 3. .*!0. 1N,3CO 7.**/8 #ultural Landsca5es; t%e #%allenges of #onservation- 1N,3CO World Heritage >apers !. A +andboo3 for Managers of #ultural Landsca5es -it% 2atural esource )alues 7.**/8 see http4IIwww.nps.go%IcsiIcsihandbookIhome.htm. 13 +epartment of Interior 7.**)8 e5ort on t%e Management of t%e +istoric Mount Tom Forest ,oodstoc3, )T. 13 +epartment of Interior- National >ark- pp 6:". 13 +epartment of Interior 7)0008 !eneral Management &lan Mars%/Billings/ oc3efeller 2ational +istorical &ar3 7H#>8. 13 +epartment of the Interior- National >ark 3er%ice- Washington- +C. 13 +epartment of the Interior 7.**68 1 AFT #ultural Landsca5es Inventory; Mars%/Billings 2ational +istorical &ar3. 13 +epartment of the Interior- National >ark 3er%ice- Brookline- #assach$setts. Wilcke- 3.- #orrissey- =.- #orrissey- K.T. and #orrissey- K. 7.***8 #ultural Landsca5e e5ort for t%e Forest at Mars%/Billings/ oc3efeller 2ational +istorical &ar3 . Conser%ation 3t$dy Instit$te and 1ni%ersity of Ner: mont- B$rlington- Nermont.

%, Bor2ing Forest Landscapes: T)o Case

0tudies from .orth Carolina
H.B. Blank
2ort% #arolina *tate University, 1e5artment of Forestry, #arolina, U*A aleig%, 2ort%

Introduction
In the 13A many opport$nistic actions ha%e sec$red @de%elopment rights easements? or made o$tright p$rchases of ecologically %al$ed land parcels threatened by potential de%elopment. Actions by land conser%ation gro$ps at local and regional spatial scales ha%e been effecti%ely e'panding the amo$nt of nat$ral landscape protected and accessible by the p$blic for decades 7#ann and >l$mmer- )0098. 3$ch actions are $s$ally directed toward lands showing minimal degrees of prior dist$rbance- th$s preser%ing important biological %al$es s$ch as biodi%ersity. Howe%er- relati%ely few places in the landscape of the 13A remain absol$tely pristine 7+ickinson- .***F #ann- .**.8. Th$s- as de%elopment press$re grows in certain regions- conser%ation actions increasingly need to foc$s on remaining large contig$o$s tracts of nat$ral landscape- no matter what their past $se history 7#ann and >l$mmer- )0098. 3$ch large tracts often contain managed forests and tracts har%ested b$t not systematically managed. At federal and state le%els in the 13A- a n$mber of programmes e'ist to pro%ide f$nding for land conser%ation. North Carolina- for e'ample- initiated the Clean Water #anagement Tr$st &$nd to make monies a%ailable for acG$iring lands to f$rther water G$ality protection goals. At the federal le%el- a programme titled @&orest =egacy? enables participating states to $se f$nds channelled thro$gh the 13+A &orest 3er%ice specifically to acG$ire forested lands for conser%ation. 3tates m$st G$alify to participate in the &orest =egacy >rogram and m$st de%elop criteria for determining which lands will become eligible for acG$isition. In North Carolina- thro$gh a %ery p$blic process- proponents for Doining the &orest =egacy >rogram declared an intention to sec$re working forests for long:term protection from de%elopment 7Blank- )0008. According to the de.nition- working forest landscapes can pro%ide wood for e'traction- clean water and airnecessary habitat for game and non:game species- recreational space- %is$al bea$ty- tranG$ility and an array of specialty items s$ch as m$shrooms- medicinal plants- mistletoe- pine straw- etc. 7Blank- )0008. Working forest landscapes prod$ce economic- aesthetic and spirit$al %al$es percei%ed to %arying degrees by people from widely %aried perspecti%es. Working forests pro%ide the aforesaid renewable reso$rces and %al$es $nder direction of a management plan designed to meet de.ned obDecti%es in a s$stainable manner. This de.nition emerged from disc$s
< CAB International .**9. T%e #onservation of #ultural Landsca5es 7ed. #. Agnoletti8

sions held by the steering committee con%ened to direct the &orest =egacy application process and ens$re broad representation across the range of parties interested in the f$t$re of North Carolina?s forested landscape. The de.nition was circ$lated to directors of land conser%ation tr$sts across the state and to interested citiBens who participated in the scoping process. Consens$s emerged that for the aims of this federal programme as applied in North Carolina- the incl$si%e lang$age of this de.nition best addressed the threats facing the state?s areas of large contig$o$s forest. #ore restricti%e definitions were considered $nlikely to pro%ide incenti%e to pri%ate landowners to cooperate in the initiati%e. Two e'amples of how this de.nition applies are gi%en here to ill$strate implications of the concept of working forests and to consider how historic conte'ts impact o$r $nderstanding of landscape management choices.

Landscape Conte$ts
The 66"" ha of >rogress ,nergy?s Harris =ands encompass the ")6:ha North Carolina 3tate Harris Aesearch Tract 7HAT- http4IIlegacy.ncs$.ed$IclassesIfor! 6**)I harristract.htm8 in Wake Co$nty- North Carolina 7Blank et al.- .**.8. These lands lie in the so$thern portion of a region that has e'perienced s$stained $rbaniBation since economic growth began accelerating rapidly d$ring the late )0!*s. Hrowth was spawned by the inno%ati%e creation of Aesearch Triangle >ark- sit$ated within a geographic triangle formed by the cities of +$rham- Chapel Hill and Aaleigh. ,ach of these three cities has a maDor $ni%ersity located within its bo$ndary4 respecti%ely- +$ke 1ni%ersity- 1ni%ersity of North Carolina- and North Carolina 3tate 1ni%ersity. In large part beca$se of its pro'imity to these three $ni%ersities- Aesearch Triangle >ark s$cceeded beyond most people?s e'pectations in its ability to attract clean ind$stry and research enterprises that- in t$rn- generated more Dobs and economic %itality. Ho$sing and associated ser%ice centres ha%e since sprawled in all directions from the three $rban cores. 3ome small comm$nities peripheral to these $rban centres ha%e grown into s$bstantial m$nicipalities in their own right. Cary- North Carolina- for instance- grew from a %illage of abo$t 6*** people in )0!* to aro$nd 09-*** people at the .*** cens$s. Amidst s$ch growth- the Harris =ands were acG$ired to pro%ide a sec$rity b$ffer aro$nd a n$clear power plant b$ilt and acti%ated in the )0 *s and to accommodate Harris =ake- needed to pro%ide water for the reactor?s cooling tower. >erhaps the most important characteristic of the Harris =ands- the )9)0:ha Harris =ake- draws boaters and .shermen from thro$gho$t the region. Besides HAT and the lakethe Harris =ands incl$de a regional park and e'tensi%e game lands- the latter managed by the North Carolina Wildlife Aeso$rces Commission 7NCWAC8. +$pont 3tate &orest 7+3&- http4II www.d$pontforest.com8 occ$pies 6)!) ha of land in Transyl%ania and Henderson Co$nties- in the mo$ntaino$s western region of North Carolina. 1nlike the Harris =ands- +3& lies farther from $rban in.$ence- altho$gh the North Carolina mo$ntain region incl$des some co$nties that lead the state in percentage rates of pop$lation growth. Here- press$re comes from retirees and growing ser%ice ind$stries catering to o$tdoor recreation and to$rism. #o$ntain resort and retirement comm$nity de%elopments .ll the %alleys and pepper the hills. Aelati%ely short distances to maDor cities s$ch as AtlantaCharlotte and 2no'%ille make it easy for $rbanites to reach second homes and weekend %acation spotswhile the Bl$e Aidge >arkway and 3mokey #o$ntains National >arks attract enormo$s n$mbers of %isitors to the region. =and that became +3& was intentionally assembled as a pri%ate retreat s$rro$nding an ind$strial plant b$ilt by +$>ont de Nemo$rs to man$fact$re photographic film. Before that- in the )0.*s appro'imately .*." ha of the property were still owned by ." indi%id$als- with m$ch of the forest being har%ested and large areas cleared for agric$lt$re 73cott and Blank-

Working &orest =andscapes

.**/8. The maDority owner of the property- &rank Co'e- sold land in )0"9 to +$>ont Corporationwhose owners belie%ed that the clean air and water of the mo$ntains wo$ld impro%e the film prod$ction process. O%er time- +$>ont acG$ired additional land parcels aro$nd the original .*." ha. The land was $sed by employees for recreation and rela'ation and $sed to entertain clients and e'ec$ti%es of the corporation- so these acti%ities prompted de%elopment of a recreational infrastr$c: t$re. #ost farmed lands were replanted to white pine forest- b$t most of the land was allowed to regenerate and de%elop as nat$ral forest. The 6)!): ha tract now known as +$>ont 3tate &orest was acG$ired by the 3tate in three maDor phasesspanning from )00" to .***. 1nder Heneral 3tat$te ))//6- state forests may be $sed to demonstrate the practical $tility of timber c$lt$re and water conser%ation- as ref$ges for game and for e'perimental- demonstration- ed$cation- park and protection p$rposes. Heographic positions and past land $ses ha%eof co$rse- shaped biological conditions and created impacts on the landscapes these forests occ$py. Tho$gh past acti%ities in some degree de.ne the potential work these forests can do- the resiliency of temperate North American forests allows .e'ibility and dynamic change $nder management direction. C$rrently- management direction of the Harris =ands and +3& will mo%e in different directions beca$se of their change in ownership stat$s and the differing attrib$tes of the forests themsel%es. Howe%er- both forests will still merit being called working forests- tho$gh the primary foc$s of their work may %ary in emphasis.

Forest Characteristics
The Harris Aesearch Tract contains remnants of the transitional longleaf 7&inus 5alustris8 pine comm$nity within mi'ed pine and hardwood forests that dominate most of the Harris =ands owned by >rogress ,nergy 7Blank- .**68. Within these forests- .6! species of plants ha%e been identi.ed 7>arker- )00 8 representing the site?s

transitional position between coastal plain and piedmont regions. The plant comm$nity also re%eals a n$mber of s$ccessional stages and introd$ctions of e'otic species beca$se of past dist$rbance acti%ity. O%erall- the piedmont forests in this area once dominated by longleaf pine were altered when farming and logging began with ,$ropean coloniBation and settlement in the )!**s and grad$ally red$ced the %iability of long:leaf trees in the forest canopy 7Bode- )00!F >arker)00 8. Th$s- these forests show the effects of .re s$ppression- con%ersion to non:forest $ses and the nat$ral ability of other early s$ccession species to s$rpass longleaf pine 7>arker- )00 8. They show e%idence of past graBing and timber har%esting in areas contin$o$sly forested. >rogress ,nergy intensi%ely manages most of its land in loblolly pine plantations for high:yield .bre and l$mber har%ests. Aestoring the longleaf component in the forest remains in the e'perimental stage on HATwith only 90 ha act$ally being managed to fa%o$r longleaf 7Blank- .**68- so the amo$nt of longleaf: dominated area that e%ent$ally e'ists will depend on %ario$s factors. The +$pont 3tate &orest consists of mi'ed pineIhardwoodwhite pineIhemlock and hardwood forests laced with )6" km of roads and trails and st$dded with fo$r maDor waterfalls along a stretch of the =ittle Ai%er. +3& lies in the Bl$e Aidge >ro%ince of the 3o$thern Appalachian #o$ntains. In fact- +3& ab$ts and lies immediately west of the Bl$e Aidge as identi.ed on the 3tandingstone #o$ntain G$adrangle 713H3 !." #in$te series- )09"- >hotore%ised )00*8. The forest lies in the &rench Broad Basinand the =ittle Ai%er drains a maDority of the tract to e%ent$ally empty into the &rench Broad Ai%er. The geological character of the land that makes $p +3& created a %ariety of nat$ral terrestrial comm$nities in this location. They s$bseG$ently were %ario$sly impacted by h$man $ses of the land- probably by Amerindians- certainly by ,$ro: American settlement late in the ) th cent$ry- and then thro$gh s$ccessi%e owners to the present. In short- the +3& does not offer a pristine en%ironment.

Aather- it offers e'amples of past h$man actions ranging from e'tracti%e and $tilitarian to c$stodial and preser%ati%e. The res$lt is a mosaic of plant comm$nities in sometimes dynamically changing and sometimes modestly altered en%ironmentsdepending $pon where in the landscape they occ$r. &ifteen Nat$ral Heritage >rogram primary areas ha%e been identi.ed in the forest- and forest types incl$de rich co%e- acid co%e- oak:montaine and Canada hemlock.

Case 0imilarities
The two cases at hand represent somewhat parallel sit$ations $p to a point in their history. Their origins in nat$ral forest s$bDect to random dist$rbance e%ents can be ass$red- as can their dist$rbance by h$man in.$ences d$ring prehistoric periods- b$t relati%ely little detail from that period is a%ailable abo$t either site. &rost?s 7)00 8 estimates of pre:settlement .re freG$encies can only pro%ide general g$idance- b$t they do make clear that .res were considerably more freG$ent on the Harris =ands than on +3&. &arming and past logging altered forest composition in both of these forested settings- the e'tent and d$ration of inten: si%e farming and forest $tiliBation being wider and longer at HAT than at +3&. In both cases corporate ownership implemented conser%ati%e management and restoration practices- b$t s$ch intentional management at +3& preceded HAT by se%eral decades. +e%elopment alternati%es at +3& posed the threat gal%aniBing local citiBens and neighbo$ring residents into a potent force which enabled acG$isition of +3& for p$blic $se. In Wake Co$nty$rban sprawl poses a realistic threat to contin$ed forest integrity and the ability to manage this large block of forest as prod$cti%e timberland. Clearly the attrib$tes of managed forests can be compatible with s$b$rban neighbo$rs- b$t the Harris =ands prompt the G$estion of whether the attrib$tes of s$b$rban neighbo$rs can accommodate sil%ic$lt$re practices reG$ired to keep managed forests economically %iable. Harris =ake >ark and HAT- embedded as they are within the large contig$o$s forest block- bene.t from the b$ffering effect res$lting from >rogress ,nergy?s management. Set designated 7m$ltiple8 $ses will likely change thro$gh time across the 66" ha encompassed by the Harris =ands- and the appli:

cation of .re to manage these forests is always a do$btf$l option. The most signi.cant iss$es at +3&- from the standpoint of remaining a working forest- concern the amo$nt of recreation acti%ity that can be s$stained and the relationship of forest management practices to the recreation acti%ity. Certainly as a res$lt of the >rimary Areas designation- some limitations on con%entional forest har%esting and the e'tent of recreation allowed in those areas m$st be maintained. #ore broadly- the interaction of timber har%esting and recreation $sers m$st be addressed caref$lly. The opport$nity to e'plain nat$ral and h$man:ind$ced forest s$ccession and the bene.ts of caref$l m$ltiple:$se management e'ists beca$se of the n$mbers of people %isiting the forest- b$t those n$mbers also pose the potential for %aried and con.icting perceptions abo$t appropriate intensity of timber management. In both cases- rapid growth rates statewide concern members of the conser%ation comm$nity- who see the decline of open space and nat$ral areas generally eroding the capacity for many species of wildlife to s$stain their pop$lations- for air to be cleaned and for people to .nd recreational space. The aesthetic and life G$ality iss$es bro$ght abo$t by intensi%e de%elopment in landscapes percei%ed to be nat$ral spark reactions across the pop$lation spectr$m. Howe%er- local comm$nity dynamics can lead to markedly different le%els of engage: ment in what happens to forest parcels.

Case &ifferences
The most ob%io$s difference between these two cases is that pri%ate land at +3& became p$blic b$t the pri%ate lands that became the Harris =ands remain in corporate hands- with the p$blic ha%ing leases

Working &orest =andscapes

and rights to $se s$bstantial portions of those lands. +3& is managed by a state agency with a clear mandate to balance forest $ses b$t a clear p$blic perception that recreation and aesthetically pleasing o$tdoor e'periences are the primary reason for the land to be accessible. The Harris =ands are managed by se%eral different entitieswith the maDority being managed for timber prod$ction and effecti%ely off:limits to most p$blic access. The areas of p$blic access 7Harris =akeHarris =ake >ark- the NCWAC designated game lands8 foc$s $ses on %ario$s forms of recreation. HAT- managed Dointly by North Carolina 3tate 1ni%ersity and >rogress ,nergy- remains foc$sed on research and teaching with access by recreation $sers tolerated- b$t as yet not acti%ely enco$raged. Terrain feat$res create the most striking difference between the two cases. The high gradient landscape at +3& pro%ides recreational challenges and scenic %istas attracti%e to a wide range of $sers. Th$s- +3& timber stand management has and will be a secondary foc$s of the working forest- while management of people in the landscape will remain the primary foc$s of staff and state:allocated reso$rces. In contrast- the mildly rolling topography of the Harris =ands does not pro%ide scenic %istas- and the creeks feeding Harris =ake are small- relati%ely $nattracti%e points of recreation interest. On the Harris =ands not primarily de%oted to p$blic access- the largest portion of the forested area- sil%ic$lt$re will domi: nate $nless s$b$rban de%elopment pro%es to be an irresistible alternati%e- b$t these timber stands are $nremarkable aesthetically- so they attract few cas$al %isitors. The recreational draw of +3& is h$ge. 3igni.cant nat$ral feat$res of waterfalls and granite domes combined with ab$ndant recreational trails at +&3 attract tho$sands of %isitors to the forest ann$ally. &or- as the +3& Trails #aster plan points o$tone of the main reasons the forest is renowned for its recreation opport$nities is the e'tensi%e network of trails. With o%er )6" km of roads and trails meandering thro$gh the forest- the opport$nity for different recreation e'periences is seemingly limitless. Howe%er- in order to maintain and impro%e the recreation e'perience on the forest the trail system

m$st be properly managed. 73cott and Blank- .**/8

Beca$se the trails and roads link segments of the ri%er and the %ario$s waterfalls and climb $p and down o%er a n$mber of steep granite domes and mo$ntain peaks- the %ariety of %istas and scenic e'periences is di%erse and appealing to a wide range of %isitors with %arying physical capabilities. Aecreation on the Harris =ands will primarily in%ol%e boating- picnics and h$ntingtho$gh trail de%elopment is increasing the attraction for people seeking places to ride horses and bikes. =inkage between Harris =ake >ark and HAT may increase this recreation component in the area. HAT is- of co$rse- a research site where restoration of a now somewhat $niG$e plant comm$nity calls to G$estion whether restoration of an isolated e'ample amidst the s$rro$nding later s$ccession forest makes sense.

Conclusions
In considering working forests- we m$st $nderstand the historically important role landscapes played in many dimensions of local residents? e%eryday li%es- incl$ding s$stained h$man needs for wood:based reso$rces and the emerging desire for recreational escape. Better knowledge of pragmatic and spirit$al attachments that past inhabitants maintained with landscapes of contemporary interest can help $s determine where to direct scarce monetary reso$rces in the f$t$re. Incl$ding working forests among o$r areas of conser%ation attention recogniBes those historic and contin$ing interests and needs. 3$ch incl$sion can effecti%ely stretch f$nds a%ailable for landscape conser%ation. +edicated %ol$nteers made a difference in acG$iring the +$pont 3tate &orest for p$blic recreation and ecological preser%ation. While potential damage by recreation $sers is a concerncaref$l attention to people management in that en%ironment is a clearly artic$lated goal 7+raft ,A +oc$ment8. The Harris =ands- which sit amidst a rapidly $rbaniBing landscape- ha%e not yet e'peri: enced the f$ll impact of de%elopment on their borders and are D$st now beginning to see

increased interest in both conser%ation and recreational opport$nities. How they are managed as working forests depends on the management prerogati%es of a corporate entity and its relationship with the p$blic.

The two case st$dies e'amined here demonstrate different aspects of the working forest de.nition. >$blic and pri%ate lands of similar siBe are in%ol%ed. The intensities of management and recreation $se differ in the two cases- b$t in each instance the heritage of management- the landscape history- is an important factor in shaping

the f$t$re management direction of these working forests.

"eferences

Blank- H.B. 7)0008 #onserving 2ort% #arolinaFs Forests; Assessment of 2eed for t%e Forest Legacy &rogram. NC +i%ision of &orest Aeso$rces- Aaleigh- North Carolina. Blank- H.B. 7.**68 A case integrating historical ecology to restore a transitional &inus 5alustris comm$nity. In4 Honnay- O.- Nerheyen- 2.- Boss$yt- B. and Hermy- #. 7eds8 Forest Biodiversity; Lessons from +istory for #onservation. CABI- Wallingford- 12- Chapter )9. Blank- H.B.- >arker- +.3. and Bode- 3.#. 7.**.8 #$ltiple bene.ts of large $nde%eloped tracts in $rbaniBed landscapes4 a North Carolina e'ample. .ournal of Forestry )**7/8- .!C/.. Bode- 3.#. 7)00!8 =and $se and en%ironmental history of the 3hearon Harris Tract. #asters thesis. North Carolina 3tate 1ni%ersity- Aaleigh- North Carolina. +ickinson- W.A. 7.***8 Changing Times4 the Holocene legacy. Environmental +istory "768- 6 /C"*.. &rost- C.C. 7)00 8 >resettlement .re freG$ency regimes of the 1nited 3tates4 a .rst appro'imation. In4 >r$denT.= and Brennan- =.A. 7eds8 Fire in Ecosystem Management; *%ifting t%e &aradigm from *u55ression to &rescri5tion. Tall Timbers &ire ,cology Conference >roceedings- No. .*- Tall Timbers Aesearch 3tationTallahassee- &lorida- pp. !*C ). #ann- C.C. 7.**.8 )60.. Atlantic Mont%ly . 07/- #arch8- p. 6). #ann- C.C. and >l$mmer- #.=. 7)0098 2oa%Fs #%oice; t%e Future of Endangered *5ecies. Alfred A. 2nopf- New Sork. >arker- +.3. 7)00 8 1sing botanical analysis to shape a longleaf restoration proDect. #asters thesis- North Carolina 3tate 1ni%ersity- Aaleigh- North Carolina- p. ))0. 3cott- K. and Blank- H.B. 7.**/8 Trails Master &lan for 1u&ont *tate Forest; &re5ared for 2# 1ivision of Forest esources. College of Nat$ral Aeso$rces- North Carolina 3tate 1ni%ersity- North Carolina.

%% "estoration in the American .ational

Forests: Ecological 4rocesses and Cultural Landscapes
N. =angston
1e5artment of Forest Ecology and Management, University of ,isconsin/ Madison, Madison, ,I, U*A

Introduction
While American old:growth forests are commonly tho$ght of as pristine- they are profo$ndly c$lt$ral landscapes- shaped by Indian b$rning- forest management- ind$strialiBation and .re e'cl$sion. Setaltho$gh h$man efforts ha%e altered American forests in comple' ways- the changes that people ha%e bro$ght abo$t ha%e rarely been the changes they had hoped for. 1nintended conseG$ences ha%e res$lted from each effort to reg$late and reshape American forests. While American forests are c$lt$ral landscapesthey are also wild in important ways- for they resist the bo$nds of h$man control. >rofessional foresters and the timber ind$stry persist in seeing the forests as $nder their control- e%en as en%ironmental gro$ps persist in seeing the same forests as pristine- wild entities best left $nto$ched. Neither perspecti%e is par : tic$larly acc$rate or helpf$l. If forest conser%ation is to be s$ccessf$l- both foresters and en%ironmentalists need to recogniBe the ways that c$lt$re has shaped American forests- as well as the ways that wild processes ha%e reshaped c$lt$ral landscapes.)

American national forests are at a crisis point. Changing societal %al$es and new $nderstandings of ecosystem processes ha%e called into G$estion decades of &orest 3er%ice management aimed at reg$lating the forests for increased timber prod$ction. As a res$lt- timber har%ests on the )0) million acres of national forests ha%e dropped by "M- from )..! billion board feet har%ested in .nancial year )0 ! to ). billion board feet har%ested in .nancial year .**/ 7Congressional Aesearch 3er%ice- .***F 13+A &orest 3er%ice- .**6www.IIfs.fed.$sIforestmanagementIreports Isold:har%estIdoc$mentsI)0*": .**"|Natl|3old|Har%est|3$mmary.pdf8. +ecades of .re e'cl$sion ha%e made western forests far more s$sceptible to the threat of stand:replacing .res- and a p$blic o$tcry against intense wild.res has led to e%en more conf$sion abo$t correct forest policy. Changing climate regimes ha%e increased the s$sceptibility of many p$blic forests to insect epidemics- and millions of acres of forests from Alaska to Wisconsin face a forest health crisis. The national

forests- in other words- are a mess. While most people agree that something has gone badly wrong with manage: ment of America?s national forests- agreeing on new policies is m$ch more dif.c$lt. Aestoration of an earlier @nat$ral? ecosystem is the fa%o$red strategy for many federal agencies who feel that traditional management went badly wrong. &oresters are < CAB International .**9. T%e #onservation of #ultural Landsca5es 7ed. #. Agnoletti8

e'pected to restore the forests back to the @historic range of %ariability?- or the landscape before whites arri%ed 7=angston- )00"a8. B$t these restoration goals make problematic ass$mptions abo$t history- pristine nat$re- and the role of h$mans in nat$re. In this chapter- I will begin by re%iewing some of the goals of American forest restoration- and then t$rn to a case st$dy from the old:growth forests of eastern Oregon to arg$e that forest restoration sho$ld not be based on a pristine myth- b$t on an $nderstanding of forests as c$lt$ral landscapes.

;n "estoration and 'istor!

American restorationists work within a set of ass$mptions abo$t pristine nat$re 7=angston)0008. Their work is ironic at heart- for it $ses h$man labo$r to erase the physical e%idence of h$man labo$r- attempting to ret$rn an altered landscape to something that appears pristine and free of h$man presence. According to one recent American te'tbook in the .eld- the goal of ecological restoration is @to take a degraded landscape and ret$rn it to its original condition? 7B$sh- )00!- p. 6**8. The 3ociety for ,cological Aestoration 73,A- the international professional society of restoration ecologists8 has str$ggled with the de.nition o%er the last se%eral years. In )00*- 3,A defined ecological restoration as @the process of intentionally altering a site to establish a de.ned- indigeno$s- historic ecosystem. The goal of this process is to em$late the str$ct$re- f$nctiondi%ersity and dynamics of the speci.ed ecosystem? 73,A- www.ser.org8. In )00/- the of.cial 3,A definition changed to4 @,cological Aestoration is the process of re:establishing to the e'tent possible the str$ct$re- f$nction- and integrity of indigeno$s ecosystems and the s$staining habitats that they pro%ide?. The National Aesearch Co$ncil 7)00.8 foc$sed on the idea of h$mans as dist$rbers of ecosystems- de.ning restoration as @the ret$rn of an ecosystem to a close appro'imation of its condition prior to dist$rbance?. #any ,$ropean ecologists ha%e disagreed with s$ch interpretations of restoration which stress the ret$rn to an original- pre:dist$rbance- indigeno$s ecosystem. They arg$e that s$ch an attempt makes little sense in a world of e'tensi%e h$man manip$lations- where no single point in the past can be called original 7see Bowler- )00.F Baldwin et al.- )0068. Set most American restorationists

agree with the ecologist William Kordan III 7)00"#adison- Wisconsin- personal comm$nication8 that only ret$rning to a pre:,$ropean comm$nity can be called restorationF all the rest is mere rehabilitation. Aestoration attempts to $se h$man labo$r to ret$rn damaged landscapes to some earlier point in their history- with the ass$mption that earlier ecosystems were more s$stainable than c$rrent ones. 3cienti.cally- this is problematic. As the ecologist Kohn Cairns 7)00"8 arg$es- stochastic %ariation d$e to historical e%ents is critical in the de%elopment of ecological comm$nities. This means that it is impossible to predict the endpoint of a comm$nity from any set of beginning pointsand that therefore it is not possible to recreate any ecosystem from the past- nor to recreate any c$rrently e'isting reference site. 3ince e%ery ecosystem constantly changes- it is impossible to determine a baseline for restoration- a normati%e state deser%ing to be maintained or restored. ,cosystems are dynamic- rather than static- and dist$rbance processes operate e%en in the absence of h$man inter%ention. Ass$ming that all dist$rbances are harmf$l and that all h$man inter%entions damage an ecological system makes little sense gi%en c$rrent ecological $nderstanding of ecosystem processes 7+$nwiddie- )00.8. In arg$ing that restoration sho$ld ret$rn a site to its @original? condition- the implicit ass$mption is that before ,$ropeans altered these landscapes nat$re was $ndist$rbed by h$mans. Set- as en%ironmental historians- palaeoecologists and geographers ha%e demonstrated- nearly all ecosystems on earth ha%e been affected by h$mans o%er many tho$sands of years. H$man processes ha%e had profo$nd

Aestoration in the American National &orests

effects on landscapes that most people now think of as nat$ral. To ignore the roles of people in shaping s$ccessional processes is to miss a critical ecological point4 namely- that repeated dist$rbance processes- many of them anthropogenic- shaped the landscapes we wish to restore. ,'cl$ding h$man dist$rbances as @$nnat$ral? will ens$re that restoration of those comm$nities cannot work. This chapter proposes a different approach to restoration- arg$ing that restoration will be most s$ccessf$l when its practitioners recogniBe that the forests they are trying to .' are c$lt$ral landscapesnot p$rely nat$ral landscapes in need of ha%ing h$man presence erased. I will foc$s on the three national forests in the Bl$e #o$ntains of Oregon and Washington- 13A- where millions of hectares ha%e been badly damaged by o%er:logging- .re e'cl$sion- insect epidemics- climate change and poor management choices. Aather than describing in detail the ecological changes in the Bl$e #o$ntains 7see =angston- )00"a- for an analysis of these changes8- this chapter will foc$s on the dilemmas of c$lt$ral and ecological restoration in the region.

The Blue Mountains

When ,$ro:Americans .rst came to the Bl$e #o$ntains of eastern Oregon and Washington in the early )0th cent$ry- they fo$nd a land of lo%ely open forests f$ll of ponderosa pines .%e feet across. These were stately giants the settlers co$ld trot their ponies between- forests so promising that people tho$ght they had st$mbled into paradise. B$t they were nothing like the h$mid forests to which easterners were acc$stomed. #ost of the forest comm$nities across the inland West were semi:arid and .re:adapted- and whites had little idea what to make of those .res. After a cent$ry of trying to manage the forests- what had seemed like paradise was irre%ocably lost. The great ponderosa pines were gone- and in their place were thickets of .r and lodgepole. The ponderosa pines had resisted most insect attacks- b$t the trees that replaced them were the fa%o$red hosts for defoliating insects s$ch as spr$ce b$dworm and +o$glas:.r t$ssock moth. As firs in%aded the old ponderosa forestsinsect epidemics swept the dry Western forests. By

)00)- in the "." million acres of &orest 3er%ice lands in the Bl$e #o$ntains- insects had attacked half the stands- and in some stands nearly !*M of the trees were infested 7=angston- )00"a8. ,%en worse- in the %iew of foresters and many locals- was the threat of catastrophic fires. Altho$gh light fires had b$rnt thro$gh the open pines e%ery )* years or so- few e'ploded into infernos that killed entire stands of trees. B$t as .rs grew $nderneath the pines and s$cc$mbed to insect damage- far more f$el became a%ailable to s$stain maDor .res. ,ach year- the .res seemed to get worse and worse. By the beginning of the )00*s- one maDor .re after another swept the inland West- $ntil it seemed as if the forests might entirely go $p in smoke. &orest change comes abo$t not D$st beca$se people c$t down trees- b$t beca$se they c$t down trees in a world where nat$re and c$lt$re- ideas and markets- tangle together in comple' ways. On one le%el- the landscape changes res$lted from a series of ecological changes. Hea%y graBing remo%ed the grasses that earlier had s$ppressed tree germination- allowing dense thickets of yo$ng trees to spring $p beneath the older trees. When the federal foresters s$ppressed .res- the yo$ng .rs grew faster than pines in the res$ltant shade- soon coming to dominate the forest $nderstorey. High grading C remo%al of the %al$able ponderosa pine from a mi'ed:conifer forest C helped change species composition as well. B$t the story is m$ch more comple' than this. Changes in the land are ne%er D$st ecological changes4 people made the decisions that led to ecological changes- and they made those decisions for a comple' set of moti%es. The story of these drastic landscape changes is- in the simplest %ersion- a story of the land?s transformation into a set of commodities that co$ld be remo%ed o$t of one landscape and mo%ed to another. Indians had certainly altered the landscapes- b$t when whites showed $p they set into motion changes that far o$tpaced the pre%io$s changes. The critical difference was that the Bl$es finally became a so$rce of reso$rces C timbergold- meat and wool C to feed the engines of market capitalism.

Before whites came- the Bl$es were certainly connected to markets o$tside the region. =ocal tribes had an e'tensi%e set of ties to trading networks that spread west to the >aci.c Ocean and east to the Hreat >lains 7#einig- )09 8. Indians did e'tract elements from the local ecosystem- and in the process- they changed the local ecology to meet their needs- largely thro$gh b$rning. Howe%er- their needs did not incl$de remo%ing large G$antities of wood .bre for f$el- fertiliBer or constr$ction. Indian land $se was not necessarily s$stainable- nor was it in any kind of inherent balance with the land?s limits. Set it was still f$ndamentally different from the land $se that whites instit$ted- for it did not incl$de the whole: sale e'traction of reso$rces and their e'port elsewhere. Indians who made the Bl$es their home did not see the land as a set of distinct- e'tractable reso$rces- as most whites wo$ld come to see it e%en when they had strong emotional connections to the place. ,$ro:American settlement in the Bl$es- as in the West at large- had been dri%en by a %ision of limitless ab$ndance. The forests seemed endlessF the land in need of impro%ementF the world a%ailable for the takingF b$t as the timber ind$stry reached the >aci.c- people began to fear that there might be an end in sight. #any worried that if the nation contin$ed to deplete its forests witho$t tho$ght of the f$t$re- it might one day .nd itself witho$t the timber $pon which ci%iliBation depended. &ederal scientists in partic$lar were certain that- beca$se of wastef$l ind$strial logging practices- a timber famine was abo$t to de%astate America. By the last decade of the )0th cent$rythe Bl$es seemed to be in serio$s tro$ble. The b$nchgrass was largely gone- depleted by intense graBing. Wars between small cattle ranchersitinerant sheepherders and large cattle operations from California had left tho$sands of sheep and se%eral sheep:herders dead. Timber locators and spec$lators were taking $p the best timber landF small mills and miners were illegally c$tting thro$gho$t the watershedsF irrigators feared that their in%estments in water proDects wo$ld be lost 7=angston- )00"a8. It was in this conte't that federal foresters came west in )0*. C to sa%e the Bl$es from $nrestricted ab$se fostered by the desire for short:term pro.ts. To restore and protect ponderosa pine forestsearly foresters felt they needed to keep o$t .reenco$rage the growth of yo$ng trees and replace

old trees with yo$ng ones. Old growth seemed to threaten the f$t$re by taking $p the space that yo$ng trees needed to grow- and .re seemed e%en worse- for it act$ally killed yo$ng trees. 3ince foresters were certain that yo$ng trees were the f$t$re of the forest- .re and old growth seemed clearly the enemy. To $nderstand these decisions to s$ppress .re and remo%e old growth- we need to $nderstand their scientific- c$lt$ral and economic conte'ts. In )0*9- the basic premise of the new &orest 3er%ice was simple4 if the 13A was r$nning o$t of timber- the best way to meet f$t$re demands was to grow more timber. #ore than !*M of the Western forests were old:growth stands C what foresters called @decadent and o%er:mat$re?- which meant forests that were losing as m$ch wood to death and decay as they were gaining from growth. Beca$se yo$ng forests p$t on more %ol$me per acre faster than old forests- foresters belie%ed that old:growth forests needed to be c$t down so that reg$lated forests co$ld be grown instead. Aeg$lated forests were yo$ng- still growing G$ickly- so that they added more %ol$me in a year than they lost to death and decay. The ann$al net growth co$ld be har%ested each year- witho$t e%er depleting the growing stock. 3cienti.c forestry seemed impossible $ntil the old growth had been replaced with a reg$lated forest. &or e'ample- in )0))- C. 3. K$dd- the assistant forester for the Northwest region- told the incoming class of forestry st$dents at the 1ni%ersity of Washington that a timber famine was on its way

Aestoration in the American National &orests

$nless the &orest 3er%ice did something G$ickly. 3ince the forest was r$nning o$t of trees- the way to .' the problem was to get National &orest land to grow trees faster. As K$dd p$t it- @the good of the forest E demands that the ripe timber on the National &orests and abo%e all- the dead- defecti%eand diseased timber- be remo%ed.? The way to accomplish this was to @enter the timber sale b$siness? and hea%ily promote sales. This wo$ld get rid of the old growth- freeing $p land to @start new crops of timber for a f$t$re s$pply? 7K$dd)0))- $npaged doc$ment8. &oresters saw old growth not as a great reso$rce- b$t as a parasitetaking $p land that sho$ld be growing trees. The $nreg$lated forest was something to be altered as G$ickly as possible for moral reasons- to alle%iate what one forester- Thorton #$ngertermed @the idleness of the great areas of stagnant %irgin forest land that are getting no selecti%e c$t: ting treatment whatsoe%er? 7#$nger- )0/9$npaged doc$ment8. The problem was not D$st with old growth or dying timberF the problem was with a forest that did not prod$ce precisely what people wanted C a recalcitrant- comple' nat$re marked by disorder and what the forester Heorge Bright called @the general riot of the nat$ral forest? 7Bright)0)/- $npaged doc$ment8. This logic shaped a &orest 3er%ice that- in order to protect the forest- belie%ed it necessary to .rst c$t it down. Beginning in )0*.- across the "." million acres of p$blic forests of the Bl$e #o$ntains- federal foresters foc$sed on liG$idating old:growth pine to make a better nat$re. By replacing slow:growing @decadent? forests with rapidly growing yo$ng trees- the &orest 3er%ice hoped that the h$man comm$nity and the forest itself wo$ld become stable and predictable. &oresters belie%ed that disease- dead wood- old growth and fire all detracted from ef.cient timber prod$ction. In other words- they were ass$ming that the role of the forest was to grow trees as fast as it co$ld- and any element that was not directly contrib$ting to that goal was bad. Whate%er was not prod$cing timber competed with trees that co$ld be prod$cing timber- foresters belie%ed. Any space that a dead tree took $p- any light that a .r tree $sed- any n$trients that an insect chewed $p C those were stolen from prod$cti%e trees. If timber trees did not $se all the a%ailable water- that water

was wasted. If yo$ng- %igoro$s pine did not get all the s$n- that s$n was lost fore%er. These ass$mp: tions made it dif.c$lt for foresters to imagine that insects- waste- disease and decadence might be essential for forest comm$nitiesF indeed- that the prod$cti%e part of the forest might de5end on the $nprod$cti%e part of the forest.

Li<uidating ;ld =ro)th

C$lt$ral ideals alone are not eno$gh to transform forests4 technology- markets and political conditions all play important roles as well. 1ntil World War I- for all the foresters? desire to c$t old growth- the &orest 3er%ice sold little timber in the Bl$e #o$ntains 7=angston- )00"aF see also 3ko%lin- )00)8. &orest 3er%ice timber was inaccessible- prices were set so high that few contractors were willing to in%est- and the ind$stry still had eno$gh pri%ate stock to make sales of federal timber $nattracti%e. After the warhowe%er- markets for p$blic ponderosa pine opened $p- since there were few remaining accessible stocks on pri%ate land- and the &orest 3er%ice began to hea%ily p$sh sales of ponderosa pine in the Bl$es. This in t$rn enabled them to serio$sly begin the campaign to reg$late the forests by liG$idating old growth. The &orest 3er%ice belie%ed that to ens$re local prosperity- old:growth forests needed to be con%erted to reg$lated forests that co$ld prod$ce har%ests fore%erF b$t to reg$late the forestsplanners needed markets for that timber- and they needed railroads to get the timber o$t to the markets. Aailroads were e'traordinarily e'pensi%e- partic$larly after World War I. &inancing them reG$ired capital- which often meant attracting in%estment from midwestern l$mber companies. These companies were only going to be interested in spending money on railroads if they were promised sales large eno$gh and rapid eno$gh to co%er their in%estments. The res$lts in the Bl$es- as across the West- often damaged both the land and the local comm$nities that depended on that land.

Thro$gho$t the Bl$e #o$ntains in the )0.*s&orest 3er%ice planners enco$raged the constr$ction of mills which had ann$al milling capacities well abo%e what the &orest 3er%ice co$ld s$pply on a s$stained:yield basis. On the #alhe$r National &orest alone- for e'ample- two large sales d$ring the )0.*s offered o%er . billion board feet of pine- o$t of only ! billion in the entire forest. Two mills followed C one capable of processing 9* million board feet a year- and another that co$ld process !* to !" million board feet each year. With mill capacities reaching )/" million board feet a year- it wo$ld take only )" years C not the 9* years of the c$tting cycle C to process the two billion board feet in these salesand only ". years to process all the ponderosa in the entire forest. ,%en tho$gh the &orest 3er%ice sales programme started o$t conser%ati%ely- it G$ickly gained a moment$m that seemed to o%erwhelm the good sense of foresters. Thro$gho$t the )0.*sforesters set $p plans knowing that har%ests wo$ld drop by at least 6*M- leading to probable mill clo: s$res in the )0 *s 7=angston- )00"a8. This$nfort$nately- is e'actly what happened. Har%ests collapsed at the beginning of the )00*s C not beca$se of en%ironmentalists or spr$ce b$dwormb$t beca$se planners set it $p that way in the )0.*s- .g$ring it was a reasonable price to pay for getting forests reg$lated as fast as possible. The training of early foresters was hea%ily in.$enced by ,$ropean sil%ic$lt$re- which had as its ideal a waste:free- prod$cti%e stand4 nat$re perfected by h$man ef.ciency. ,arly Bl$e #o$ntains foresters belie%ed that to make the forests s$stainable they needed .rst to transform decadent old growth into %igoro$s- reg$lated stands. Set $ntil World War I they ne%er tried to implement these ideals- largely beca$se there were few markets for the trees. It was neither economically nor technologically feasible to c$t the forests hea%ily eno$gh to bring abo$t intensi%e s$stained:yield forestry. After World War Ihowe%er- the &orest 3er%ice established e'tremely high rates of ponderosa pine har%ests- creating the ecological and economic conditions that directly led to the forest health crisis of the )00*s. Why did the &orest 3er%ice promote s$ch high har%estsW +esire for pro.t- power str$gglesb$rea$cratic empire b$ilding C all of these played an instit$tional role- b$t none of them can e'plain the moti%ations of indi%id$al foresters. To make

sense of their decisions- we need to e'amine the links between ideals and material reality in American forestry. &ederal foresters shaped the western landscapes according to a comple' set of ideals abo$t what the perfect forest o$ght to be. In t$rn- these %isions were shaped by a%ailable logging technology- de%eloping markets for forest prod$cts- the costs of sil%ic$lt$ral practices- and what the historian Aich Harmon 7)00"- ,:98 has called @the $nrelenting press$res...aimed at go%ern: ment of.cials to make p$blic reso$rces a%ailable for pri%ate pro.t.? After World War II- managers became e%er more enamo$red of intensi%e forestry. No:one had yet pro%en any of the claims of intensi%e forestryF no: one had managed to reg$late a western old:growth forest- b$t the &orest 3er%ice was optimistic all the same C s$rely- someday soon- with the help of loggers- sil%ic$lt$rists wo$ld be able to transform all the western forests into %igoro$s yo$ng stands growing at top speed 7Hirt- )0068. When that day .nally came- the &orest 3er%ice estimated that loggers co$ld har%est .* billion board feet a year fore%er 7Wilkinson- )00.8. There hardly seemed to be an end in sight to what managers tho$ght forests co$ld e%ent$ally prod$ce. The forest health crisis changed all this. K$st before the &orest 3er%ice p$blished the )00) &orest Health report- loggers had har%ested o%er 9* million board feet a year of timber from the Bl$es C nearly 9** million of this from federal lands. By )00/- howe%er- har%ests had slowed to a trickle. A lot of money- a lot of timber and a lot of Dobs were at stake. In an $n$s$al

Aestoration in the American National &orests

admission of g$ilt and conf$sion- the &orest 3er%ice stated that this crisis was ca$sed by its own forest management practices C yet no:one co$ld agree e'actly which practices ca$sed the problemsm$ch less how to restore the forests.

"estoration and Cultural Landscapes in the Blue Mountains

#ost people now agree that a forest health crisis threatens the Bl$es- b$t few people agree on the sol$tion. #any en%ironmentalists arg$e that the best way to restore the forest is to lea%e the land alone- stop logging and let nat$re heal itself. Nat$ral processes- they say- will heal the forests better than h$man inter%ention e%er co$ld. Set this perspecti%e o%erlooks the fact that these are no longer nat$ral forests. =ogging- road b$ilding- .re s$ppression and graBing ha%e degraded the soil: and water:holding capacities of these forests and increased f$el loads dramatically C and the res$lt is a forest m$ch less resilient to dist$rbance 7>erry)0068. If we simply remo%ed o$rsel%es from these forests at this point- letting the forests b$rn might pre%ent the re:establishment of ponderosa pine forests for cent$ries 7Agee- )0068. =ea%ing these forests alone may seem like the most nat$ral thing to do- b$t- ironically- it wo$ld lead to highly $nnat$ral effects- since we ha%e so radically altered the forest comm$nities. &or many foresters- restoration means intensi%e management- not an end to management. Their ideal past is one of wide open stands- with few trees per acre C a past they hope to ret$rn to with the help of hea%y sal%age logging. Beca$se many pre:settlement mi'ed:conifer comm$nities $sed to be open and park:like- proponents of sal%age logging ha%e arg$ed that we sho$ld log o$t the dense $nder:storey now present in these forests. After the catastrophic wild.res of .**. and .**/- Congress passed the B$sh Administration?s @Healthy &orests Initiati%e? 7H.A. )0*68- which hoped to sa%e the forests from .re by $sing intensi%e logging to restore pre:settlement forest str$ct$re. +e.nitions of forest health are at the root of these D$sti.cations for sal%age logging- and these de.nitions re.ect long:held c$lt$ral ideals of what a %irt$o$s forest sho$ld look like. According to the

Idaho >olicy >lanning Team- the best meas$re of forest health is when mortality is ) ./M of gross ann$al growth C the de.nition offered by the 3ociety of American &oresters 7O?=a$ghlin et al.)00/8. By this de.nition- intensi%ely managed ind$strial forests in Idaho are in a m$ch healthier condition than non:ind$strial forests- and old growth is in the worst condition of all- since mor: tality and growth are nearly eG$al. Therefore- the Idaho report concl$des- intensi%e- ind$strial management is what keeps forests healthy. ,arly foresters D$sti.ed liG$idating old:growth pine forests for e'actly this reason C so yo$ng- healthyrapidly growing forests co$ld take their place. 3al%age logging tries to restore the forests by foc$sing on D$st one element- the ecological changes in tree str$ct$re- ignoring the policies and the c$lt$ral ideals that led to the changes. It ignores the ideological basis of forest health problems- and so it ends $p with a proposal that repeats the same errors that created the changes. 3al%age logging ignores the political forces that led to forest de%astation4 namely- an economic and political system which made forests into storeho$ses of commodities to feed distant markets and .ll distant pockets. It also gets the ecology wrong- since it does not realiBe that ideology and politics shape the ways one sees ecology. &or e'ample- at the heart of the desire to sa%e the forests with intensi%e management is the belief that by making c$rrent forest o%er:storeys look like they $sed to look- we will make .res beha%e as they $sed to beha%e. One h$ndred years ago- when light .res b$rnt freG$ently in some mi'ed:conifer forests- those forests were openwith minimal f$el loads- little organic matter on the gro$nd- and few .rs in the $nder:storeyF b$t after years of .re s$ppression and intensi%e management- the forest is a different place- a landscape that is as m$ch c$lt$ral as nat$ral. ,%en light .res may now ha%e s$rprising effects. After decades witho$t fire- increased litter has led to cooler microclimates near the forest .oor and increased soil moist$re. Aoot str$ct$res ha%e changed in response- with more roots cl$stering close to the s$rface. In those conditions- e%en a %ery light .re may singe tree roots- killing old ponderosas if the soil moist$re is low 7Harrington and 3ackett- )00.8. The important point here is

that history matters4 the world has changed- so that simply rearranging the trees will not ret$rn a forest to its earlier condition.

What we need to restore forest health is a new %ision of restoration and its relation to history. The goal of restoration sho$ld be not to bring h$mans back to the pristine- wild past- b$t instead to do the opposite4 to restore elements of the wild back into c$lt$ral- managed landscapes. This may so$nd G$i'otic- b$t se%eral pri%ate foresters in the region are trying to do D$st this. Bob Kackson and =eo Hoebel work a forest site that lies on a moist north slope near the town of Koseph in the Wallowa #o$ntains of eastern Oregon. O%er the past 6* years- after working for the &orest 3er%ice and Boise Cascade and growing disg$sted with them both- Kackson and Hoebel ha%e de%eloped an alternati%e %ision of good forestry b$ilt o$t of their e'perience working in the woods and o$t of their passion for a partic$lar place 7=angston- )00"b8. On their land- the most %al$able species were high:graded off abo$t !* years ago and soil organic matter was badly depleted by clear:c$tting. Kackson and Hoebel?s primary goals ha%e been to restore the soil fertility by n$rt$ring dead woodand to restore a %ariety of species nati%e to the site C ponderosa pine- larch- grand .r- and +o$glas .r. Hrowing soil means growing di%ersity- they arg$enot D$st in trees- b$t in insects- birds and spidersand microbes and dead wood. When they are in the woods- one of their primary concerns is co$nting spiders- since they think many of the spider species only ret$rn when the soil is in better condition. They hate clear:c$tting- feeling that while it might bring in more money all at once- short:term pro.t comes at the cost of soil- yo$ng trees and organic matter. Instead- they selecti%ely har%est- waiting $ntil each tree is at least ) inches in diameter. To increase growth rates- they thin yo$ng trees by hand- opening $p space and light for the trees they lea%e behind. To get the long- knot:free lengths that bring in the best money- they do what is called @limbing?- which is a labo$r:intensi%e effort that in%ol%es c$tting off low branches while the tree is still growing. To control insect damage- Kackson and Hoebel grow as many different tree species as possible and keep the dead wood thick on the gro$nd. By doing their own work- they can keep skid trails- yarding sites and roads down to abo$t "M of each har%est area- red$cing soil compaction. In the &orest 3er%ice that .g$re is .*M. All these practices reG$ire a great deal of caref$l hand labo$r- and e'tensi%e knowledge abo$t the forest itself. &ew contractors co$ld afford to pay people to take this m$ch care for the landF Kackson and

Hoebel do it beca$se they ha%e a great deal of attachment to both the place and to their craft. Altho$gh they work the land intensi%ely- the forest looks m$ch like old growth C m$lti:layered- m$lti: aged- with n$mero$s trees o%er ) inches in diameter- a rich soil- ab$ndant snags and a forest .oor thick with dead wood. Trees do not grow in rows and there is nothing neat or tidy abo$t the place- b$t it is a prod$cti%e working forest all the same. Kackson and Hoebel?s s$stainable forestry work has managed to bring together political factions in the area who normally ref$se to speak to each other. In )006- a leader of an en%ironmental gro$p was b$rned in ef.gy by representati%es of the local co$nty mo%ement- yet both these gro$ps now agree that what Kackson and Hoebel are trying to do is the best hope for the region?s tro$bled forests. Hro$ps in the area with %ery different political goals C from the Indian tribes to ranching and timber ind$stry gro$ps- and en%ironmentalists C ha%e managed to collaborate on a watershed plan proposing that Kackson and Hoebel?s s$stainable forestry practices be applied to small pri%ate forests thro$gho$t the co$nty 7Wallowa Co$nty Commissioners- )00"8.

Aestoration in the American National &orests

Kackson and Hoebel?s decision to restore forest prod$cti%ity by s$ppressing fire- increasing soil organic matter and managing for a mi'ed:agemi'ed:species forest makes sense for their partic$lar place- gi%en their speci.c goals of making a li%ing here witho$t destroying the forest?s ability to persist. #any details of the Kack: son and Hoebel model wo$ld be different in otherm$ch drier inland forests- where .re s$ppression is not a %iable option. Set the basic framework of the Kackson and Hoebel model does apply to other forests. Theirs is one e'ample of a general principle that can be adapted to other forest comm$nities on many different- partic$lar sites. They ha%e t$rned the ind$strial forestry model on its head4 instead of transforming decadent old forests into yo$ng intensi%ely growing foreststhey ha%e t$rned c$to%er forests into something m$ch more like old growth C and made a li%ing o$t of it as well. What matters for forest persistence in the inland West may be e'actly what large:scale forestry has tried to remo%e- and what Kackson and Hoebel ha%e enco$raged C death and decay- the dark stinky $nner%ing heart of the wild forest. They ha%e shown that yo$ do not need to trade off this wild core for a li%ing. The choice is not neces: sarily between $nto$ched forests and ind$strial monoc$lt$resF nor is the choice between keeping people o$t and the kind of boom and b$st economy that ind$strial logging has fostered in the Bl$e #o$ntains e%er since the .rst mill went $p. The &orest 3er%ice tho$ght science wo$ld let its foresters leap past the constraints of a local place C in this case- a cold- high land with fragile soils- .res and .oods- insects and dro$ghts- a place of e'tremes. Kackson and Hoebel ha%e done well not by trying to eliminate those constraints- b$t by restoring them- blending h$man c$lt$re and care with wildness. B$t what can wildness mean in this intensi%ely h$maniBed conte'tW What makes their forest different from ind$strial tree farmsW The critical difference is the presence of f$nctioning comm$nities- where ecological processes f$nction with some a$tonomy. In contrast- many ind$strial forests are designed so that ecological interrelationships are fragmented to the point that they do not f$nction witho$t e'tensi%e inp$ts of

petrochemicals. Trees e'ist in isolation- each one c$t off from potentially competing plants by herbicides. #anagers line these trees $p in rows and begin to think that nat$re is D$st a collection of parts. &rom these machine:like forests- one learns a kind of contempt for nat$reF one starts belie%ing that people can act$ally control both the trees and the forest. &$nctioning comm$nities do something else4 they teach $s the limits to h$man control and omniscience. A restored forest- while not entirely wild- can tell two maDor interconnected stories- one abo$t change- and another abo$t the links between people and the land. Aestorations at their best do not erase h$man history- b$t instead they point o$t the different ways people ha%e altered the landscape- while also showing the ways the land has affected people by setting ecological constraints. What yo$ learn when yo$ walk in the woods with Kackson and Hoebel is that all the c$lt$res who ha%e depended on the Bl$es forests ha%e changed them in different ways- reshaping them to .t their own needs and desiresF b$t for all the stories they wrote $pon the land- none of them e%er controlled the forest. >eople can st$dy ecological comm$nities- change them- p$ll them apart and try to restore them- b$t they ne%er ha%e f$ll control o%er ecological processes. These are lessons that both restorations and en%ironmental histories can teach C lessons abo$t the limits to h$man control that we badly need to learn. #anagers ha%e always hoped that they can engineer the forest to prod$ce what people desireb$t the forest is far too comple' for this. No matter how many facts we acc$m$late and how many theories we test- we will ne%er ha%e the knowledge to manip$late nat$ral systems witho$t ca$sing $nanticipated changes. When we manage ecosystems- all we are really doing is tinkering with processes we are D$st beginning to $nderstand. There is no do$bt that we can p$sh s$ccession in different directions C b$t rarely are those directions the ones we intended. The more managers alter a forest- the less they can predict the paths that s$ccession will take. ,ach road we b$ild- each stand we c$t and replant with another species- each application of herbicide and pesticide adds another confo$nding layer of possibility. This is startling- since the changes managers ha%e made

in the forest ha%e been aimed at making s$ccession more predictable- not less C making more of what we want- and less of what we do not want.

Conclusions
#$ch as we try- we cannot act$ally s$bstit$te o$r %ersion of nat$re for the nat$re o$t there C insteadwe can only play aro$nd with it a bit- t$gging on this process- p$shing a little at that other processadding o$r own agents of mortality 7loggers8 on to the agents of mortality that are always going to be o$t there C decay- insects- .re and wind. Hi%en the limits of o$r present $nderstanding of forest comple'ity- health problems cannot become the D$sti.cation for wholesale applications of thinningb$rning and sal%age. We know little abo$t how these forests f$nction now- m$ch less how they f$nctioned in the past- so we need to recogniBe the limits to o$r knowledge and control. Across the West- the places where we sho$ld be considering restoration are not the wilderness areas or roadless areas C places where many managers now call for intensi%e logging in the name of forest health. Instead- we sho$ld foc$s on the places that ha%e already been intensi%ely

transformed to .t h$man ideas of what a ci%iliBed forest sho$ld be. Those are the areas most in need of restoration. Aather than trying to ret$rn landscape to an imagined original conditionrestoration does best when it offers a way of working with the contin$$m of h$maniBed c$lt$ral landscapes that occ$py m$ch of the planet C from reser%es that ha%e been minimally in.$enced by ind$strial society- to $rban landscapes where trees grow inside metal cages in the sidewalk. Aestoration can ret$rn elements of wildness to all these managed landscapes- witho$t attempting to hide the fact that they are c$lt$ral landscapes that may bene.t from contin$ed h$man inter%ention.

.ote
). This chapter is based in part on =angston- )00"a and =angston- )000.

"eferences

Agee- K.2. 7)0068 Fire Ecology of &aci.c 2ort%-est Forests. Island >ress- Washington- +C. Baldwin- A.+. Kr- +e =$ce- K. and >letsch- C. 7eds8 7)0068 Beyond &reservation; estoring and Inventing Landsca5es.1ni%ersity of #innesota >ress- #inneapolis. Bright- H. 7)0)/8 Aelati%e merits of western larch and +o$glas:.r in the Bl$e #o$ntains- Oregon. &orest 3er%ice Aesearch Compilation &iles- National Archi%es- Aegion NI- ,ntry ))"- Bo' )/". Bowler- >. 7)00.8 3hr$blands4 in defense of dist$rbed land. estoration and Management 2otes )*- )66C)60. B$sh- #. 7)00!8 Ecology of a #%anging &lanet. >rentice Hall- 1pper 3addle Ai%er- New Kersey. Cairns- K. 7)00"8 estoration Ecology; &rotecting our 2ational and !lobal Life *u55ort *ystems. CAC >ress- Ann Arbor- #ichigan. Congressional Aesearch 3er%ice 7.***8 Congressional Aesearch 3er%ice Aeports- memo C timber har%esting and forest .res- .. A$g$st .***. Aoss W. Horte- p. /. A%ailable at4 http4IIncseonline.orgIN=,ICA3I abstract.cfmW N=,idi9!* +$nwiddie- >. 7)00.8 On setting goals. estoration and Management 2otes )*- ))9C))0. Harmon- A. 7)00"8 1nnat$ral disaster in the Bl$e #o$ntains. &ortland Lregonian- .6 +ecember- ,:9. Harrington- #.H. and 3ackett- 3.3. 7)00.8 >ast and present .re in.$ences on so$thwestern ponderosa pine old growth. In4 Lld !ro-t% Forests in t%e *out%-est and oc3y Mountain egions. &roceedings of a -or3 / s%o5. 13+A &orest 3er%ice Heneral Technical Aeport HTA:A#:.)/.

Aestoration in the American National &orests

Hirt- >. 7)0068 A #ons5iracy of L5timism. 1ni%ersity of Nebraska >ress- =incoln- Nebraska. K$dd- C.3. 7)0))8 =ect$res on timber sales at the 1ni%ersity of Washington- &ebr$ary )0)). &orest 3er%ice Aesearch Compilation &iles- National Archi%es- Aegion NI- ,ntry ))"- Bo' )/9. =angston- N. 7)00"a8 Forest 1reams, Forest 2ig%tmares; T%e &aradoM of Lld !ro-t% in t%e Inland ,est. 1ni%ersity of Washington >ress- 3eattle. =angston- N. 7)00"b8 A wild- managed forest. T%e Land e5ort HT%e Land InstituteJ- 3$mmer )00". =angston- N. 7)0008 ,n%ironmental history and restoration. .ournal of t%e ,est / - 6"C"6. #einig- +. 7)09 8 T%e !reat #olumbia &lain\ a %istorical geogra5%y, 6@98D6>69. 1ni%ersity of Washington >ress- 3eattle. #$nger- T.T. 7)0/98 Basic considerations in the management of ponderosa pine forests by the mat$rity selec tion system. 1matilla National &orest Historical &iles- 3$per%isor?s Of.ce- >endleton- Oregon. National Aesearch Co$ncil 7)00.8 estoration of APuatic Ecosystems4 *cience, Tec%nology, and &ublic &olicy. National Academy >ress- Washington- +C. O?=a$ghlin- K.- #acCracken- K.H.- Adams- +.=.- B$nting- 3.C.- Blatner- 2.A. and 2eegan- C.,. III 7)00/8 Forest +ealt% #onditions in Ida%o; EMecutive *ummary. Idaho &orest- Wildlife and Aange >olicy Analysis Hro$p Aeport ))- #oscow- Idaho. >erry- +. 7)0068 Forest Ecosystems. Kohns Hopkins 1ni%ersity >ress- Baltimore- #aryland. 3ko%lin- K. 7)00)8 &ifty years of research progress4 a historical doc$ment on the 3tarkey e'perimental forest and range. 13+A &orest 3er%ice Heneral Technical Aeport >NW:HTA:.99. Wallowa Co$nty Commissioners 7)00"8 ,allo-a #ounty ,aters%ed &lan. ,nterprise- Oregon. Wilkinson- C. 7)00.8 #rossing t%e 2eMt Meridian; Land, ,ater, and t%e Future of t%e ,est . Island >ressWashington- +C.

%+ Land use and Landscape 'istories:

the "ole of 'istor! in Current Environmental &ecisions
3. Anderson
&resident, Forest +istory *ociety, 1ur%am, 2#, U*A

Introduction
>eople hold %aried ideas abo$t the %al$e of history. They range from Heorge 3an tayana?s @Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it? to Henry T. &ord?s @History is more or less b$nk.? 7The \$otation >age- www.G$otationspage.comI s$bDectsIhistory- .**68. The challenges to history?s %al$e mainly re%ol%e aro$nd concerns abo$t who writes the history and how acc$rate it is- and hence- how %al$able the information can be to present:day decisions. In nat$ral reso$rce management- and partic$larly the .eld of forestry- professionals are trained to @read the landscape? with an eye towards what happened on the land pre%io$sly that may ha%e an in.$ence on the s$ccess of c$rrent management decisions. &or e'ample- knowing that a forested area was pre%io$sly in agric$lt$re co$ld ha%e important implications regarding the capacity of the soil to s$pport certain species- both n$tritionally and physically. 3o- what lessons can land:$se and landscape histories offerW The following is a brief and almost s$re to be incomplete list. =and:$se and landscape histories can4 R help $s to $nderstand the di%ersity of land $ses in the pastF Q pro%ide information regarding %egetation types and patterns o%er timeF

Q Q Q Q

help $s to decipher what land $ses and %egetati%e patterns were adapted to speci.c climatesF help $s estimate the h$man impact on nati%e .ora and fa$naF

help $s $nderstand the effect of nonh$man dist$rbances on the forest 7&oster et al.- )00 8 and the interaction of those dist$rbances with those ca$sed by h$man shapingF Q help $s $nderstand the effect of changing ownership regimes and pri%ate property rightsF pro%ide models of s$stainable and non:s$stainable land $se 7that is- where traditional landscape $se has e'isted for an e'tended period of time- it co$ld represent potential models for s$stainable approaches8 7>hillips- )00 8F Q help $s $nderstand o$r present decisions and moti%ations 7Cronon- .***8- a critical item needed to ens$re conser%ation efforts across the globe 7#itchell and B$ggey- .***8F Q help $s to o%ercome the contradiction between the static character of protection or preser%ation meas$res- and the dynamic processes of landscape e%ol$tion 7Willis and Harrod- )00.F Cook- )0098.
< CAB International .**9. T%e #onservation of #ultural Landsca5es 7ed. #. Agnoletti8

=and:$se and =andscape Histories

Ass$ming that $nderstanding the history of a landscape- whether it is an indi%id$al tract of land or a greater region- has the potential to pro%ide s$ch insights and $nderstanding- then it wo$ld follow- as a minim$m e'pectation- that reso$rce professionals sho$ld see it as a desirable prec$rsor to forest management decisions. This chapter allows the ass$mption that landscape history and land:$se histories can prod$cti%ely inform present management decisions- and then looks at it thro$gh the lens of forest certi.cation- a rapidly de%eloping effort to enco$rage s$stainable forestry worldwide.

A .ote on &e#nitions
=and:$se histories are self e'planatory. They are simply the record of how h$mans $sed the land$s$ally associated with a partic$lar ownership. When we $se the term landscape history- tho$gh%aried concepts abo$t the area of land in G$estion come into play. 3$ch $ncertainty in de.nitionswhile a limitation for certain p$rposes- does not necessarily de%al$e a term for all p$rposes. &or instance+onald &loyd s$ggests that @s$stainability?- while possibly ne%er attainable- is a worthwhile goal and something to be stri%ed for 7&loyd- .**.8. It is limited beca$se the notion of s$stain:ability is m$ch in the eye of the beholder. Ne%ertheless- the term confers a general $nderstanding that something is ongoing o%er time. At the %ery least- it becomes the basis to bring people together for disc$ssion. K$st as o$r notion of s$stainability can be a $sef$l termdisc$ssions abo$t landscapes can be %al$ablee%en tho$gh it can also be a slippery term. The landscape we see or shape is constr$cted from what we %al$e- what is important to $s. One of the most encompassing- brief de.nitions of @landscape? is pro%ided by the &orest 3tewardship Co$ncil. It de.nes a landscape as @a geographical mosaic composed of interacting ecosystems res$lting from the in.$ence of geological- topographical- soil- climatic and

h$man in.$ences in a gi%en area?. #ost de.nitions of landscape incl$de some reference to h$man andIor non:h$man acti%ities in a partic$lar area as @in.$encing? or @shaping? the land. This e%o: l$tionary aspect of @landscape? is indicated by the origin of the word. It is both no$n and %erb. ,ebsterFs International 1ictionary de.nes landscape as4 7i8 @a portion of land or territory that the eye can comprehend in a single %iew incl$ding all the obDects so seen?F or 7ii8 @the landforms of a region in the aggregate especially as prod$ced or modi.ed by geologic forces? 7b$t not limited to them8. As a %erb- landscape means @to arrange and modify the effects of nat$ral scenery o%er a tract of land as to prod$ce the best aesthetic effect with regard to the $se to which the tract is to be p$t.? The Merriam ,ebsterFs #ollegiate 1ictionary- )*th edition- simpli.es all this and says landscape is @a partic$lar area of acti%ity.? Basically- we see that landscape incl$des the notion of @shaping? something. The term @landscape? combines @land? with a word of ancient Hermanic origin- the %erb @scapDan?- which means to work- to be b$sy- or to do something creati%e C mostly with a plan or design in mind 7Haber)0!08. @3capDan? became @schaffen? in Hermanwhich means to shape.

Certi#cation 4rotocols
One of the most %isible de%elopments d$ring the last decade of programmes intended to foster s$stainable forestry has been the de%elopment of certi.cation protocols. These are programmes that attempt to describe what sho$ld be the elements of a well:managed forest and then pro%ide for %eri.cation. When a forest recei%es its certi.cationthe wood or other prod$cts that res$lt from that forest can carry a label stating that it came from a responsibly managed- well:managed or s$stainably managed forest. Certification protocols- howe%erha%e generally eliminated the $se of the word @s$stainable? beca$se of its $ncertainties. The word is $sed in this chapter beca$se it generally aligns with the %al$es of reso$rce managers.

Interest in certi.cation was initially dri%en by concerns o%er the e'ploitation of tropical forests and reported losses of some species from these forests 7Nogt et al.- .***8. &ollowing reports in the )0 / &AO Searbook that tropical moist forests were being lost at a rate of o%er )) million ha ann$ally- en%ironmental organiBations began boycotting the international tropical timber trade. When these efforts failed to red$ce deforestation rates- certi.cation was introd$ced as a market:based effort to foster s$stainable management of forests incl$ding aspects s$ch as h$man rights of indigeno$s pop$lations- alle%iating po%erty le%els- and respect for conser%ation legislation. Three of the world?s predominant forest certi.cation protocols are the &orest 3tewardship Co$ncil?s 7&3C8 standards and policies- the 3$stainable &orestry Initiati%e 73&I8 3tandard s$pported by the American &orest and >aper Association- and the >an:,$ropean criteria s$pported by the >an ,$ropean &orest Certi.cation 7>,&C8 Co$ncil. The organiBations s$pporting each protocol ha%e their own geographical scope and approach to s$stainability. As of .0 A$g$st .**. the organiBations reported on their web sites the data shown in Table )..) 7American &orest and >aper Association- .**.F &orest 3tewardship Co$ncilwww.fsc$s.orgIhtmlIabo$t|fscIinde'.htmlF >an ,$ropean &orest Certificationwww.pefc.orgIAamme..htm8. The following represents a c$rsory s$r%ey of the speci.cs of three forest certi.cation protocols as they relate to history and landscape. Forest 0te)ardship Council 5F0C: The &orest 3tewardship Co$ncil promotes responsible forest management globally by pro%iding o%erarching standards for certi.cation organiBations. It essentially accredits or certi.es the certi.ers. The organiBation was fo$nded in )00/ by en%ironmental gro$ps- the timber ind$stry- foresters- indigeno$s peoples and comm$nity gro$ps from ." co$ntries. The &3C in the 13A is backed by )6 maDor en%ironmental organiBations incl$ding the Nat$re Conser%ancy- World Wide &$nd for Nat$re- 3ierra Cl$b and others. It is also s$pported by b$sinesses s$ch as Home +epot and =owes 7home impro%ement centres8- altho$gh arg$ably some of this s$pport seems to be instigated by fringe en%ironmental gro$ps practising a sort of en%ironmental blackmail. At the time of writing this chapter- in the 13A there were two organiBations that had been identi.ed as accredited certifying organiBations by the &3C. These incl$de 3cientific Certification 3ystems 7&orest Conser%ation >rogram8 and the Aainforest Alliance 73martwood >rogram8. By $sing their own assessment methods- the gro$ps determine whether a gi%en operation meets the &3C standards. The operation can then ad%ertise their prod$cts as coming from a well:managed forest. The &orest 3tewardship Co$ncil de.nes forest stewardship in a set of global principles and criteria. These principles and criteria- which apply to all forests worldwide- are $sed to ens$re that certi.ed forests according to the standards are managed in an ecologically so$nd- socially responsible and economically %iable manner. While these terms essentially describe the concept of s$stainability- the words @s$stainable forestry? are notably absent from their dialog$e. The &3C?s principles and criteria apply to all tropical- temperate and boreal forests. #any of these principles and criteria apply
+o est a ea (million ha) + ! ! + ( E ,um-e of ce ti.cates issued /3" 20. 1/% ,um-e of count ie s ." 2 9

29.1 /.." /3.2

=and:$se and =andscape Histories

also to plantations and partially replanted forests. #ore detailed standards for these and other %egetation types may be prepared at national and local le%els. The &3C identi.es )* principles4

>rinciple ). Compliance with laws and &3C principles. Q >rinciple .. Ten$re and $se rights and responsibilities. Q >rinciple /. Indigeno$s people?s rights.

Q Q Q Q Q

>rinciple 6. Comm$nity relations and worker?s rights. Q >rinciple ". Bene.ts from the forest. >rinciple 9. ,n%ironmental impact. >rinciple !. #anagement plan. >rinciple . #onitoring and assessment.

>rinciple 0. #aintenance of high conser: %ation %al$es. Q >rinciple )*. >lantations. >rinciples /- 6- 9- and ! of the &3C standards contain criteria that relate loosely to land:$se and landscape history. They are presented below for the reader to become more familiar with the lang$age and le%el of detail $sed in describing %ario$s criteria. &rinci5le 7. The legal and c$stomary rights of indigeno$s peoples to own- $se and manage their lands- territories and reso$rces shall be recogniBed and respected. /.) They shall control forest management on their lands. /.. #anagement shall not threaten or diminish reso$rces or ten$re rights. /./ 3ites of special c$lt$ral- ecological- economicor religio$s significance to indigeno$s peoples shall be clearly identi.ed in cooperation with s$ch peoples- and recogniBed and protected by forest managers. /.6 They shall be compensated for the application of their traditional knowledge regarding the $se of forest species or management systems. &rinci5le :. &orest management operations shall

maintain or enhance the long:term social and economic well:being of forest workers and local comm$nities. 6.) The comm$nities within- or adDacent to- the forest management sho$ld be gi%en opport$nities for employment- training- and other ser%ices. 6.. &orest management sho$ld meet or e'ceed all applicable laws andIor reg$lations co%ering health and safety of employees and their families. 6./ The rights of workers to organiBe and %ol$ntarily negotiate with their employers shall be g$aranteed as o$tlined in Con%entions ! and 0 of the International =abo$r OrganiBation 7I=O8. 6.6 #anagement planning and operations shall incorporate the res$lts of e%al$ations of social impact. Cons$ltations shall be maintained with people and gro$ps directly affected by management operations. 6." Appropriate mechanisms shall be employed for resol%ing grie%ances and for pro%iding fair compensation in the case of loss or damage affecting the legal or c$stomary rights- propertyreso$rces- or li%elihoods of local peoples. #eas$re shall be taken to a%oid s$ch loss or damage. &rinci5le B. &orest management shall conser%e biological di%ersity and its associated %al$eswater reso$rces- soils- and $niG$e and fragile ecosystems and landscapes- and- by so doingmaintain the ecological f$nctions and the integrity of the forest. 9.) Assessment of en%ironmental impacts shall be completed C appropriate to the scale- intensity of forest management and the $niG$eness of the affected reso$rces C and adeG$ately integrated into management systems. Assessments shall incl$de landscape le%el considerations as well as the impacts of on:site processing facilities. ,n%ironmental impacts shall be assessed prior to commencement of site:dist$rbing operations. 79..C9.)* refer to specific management practices8. &rinci5le A. A management plan C appropriate to the scale and intensity of the operations C shall be written- implemented and kept $p to date. The long:term obDecti%es of management- and the means of achie%ing them- shall be clearly stated.

!.) The management plan and s$pporting doc$ments shall pro%ide4 Q management obDecti%esF

description of the forest reso$rces to be managed- en%ironmental limitations- land $se and ownership stat$s- socioeconomic conditions and a pro.le of adDacent landsF Q description of sil%ic$lt$ral andIor other management system EF Q rationale for rate of ann$al har%est and species selectionF Q pro%isions for monitoring of forest growth and dynamicsF Q plans for identifying and protection of rare- threatened- and endangered speciesF Q maps describing the forest reso$rce base incl$ding protected areas EF Q description and D$sti.cation of har%est: ing techniG$es and eG$ipment to be $sed. 7!..C!./ deal with re%ising the plan- training workers- and con.dentiality of information8. It is a stretch to interpret that there is any concern of conseG$ence indicated in the abo%e that wo$ld indicate to a re%iewer- landowner- or cons$mer that knowing the land:$se history or landscape history is an important component of the &3C standards. Criteria /././ cites that signi.cant c$lt$ral areas shall be protected. Common sense indicates that this wo$ld incl$de signi.cant historic sites b$t the emphasis is on protection of indi%id$al areas- most likely of limited e'tent. Criteria 6.6.6 indicates that management plans sho$ld incorporate analysis of social impact- yet this is not speci.c to changes in historical land $se. As well- 6.6." %ag$ely mentions @c$stomary rights?- b$t does not clarify that loss of historical land $ses may or may not be important. Criteria 9.9.) artic$lates that landscape:le%el considerations sho$ld be made in order to protect biological di%ersity. While a landscape %iew is recommended with regards to en%ironmental impact assessments- no mention of landscape history is made. 1nder @>rinciple !. #anagement >lan? where there is great opport$nity to cite the rele%ance of land:$se and landscape histories- the criteria are silent. 0ustainable Forestr! Initiative 50FI:

The 3$stainable &orestry Initiati%e was adopted by the American &orest and >aper Association 7A&V>A8 in October )006 and of.cially la$nched in )00". It is a set of principles- obDecti%es and performance meas$res that integrates the perpet$al growing and har%esting of trees with the protection of wildlife- plants- soil and water G$ality and other conser%ation goals. As of .**. there were 6" organiBations listed on the 3&I web site that s$pport the 3$stainable &orestry Initiati%e incl$ding s$ch en%ironmental organiBations as the Conser%ation &$nd- the Wildlife 3ociety- and +$cks 1nlimited 7Haber- )0!08. The association represents indi%id$als and companies that are acti%ely in%ol%ed in management of forest lands. +$ring the .rst year after 3&I was established )! of abo$t .** member companies were s$spended beca$se they failed to meet the reG$irements of the 3&I. A few members also resigned. Initially- %eri.cation was limited to reporting systems to the A&V>A. In )00 - the 3&I programme added %ol$ntary %eri.cation options that allowed .rst:- second:and third:party approaches for programme participants to declare their conformance with the 3&I standards. As of #arch .**6- the 3&I program listed )9 third:party certi.ers in )" different organiBations. In K$ly of .***- the 3$stainable &orestry Board was chartered as an independent body to o%ersee de%elopment and contin$o$s impro%ement of the 3&I programme standard- associated certi.cation processes- and proced$res and programme G$ality control mechanisms. In 3eptember .**.- the 3$stainable &orestry Board was recogniBed by the Internal Ae%en$e 3er%ice as a "*)7c8/ not:for:profit organiBation $nder the 13 ta' code. The )": member Board consists of one:third 3&I programme participants- one:third conser%ation and en%ironmental comm$nity interests- and

=and:$se and =andscape Histories

one:third broader forestry comm$nity rep: resentation. The 3&I standard identi.es si' principles for s$stainable forestry and then artic$lates )) obDecti%es $nder those principles with performance meas$res and core indicators within each obDecti%e. The 3&I principles incl$de4

). .. /. 6. ". 9.

>ractice s$stainable forestry. 1se responsible practices. &orest health and prod$cti%ity. >rotecting special sites. =egal compliance with laws. Contin$al impro%ement.

components. LbCective :. #anage the G$ality and distrib$tion of wildlife habitats and contrib$te to the conser%ation of biological di%ersity by de%eloping and implementing stand: and landscape:le%el meas$res that promote habitat di%ersity and the conser%ation of forest plants and animals incl$ding aG$atic fa$na. 6.) >erformance meas$res. 6.).) >rogramme participants shall ha%e policies to promote habitat di%ersity at stand: and landscape:le%els. 7Core 3&I indicators C se%en core indicators and si' other indicators are listed- none of which speci.cally address landscape:le%el reG$irements8. 6.)./ >rogramme participants shall apply knowledge gained thro$gh research- sciencetechnology and .eld e'perience to manage wildlife habitat and contrib$te to the conser%ation of biological di%ersity. 7Core 3&I indicators C three core indicators make no mention of landscape or historical land:$se altho$gh @other 3&I indicators? $nder this performance meas$re allows a programme participant to show in%ol%ement4

3&I >rinciple 6 concerning protecting special sites states4 @To manage forests and lands of special signi.cance 7e.g. biologically- geologicallyc$lt$rally or historically signi.cant8 in a manner that takes into acco$nt their $niG$e G$alities.? 3imilar to the &3C standards- this principle seems to be directed at partic$lar historical sites rather than any broader foc$s on land:$se history as an important prec$rsor to s$stainable management. The principles are followed by )) obDecti%es that are considered the s$bstance of the programme. They are intended to translate the principles into action by pro%iding a roadmap to practice s$stainable forestry and %isibly impro%e performance. The main obDecti%es incl$de4

). ..

). .. /. 6. ". 9. !. .

Broaden the practice of s$stainable forestry. ,ns$re prompt reforestation. >rotect water G$ality. ,ns$re wildlife habitat. #inimiBe the %is$al impact of har%esting. >rotecting special sites. >romote ef.cient $se of forest reso$rcesCooperate with proc$rement chain to promote 3&. >$blicly report progress.

/.

>articipation in cooperati%e ecological landscape planning efforts where a%ailable. >rofessional e'pertise a%ailable to assist in de%eloping wildlife- aG$atic- or biodi%ersity programmes- or staff allocated to wildlifeaG$atic- or biodi%ersity research. >articipation in appropriate agreements with e'ternal parties on wildlife habitat management- federally threatened and endangered species conser%ation- landscape planning- or conser%ation of biological di%ersity.8

0. )*. 3$pport p$blic o$treach and p$blic inp$t. )). Contin$al impro%ement in practicing 3&.
Only obDecti%es 6 and 9 incl$de performance meas$res that recogniBe historical or landscape

LbCective B. #anage programme participant lands of ecological- geological- c$lt$ral- or historical signi.cance in a manner that recogniBes their special G$alities. 9.) >erformance meas$res. 9.).) >rogramme participants shall identify

special sites and manage them in a manner appropriate for their $niG$e feat$res.

7Core 3&I indicators4

). ..

/.

Written policy to identify- map and manage special sites. Obtain e'isting nat$ral heritage data and cooperate with e'perts in identifying or selecting sites for protection of signi.cant ecological- geological- c$lt$ral or historic G$alities. #ap and catalog$e e'isting sites.8

these si' criteria are also referred to as the si' Helsinki criteria. The si' >an:,$ropean criteria read as follows4

3till- this represents c$rsory attention to history and foc$ses solely on selected special sites. This is con.rmed by the de.nition of @c$lt$rally? presented by 3&I- which states @C$lt$rally4 special sites of importance beca$se of their signi.cance as e'amples of Nati%e American peoples 7e.g.- Indian b$rial mo$nds8?. The o%erall approach to forest management in 3&I has no mention of the importance of assessing land:$se history or landscape history. 4an European Forest Certi#cation The >an ,$ropean &orest Certification 7>,&C8 Co$ncil was of.cially la$nched in >aris on /* K$ne )000. It was de%eloped in response to the lack of .e'ibility of the &orest 3tewardship Co$ncil protocol to acco$nt for different c$lt$ral and ecological differences between ,$ropean co$ntries. The >,&C scheme- a %ol$ntary pri%ate sector initiati%e- will pro%ide ass$rance to the c$stomers of woodland owners that the prod$cts they b$y come from independently certi.ed forests managed according to the >an:,$ropean criteria as de.ned by the resol$tions of the Helsinki and =isbon #inisterial Conferences of )00/ and )00 on the >rotection of &orests in ,$rope. The Third >an:,$ropean #inisterial Conference on the >rotection of &orests in ,$rope- held in =isbon- on .C6 K$ne )00 declared their commitment to adopt the si' >an: ,$ropean criteria for s$stainable forest management- p$blished as part of Anne' ) of the Aesol$tion =.. These criteria- which were adopted together with the >an:,$ropean Indicators 7Anne' / of the >,&C Technical +oc$ment8- were pre%io$sly adopted by the e'pert le%el of follow: $p meetings of the Helsinki Conference in Hene%a- on .6 K$ne )006 and in Antalya- on ./ Kan$ary )00". Therefore- in some p$blications

Criterion )4 maintenance and appropriate enhancement of forest reso$rces and their contrib$tion to global carbon cycles. Q Criterion .4 maintenance of forest ecosystem health and %itality. Q Criterion /4 maintenance and enco$rage: ment of prod$cti%e f$nctions of forests 7wood and non:wood8. Q Criterion 64 maintenance- conser%ation and appropriate enhancement of biological di%ersity in forest ecosystems. Q Criterion "4 maintenance and appropriate enhancement of protecti%e f$nctions in forest management 7notably soil and water8. Q Criterion 94 maintenance of other socio: economic f$nctions and conditions. 1nder each criterion there are one or more @Concept Areas? which ha%e one or more G$antitati%e andIor descripti%e indicators associated with them that constit$te the performance meas$res $nder >,&C. Criterion 9 related to @other socio:economic f$nction and conditions? mentions protecting c$lt$rally %al$able sites and co$ld be constr$ed as recogniBing the %al$e of historical land $se. +escripti%e indicator n$mber .- below- does- howe%er- seem to indicate that conser%ing c$lt$rally %al$able landsca5es can be an important criterion.

#once5t area; cultural values +escripti%e indicators 7e'amples84

).

..

,'istence of a legalNregulatory frame-or3- and the e'tent to which it4 pro%ides for programmes and management g$idelines which recognise c$lt$ral heritage in relation to forestry. ,'istence and capacity of an institutional frame-or3 to4 de%elop and maintain pro

=and:$se and =andscape Histories

grammes to conser%e c$lt$rally %al$able sites and landscapes. ). ,'istence of economic 5olicy frame-or3 and .nancial instruments- and the e'tent to which it4 pro%ides for s$f.cient .nancial incenti%es for acknowledgement of c$lt$ral %al$es in forest management planning. .. ,'istence of informational means to implement the policy framework- and the capacity to4 cond$ct st$dies on proportion of c$lt$rally %al$able sites and sites with special %is$al %al$e. The Third >an:,$ropean #inisterial Conference on the >rotection of &orests in ,$rope- held in =isbon- on .C6 K$ne )00 - declared their commitment to endorsing the %ol$ntary >an:,$ropean Operational =e%el H$idelines for s$stainable forest management. These >an:,$ropean Operational =e%el H$idelines were pre%io$sly adopted by the .fth ,'pert =e%el >reparatory #eeting of the =isbon Conference on the >rotection of &orests in ,$rope- in Hene%a- on .!C.0 April. The Operational =e%el H$idelines form a common framework of recommendations that can be $sed on a %ol$ntary basis and as a complement to national andIor regional instr$ments to f$rther promote s$stainable forest management at the .eld le%el- on forest areas in ,$rope. The >an:,$ropean Operational =e%el H$idelines for 3$stainable &orest #anagement state4 #riterion B. #aintenance of other socio:economic f$nctions and conditions 9.) H$idelines for &orest #anagement >lanning c. 3ites with recognised specific %istorical- c$lt$ral or spirit$al signi.cance sho$ld be protected or managed in a way that takes d$e regard of the signi.cance of the site. 9.. H$idelines for &orest #anagement >ractices a. &orest management practices sho$ld make the best $se of local forest related e'perience and knowledge- s$ch as of local comm$nities- forest owners- NHOs and local people. #riterion :. #aintenance- conser%ation and appropriate enhancement of biological di%ersity in forest ecosystems 6.) H$idelines for &orest #anagement >lanning a. &orest management planning sho$ld aim to maintain- conser%e and enhance biodi%ersity on ecosystem- species and genetic le%el and- where appropriate- diversity at landsca5e level. 6.. H$idelines for &orest #anagement >ractices d. Traditional management systems that ha%e created %al$able ecosystems- s$ch as coppice- on appropriate sites sho$ld be s$pported- when economically feasible. The >,&C- similar to the 3&I and &3C g$idelines- also recogniBes the importance of speci.c sites of historical signi.cance. It mentions making $se of local knowledge- b$t in the end also fails to speci.cally cite the %al$e of land:$se or landscape histories as necessary information that sho$ld be collected in preparation of forest management plans and decisions. We see- howe%er- the .rst e%idence that @traditional management systems? may ha%e %al$e and sho$ld be part of the management analysis. These efforts may e%ent$ally be strengthened by the s$pport pro%ided by the ,$ropean =andscape Con%ention. The Co$ncil of ,$rope?s Committee of #inisters adopted the ,$ropean =andscape Con%ention 7Co$ncil of ,$rope- .***8 and opened it for signat$re on .* October .*** d$ring the ministerial conference on landscape protection in &lorence- Italy. The con%ention aims to enco$rage p$blic a$thorities to adopt policies and meas$res at local- regional- national and international le%els for protecting- managing and planning landscapes thro$gho$t ,$rope. It pro%ides for a .e'ible approach to landscapes and calls for %ario$s types of action- ranging from strict conser%ation thro$gh protectionmanagement and impro%ement to act$al creation. The idea to draft a new legal te't for better management and protection of the continent?s landscapes was .rst proposed by the Co$ncil of ,$rope?s Congress of =ocal and Aegional A$thorities 7C=AA,8 in

)006. It recei%ed strong political s$pport from both the >arliamentary Assembly and the Committee of #inisters as part of the Co$ncil?s work on nat$ral and c$lt$ral heritage- spatial planning- en%ironment and local self:go%ernment. The con%ention proposes legal and .nancial meas$res at the national and international le%els- aimed at shaping @landscape policies? and promoting interaction between local and central a$thorities to protect landscapes. It sets o$t a range of different sol$tions which states can applyaccording to their speci.c needs. The con%ention will come into force three months after ten Co$ncil of ,$rope member states ha%e rati.ed it.

Conclusion
It is apparent thro$gh this s$r%ey of three maDor certification protocols that as of a$t$mn .**.- none of them ha%e made speci.c efforts to artic$late the importance of looking at land:$se histories as a g$ide for land management decisions- nor e%en as a maDor component of a management plan. The protocols also do not f$lly identify landscape histories or c$lt$rally important landscapes as a core component of f$t$re management decisions. The fail$re to address coherently landscape or land:$se history may %ery well be a growing weakness that will ha%e to be reconciled if the p$blic is to ha%e any con.dence in the protocols to recogniBe well:managed forests and- $ltimately- s$stainable management. Of the three protocols e'aminedthe >an ,$ropean &orest Certi.cation standards comes the closest to addressing these iss$es b$t does so incompletely. The >,&C also may ha%e the best opport$nity of the three to strengthen its landscape and land:$se history lang$age as the ,$ropean =andscape Con%ention- if appro%ed- will pro%ide legal impet$s to mo%e disc$ssion of landscape history to the forefront.

"eferences
American &orest and >aper Association 7.**.8 .**.C.**6 ,dition4 3$stainable &orestry Initiati%e 73&I8 >rogram. A%ailable at4 http4IIwww.afandpa.orgIforestryIs.I3tandard|*.|*6.pdf Accessed ) K$ly .**.. Cook- A.,. 7)0098 Is landscape preser%ation an o'ymoronW T%e !eorge ,rig%t Forum )/7)8- 6.C"/. Co$ncil of ,$rope 7.***8 Euro5ean Landsca5e #onvention and EM5lanatory e5ort . Co$ncil of ,$rope3trasbo$rg- )0 K$ly. Cronon- W. 7.***8 Why the past matters. ,isconsin Maga4ine of +istory A$t$mn .***- /C)/. &loyd- +.W. 7.**.8 Forest *ustainability; T%e +istory, t%e #%allenge, t%e &romise . &orest History 3ociety+$rham- North Carolina. &orest 3tewardship Co$ncil web site 7.**.8 http4IIwww.fsc$s.orgIhtmlIabo$t|fscIinde'.html 7accessed .0 A$g$st .**.8. &oster- +.- 2night- +.H. and &ranklin- K.&. 7)00 8 =andscape patterns and legacies res$lting from large- infreG$ent forest dist$rbances. Ecosystem )- 60!C")*. Haber- W. 7)0!08 Concept- origin and meaning of u=andscapev. In4 Non +roste- B.- Harols >lachter- H. and Aossler- #. 7eds8 #ultural Landsca5es of Universal )alue; #om5onents of a !lobal *trategy . H$sta% &ischer Nerlag- Kena- 3t$ttgart. #itchell- N. and B$ggey- 3. 7.***8 >rotected landscapes and c$lt$ral landscapes4 taking ad%antage of di%erse approaches. T%e !eorge ,rig%t Forum )!7)8- /"C69. >an ,$ropean &orest Certi.cation 7.**.8 http4IIwww.pefc.orgIAamme..htm 7accessed .0 A$g$st .**.8. >hillips- A. 7)00 8 The nat$re of c$lt$ral landscapes C a nat$re conser%ation perspecti%e. Landsca5e esearc% ./7)*8- .)C/ . Nogt- 2.A.- =arson- B.C.- Hordon- K.C.- Nogt- +. and &ranBeres- A. 7.***8 Forest #erti.cation; oots, Issues, #%allenges, and Bene.ts. CAC >ress- Boca Aaton- &lorida. Willis- 2.H. and Harrod- H.+. 7)00.8 Assessing the %al$e of f$t$re landscapes. Landsca5e and Urban &lanning ./- )!C/..

%( Cultural Landscape Management in Europe

and =erman!
3. WeiBenegger) and W. 3chenk.
6 ?

Institute for Economic !eogra5%y, Munic%, !ermany and

Institute for !eogra5%y, +istorical !eogra5%y, Bonn, !ermany

Introduction C$lt$ral landscapes contin$e to be present on the political and scienti.c agendas as well as in planning. In the past- they inspired painters and writers. They shaped disciplines s$ch as geography and they made instit$tions and organiBations de%elop means for their protection and management. C$lt$ral landscapes are $ndergoing se%ere changes- ca$sed by c$rrent de%elopments in agric$lt$re and land $se changes res$lting in landscape dissection and soil sealing. Those de%elopments point in two opposite directions4 some areas become derelict land- while other areas are $sed more and more intensi%ely- for e'ample- by highly energetic- ind$strial agric$lt$re or peri:$rbaniBation close to large agglomerations. Those transformations are considered by many people as a threat to the c$lt$ral landscape. This is why applied aspects gain gro$nd. >erspecti%es for c$lt$ral landscapes need to be de%eloped and assessed- and programmes for conser%ation and de%elopment of c$lt$ral landscapes need to be set $p and realiBed 73chenk- )00!b8. New aspects enter the disc$ssion- in which the traditional handling of c$lt$ral landscapes is commented on in a critical way. Often c$lt$ral landscape research is restricted to r$ral areas- the %is$al- material heritage and the historical c$lt$ral landscape. Contemporary landscapes as well as landscape dynamics ha%e for a long time been neglected. 3tarting with Aio )00.- the s$stainable $se of heritage has become presentable and has also been proposed for landscapes 7e.g. Kob et al., .***8. New perspecti%es are also necessary within an e'panding ,$rope. +ifferent instit$tions and organiBations are dealing

with protection and management of c$lt$ral landscapes. Their most important instr$ments are disc$ssed in this chapter. Cultural Landscape 4rotection and Management the European 4erspective Bhat is a European cultural landscapeK Abo%e all- there is the G$estion of whether something s$ch as t%e ,$ropean c$lt$ral landscape e'ists- and- if so- what are its characteristicsW &irst of allthose c$lt$ral landscapes ha%e to be located within ,$ropean territory- which sho$ld be easy to identifyF b$t in a more restricted sense- only landscapes of pan:,$ropean %al$e are accepted as ,$ropean c$lt$ral landscapes. =andscapes ha%e a highly normati%e aspect- and regarding approaches dealing with < CAB International .**9. T%e #onservation of #ultural Landsca5es 7ed. #. Agnoletti8

3. WeiBenegger and W. 3chenk

c$lt$ral landscape management incl$des a disc$ssion of the %al$e of different types of- or indi%id$al- landscapes. How can one assess the %al$e of landscapes- which criteria can be $sed and where ha%e benchmarks to be set when meas$ring those criteriaW Those G$estions cannot be answered easily and sometimes not in an obDecti%e way. +$ring a ,$ropean:wide conference in 3trasbo$rg-) participants co$ld only agree

on two c$lt$ral landscapes of ,$ropean %al$e4 A$schwitB and Tschernobyl. In fact- there sho$ld be more c$lt$ral landscapes that are worth being protected than those two. Other G$estions abo$t the %al$e of landscapes and the need for their protection remain open 7Table )/.)8. The more %al$able a c$lt$ral land: scape- the more protection it deser%esb$t- as mentioned abo%e- the G$estion of how the %al$e can be assessed in an obDecti%e way pro%es to be dif.c$lt. The answer depends on the obDecti%es- which are followed by protection meas$res4 to preser%e the c$lt$ral landscape in its act$al stateor to permit f$rther de%elopment. Henerally important characteristics of c$lt$ral landscapes are di%ersity- character and rarity. Time determines the %al$e- often indirectly by determining rarity4 the older a c$lt$ral landscape and the elements within- the more rarely this type of landscape is likely to be fo$nd. On the other hand- the di%ersity of ,$rope?s landscapes co$ld only de%elop thro$gh the acti%ities of man. If somebody had decided in the )!th or ) th cent$ry to

stop landscapes from f$rther de%elopment- today?s di%ersity co$ld not e%er ha%e been de%eloped. This is why transformation of c$lt$ral landscapes is interpreted in different ways- namely as endangerment on the one hand- and as desired f$rther de%elopment on the other. One single arrangement or sol$tion that .ts all the different cases and regional speci.cations will not be fo$nd- b$t two G$estions are interesting4 Q Who decides which c$lt$ral landscapes are %al$able and which are notW Q Who decides which obDecti%es c$lt$ral landscape management is followingW +ifferent actors appear within the c$l: t$ral landscape protection arena4 to$rists- farmers- politicians- plannersscientists and others. They can be gro$ped into the categories @=andschaftsbewahre? 7landscape pre: ser%ers8@=andschafts%erwerter? 7landscape e'ploiters8@landbearbeitende Be%Plker$ng? 7land:labo$ring pop$lation8 and @=andschaftsn$tBer? 7landscape $sers8 73chenk- .**)8. The instit$tions and organiBations that de%elop and realiBe the different management approaches play a cr$cial role. They act on different spatial le%els- within different thematic .elds 7e.g. heritage

protection- nat$re protection- spatial planning8- ha%e a differing legal stat$s and organiBational form 7e.g. go%ernments- NHOs- fo$ndationsresearch instit$tes8 and they follow more or less obligatory concepts. Concerning the spatial le%el of the instit$tions and their instr$ments- a differentiation has to be made4 there are e'plicit ,$ropean and ,1 instit$tions as well as instit$tions which act on other spatial le%els- b$t
Table %(#%# 3 e only K @ also K

ne%ertheless deal with Euro5ean c$lt$ral landscapes. In other wordsnational policies or international organiBations also in.$ence the ,$ropean c$lt$ral landscapes 7see WeiBenegger- .*** and &ig. )/.)8. Nat$rally- those approaches with a broader spatial conte't 7global,$rope:wide8 are less detailed than the ones applied to smaller areas 7national- regional or local8. =ocal and regional meas$res

) . / 6 "
A p p r o a c h

e't ao dina y9 uni8ue o ve y s$ecial cultu al landsca$es Leve yday?landsca$es5 (i.e. all landsca$es)M aesthetically -eautiful )o th -ein1 less -eautiful onesM a e $ otectedM ones that can f e8uently -e foundM u al u -an?indust ial onesM histo ic contem$o a y onesM
Typolog y after ,$ropea n Aeco mmen dation =andsca pe Award ,$rop ean +iplo ma ,3+> and >,B=3 1N,3 CO World

#ee$sI +obrd}s assessm ent I n it i a ti % e I r e s p o n s i b l e o r

=andsca pe Con%ent ion 7,=C8

70"8 0

,3>O NI3>, 3>

Herita ge

,$ropea n

Co$ncil of ,$rope-

Co$nc il of ,$rop e

Co$ncil of ,$rope-

Co$nc il of ,$rop e

,1 Comm ission

,$ropea n Centre

1N,3 CO World

,n%iron ment

process enhance d

part of the @,$rope C

on 3patial

for Nat$re

Herita ge Centr e

Agency

by Congres

a commo

+e%elo pment

Conser%a tion

g a n i B a ti o n

s of

n heritage ?

=ocal and Aegiona l A$thorit ies of ,$rope T i m e f r a m e

campai gn- now reg$late d in ,=C

7initiati% e of Co$ncil of ,$rope and others8

,stablis hed in

,ntered into force on

)00"

,'ists since )00!-

3ince )09"F

,3+> adopte d in

)009C .*)9

World Herita ge

)00*I)0 0" 7in )00 edition no chapter on landsca pes8 3 p a ti a l l e % e l a n d e ' t e n t o f a p p r o a c h

) #arch .**6

since .**6 $nder the ,=CF awarde d e%ery year

awarded for " years)000- ,3>ONI3>,3>4 rene wabl e )00 C.***,3>ON .**94 .**.C .**9

Con%ention )0!.F C$lt$ral landscapes since )00.

,$rope

,$ropeF ) signat$r es-

Addre ssed to all

Address ed to all

9" diplom as in ."

,$rope an 1nion

"6 states contrib $te

Hlobal F /! sites

)! rati.catio ns

Co$nc il of ,$rop e

Co$ncil of ,$rope

Co$nci l of ,$rope

7)" membe r states8-

to realiBati on

world wideof

memb er states

member states

membe r states pl$s

in ,3>O N .**9 also

which ./ are

Belar$ s

candida te co$ntri es

locate d in ,$rop e

7,1 ."8 O b D e c ti % e s

+e%elo pment of

Awarene ss: raising-

Aeco mmen dation

Awards to local or

Award s to selecte d

,3+>4 >olicy

Aed$cti on of threats

>rotect ion of

a typolog y

identi.ca tion of landscap esimpro%e ment of landscap e G$ality

regional a$thorit ies and NHOs

areas

options for spatial planni ng3>,3> 4 operati onaliBa tion

to landsca pes

c$lt$ra l landsc apes of o$tsta nding $ni%er sal %al$e

+ e s c ri p ti o n o f a p p r o a c h

3cienti. c

Integrate d-

Integr ated-

Actor: oriented

Territo rial approa ch

,3+> 4 @wise

Action: oriented

Territor ial approac h

typolog y- /*

m$ltidis ciplinary F

m$ltid iscipli naryF

approac h- best

manag ement?

approac h 7))

landsca pe types

legal instr$me nt

legal instr$ ment 7non: obligat ory8

practice st$dies

desire d3>,3 >4 signi.c ance and endangering indicators

actionsI proDects 8

= a n d s c a p e c o n c e p t

,cologi c and

All landscap es 7i.e.

&oc$s on

+oes not apply C no

&oc$s on nat$ra l

Broad concep t-

+ifferent perspecti%es4 =andscapes of

econom ic

also e%eryda y- $rban-

endan gered

speci.c de.nitio nI

lands capes or

dependi ng on

$niG$en ess and

o$tsta nding

characte ristics-

ind$stria l

landsc apes

concept

feat$r es

approac h

di%ersit y-

$ni%er sal

landscap es8 settleme nt patterns landsca pe aestheti cs W e a k p o i n t s

regarded

,$ropea nI special %al$e

%al$eF three catego ries

>roble m with scale

C$rsoril y form$lat ed

Non: obligat ory

No critical mass

>robab ly no critical

+if.c $lt data

&oc$s on nat$ral

1neG$a l

of landsca pesmany c$lt$ral feat$res neglecte d

reached

mass reache d

sit$at ion

aspects

distrib$ tionF in.atory inscript ions

C$lt$ral =andscape #anagement in ,$rope and Hermany

!ou ceN *ei=ene11e 9 20009 u$dated (all .1u es as of 3$ il 200.).

3. WeiBenegger and W. 3chenk 3patial le%el of instit$tions and concepts Infl$ence

rarely radiate on the ,$ropean le%el- b$t in certain cases- they can ser%e as best:prac tice st$dies. National approaches can more easily be scaled $p on a ,$ropean le%el 7see the section @C$lt$ral landscape protection and management C the Herman perspecti%e? later in this chapter8. The range of ,$ropean c$lt$ral landscape protection and management approaches stretches from the $nbinding Co$ncil of ,$rope Aecommendation 70"8 0 and the c$rsorily form$lated ,$ropean =andscape Con%ention to %ery tangible designation of areas with a certain stat$s of protection- s$ch as- for e'amplethe 1N,3CO World Heritage 3ites. Altho$gh also Categories N and NI of the World Con ser%ation 1nion 7I1CN8 protected area classi.cation or 1N,3CO Biosphere Aeser%es co$ld be incl$ded in the latter gro$pthose approaches are not dealt with in this chapter beca$se they aim at c$lt$ral landscapes in a rather indirect way. Awards are assigned 7,$ropean +iploma- =andscape Award8- strategies de%eloped 7>,B=3 C >an:,$ropean Biological and =andscape 3trategy8 and planning concepts designed 7,3+> C ,$ropean 3patial +e%elopment >erspecti%e8. Aesearch is in%ol%ed in so far as it deli%ers the basics for the realiBation of the concepts and approaches. A synopsis of the approaches regarded in this chapter is gi%en in Table )/...
3phere of infl$ence

C$lt$ral C$lt$ral landscapes of ,$ropean %al$e Fig# %(#%# 3patial le%els of instit$tions and approaches dealing with ,$ropean c$lt$ral landscapes. Based on B$rggraaff and 2leefeld 7)00 - p. 98.

Basics from the research communit!: MeeusA 5%@@>: t!polog! of European landscapes >robably the most freG$ently cited approach of a ,$ropean landscape typology is the one carried o$t by #ee$s 7)00"8 on the basis of #ee$s et al. 7)00*8. It is taken o%er by 3tanners and Bo$rdea$ 7)00"8 in the @+obrd}s Assessment on ,$rope?s ,n%ironment?- edited on behalf of the ,$ropean ,n%ironment Agency 7,,A8- a doc$ment which pro%ides an o%erall %iew on the en%ironmental sit$ation in ,$rope and highlights ). prominent ,$ropean en%ironmental problems. &or identifying the most important landscape types- #ee$s 7)00"8 applies si' selection criteria4

). .. /. 6.

#ain land forms that characteriBe the geological and climatic Bones. ,conomic potential of land $se and landscape. =andscapes that are characteriBed by a combination of ecologically so$nd processes and s$stainable $se of nat$ral reso$rces. ,'tensi%ely managed areas 7as s$bstit$te for the tr$e wilderness areas- which are absent in most parts of ,$rope8.

". 9.

Aegionally speci.c settlement patterns- ancient .eld systems- old trees- terraces and %ernac$lar architect$re. 3cenic G$ality and %is$al characteristics.

C$lt$ral =andscape #anagement in ,$rope and Hermany

Thro$gh .ndings deri%ing from analysis of reports- p$blications- cartographic st$dies and planning proposals- a statistical analysis based on ,1AO3TAT data- a %is$al analysis of case st$dies and thro$gh inter%iews and disc$ssions with e'perts all o%er ,$rope 7see #ee$s et al., )00*8 combined with the abo%e listed selection criteria#ee$s 7)00"8 defines /* pan:,$ropean landscapes- which 3tanners and Bo$rdea$ 7)00"8 gro$p into eight distincti%e landscape types in the @+obrd}s Assessment on ,$rope?s ,n%ironment?. These landscape types are shown in Table )/./..

#ee$s? landscape typology is not only the most cited- b$t probably also the most criticiBed approach within the circle of e'perts 7see- for e'ample3chenk- )00!a- bF K. Ner%loet and T. 3pek- )00 - $np$blished materialF W. Nos- )000- $np$blished material8. They e'press disappro%al of the fact that the characteriBation is dominated by nat$ral aspects- whereas in.$ences by man are- if at all- of secondary importance. The only @artificial? landscapes are polders- some deltas
I T$ndra II Taiga

and the 3panish H$ertas- while towns and cities- for e'ample- are regarded as landscape:deteriorating instead of seeing them as a part of landscape. Trade and traf.c landscapes- mining and ind$strial landscapes as well as $rban c$lt$ral landscapes are not mentioned at all. This imbalance between nat$ral and anthropic criteria does not only become ob%io$s in the classi.cationb$t also in the choice of terminology4 in northern ,$ropeTable %(#(# Meeus5 $an?Eu o$ean landsca$e ty$es and distinctive landsca$e ty$es in the L6o- ds} 3ssessment5. 6istinctive landsca$e ty$es (6o- ds} 3ssessment9 !tanne s and Fou deau9 199.) Bandsca$e ty$es (Meeus9 199.)

<22 ;e1ional landsca$e <2 !te$$ic and a id landsca$es

III 1plands IN Bocage

N Open .elds

<22 ;e1ional landsca$e <222 3 ti.cial landsca$e

6o not a$$ea 1 3 ctic tund a 2 +o est tund a 3 Fo eal s)am$ / ,o the n tai1a . #ent al tai1a % !outhe n tai1a " !u-tai1a 8 ,o dic hi1hlands 9 Mountains 10 3tlantic -oca1e 11 3tlantic semi?-oca1e 12 Medite anean semi?-oca1e 13 3tlantic o$en .elds 1/ #ontinental o$en .elds 1. 38uitaine o$en .elds 1% +o me o$en .elds 1" #ollective o$en .elds 18 Medite anean o$en land 19 #oltu a $ omiscua 20 MontadosOdehesa 21 6elta

22 4ue ta 23 (olde 2/ Gam$en 2. (oland5s st i$ .elds 2% (us=ta 2" !te$$e 28 !emi?dese t 29 !andy dese t 30 Te aces

. WeiBenegger and W. 3chenk

mainly nat$ral criteria are $sed and types are named @t$ndra? and @taiga?- while in central and so$thern ,$rope the land:$se type- formal shaping or the like are regarded- which res$lts in types named @open fields? or @bocage?. This leads to another point of critiG$e4 #ee$s? classi.cation is not consistent. Heather landscapes are classi.ed in landscape type n$mber @Nordic highlands? by #ee$s- whereas one can .nd them also in lowland areas of central ,$rope 7b$t with a different degree of h$man in.$ence and history8- for e'ample=eneb$rger Heide in northern Hermany. =andscapes that .t in neither one of the other categories are called @regional landscapes?. @Terraces? C #ee$s? 7)00"8 landscape type n$mber /* C do not appear as a proper type in the +obrd}s Assessment- altho$gh they can be considered as an important element of the ,$ropean c$lt$ral heritage- not to mention that there are also different 7s$b:8types of terraces. This lack is d$e to the scale of the e'amination. 3ocial and historical aspects in.$ence c$lt$ral landscapes on an often %ery small dimension- which is not e%en ro$ghly represented in the chosen presentation scales of abo$t )4/" million. #oreo%er it co$ld be co$nterprod$cti%e to the original intention- if the responsible planners and policy:makers concei%e that #ee$s? /* types and eight types in the +obrd}s Assessment 7which are politically rele%ant8 represent the real di%ersity of ,$ropean c$lt$ral landscapes. The same is tr$e for the ill$strations and descriptions- which represent stereotypes rather than reality. =andscapes are romanticiBed and idealiBed. =andscape %al$es and f$nctions are seen as described too positi%elyaltho$gh negati%e performance is one part of history which res$lted in the act$al landscape as well. The concl$sion of this disc$ssion o$ght to be to concern @landscapes? not as entities b$t as spatial constr$ctions for a speci.c p$rpose mostly at a regional scaleF and in the Herman:speaking co$ntries it is better to speak of @2$lt$rlandschaften? 7c$lt$ral landscapes8- if yo$ wo$ld like to signal that yo$ are mainly interested in the c$lt$ral aspects of regions- especially in any kind of spatial c$lt$ral heritage 73chenk- .**.8.

European Landscape Convention One milestone in ,$ropean c$lt$ral landscape management has been set by the ,$ropean =andscape Con%ention. It is based on the @Carta del paisaDe mediterrfneo?- which was signed in )00/ in 3iena 7Italy8 by the regions Andal$sia 73pain8- =ang$edoc:Ao$ssillon 7&rance8 and Neneto 7Italy8. Abo$t the same time- the +obrd}s Assessment 73tanners and Bo$rdea$- )00"8 and the World Conser%ation 1nion 7I1CN- )00/8 in its p$blication &ar3s for Life; Actions for &rotected Areas in Euro5e recommend drawing $p a @,$ropean Con%ention on =andscapes?- which wo$ld in%ol%e the Co$ncil of ,$rope. After ha%ing set $p an ad %oc working gro$p composed of members of the Congress of =ocal and Aegional A$thorities of ,$rope 7C=AA,8 and other international- national and regional bodies- the draft ,$ropean =andscape Con%ention is introd$ced by the C=AA,. Its main obDecti%e is that @p$blic a$thority concern for landscapes will become a political priority iss$esince landscape G$ality is a key factor in the well: being of ,$ropean citiBens and the strengthening of a ,$ropean sense of identity? 7Co$ncil of ,$rope and Congress of =ocal and Aegional A$thorities of ,$rope- )00 8. On .* October .*** the ,$ropean =andscape Con%ention was signed in &lorence by ) co$ntries- and entered into force on ) #arch .**6. 3e%enteen co$ntries ha%e rati.ed the Con%ention so far 7as of April .**"4 Armenia- Belgi$m- B$lgariaCroatia- CBech Aep$blic- +enmark- Ireland=ith$ania- #oldo%a- Norway- >oland- >ort$galAomania- 3an #arino- 3lo%enia- the former S$gosla% Aep$blic of #acedonia and T$rkey8. The con%ention?s obDecti%e is to enhance landscape protection- management and planning and to organiBe a ,$ropean cooperation on landscape iss$es. #eas$res to be realiBed on national le%els are4

C$lt$ral =andscape #anagement in ,$rope and Hermany

Q Q Q
scapesF

awareness:raisingF training and ed$cationF identi.cation and assessment of land: identi.cation of landscape G$ality obDec: implementation.

Q
ti%esF and

The =andscape Award 7see below8 has been incl$ded in the con%ention. The ,$ropean =andscape Con%ention shares a broad de.nition of landscapes by- in its Article .- referring to @nat$ralr$ral- $rban and peri$rban areas E land- inland water and marine areas?. Besides- it @concerns landscapes that might be considered o$tstanding as well as e%eryday or degraded landscapes? 7Co$ncil of ,$rope- .***8. The Con%ention is s$pposed to be p$t into practice by the citiBens of ,$rope- and not D$st something @to dream of as a theoretical possibility in front of a comp$ter screen? 7Co$ncil of ,$rope and Congress of =ocal and Aegional A$thorities of ,$rope- )00 8. Ne%ertheless- it is held in G$ite general terms in order to take into acco$nt indi: %id$al states? traditions- organiBations and practice in the .eld. Council of Europe Activities: "ecommendation 5@>: @/ Landscape A)ard and European &iploma Aecommendation No. A 70"8 0 of the Committee of the #inisters to member states on the integrated conser%ation of c$lt$ral landscape areas as part of landscape policies sets o$t principles for c$lt$ral landscape area conser%ation and managed e%ol$tion within the conte't of general landscape policy. The recommendations refer in partic$lar to areas s$sceptible to damage- destr$ction and transformations harmf$l to the balance of the en%ironment and @especially concern the conser%ation of c$lt$ral landscape areas? 7Co$ncil of ,$rope- )00"8. It proposes an integrated approach- @re.ecting all the c$lt$ral- historicalarchaeological- ethnological- ecological- aestheticeconomic and social interests of the territory

concerned? and concerted action by all the concerned parties. Article 6 describes the process of identifying and appraising c$lt$ral landscape areas. One condition is that a m$ltidisciplinary approach sho$ld be adopted. The member states themsel%es determine the le%el at which the identi.cation process sho$ld be carried o$t- and operations sho$ld be cond$cted by competent a$thorities with assistance of appropriateindependent e'perts and with the participation of the local comm$nities. The same m$ltidisciplinary approach is proposed for strategies for action. National go%ernments are responsible for making the necessary instit$tional pro%ision and for pro%iding an adeG$ate legal or reg$latory framework. All policies sho$ld draw on the principles of s$stainable de%elopment. 3trategies sho$ld be de%ised at the administrati%e le%el con: sistent with the landscape identi.cation and appraisal proced$res. In )09"- the Committee of #inisters or the Co$ncil of ,$rope instit$tionaliBed the Euro5ean 1i5loma for different types of landscapesreser%es and nat$ral mon$ments. Those need to be of e'ceptional ,$ropean interest from the biological- geological or landscape di%ersity point of %iew. Altho$gh the foc$s lies on nat$ral aspectsc$lt$ral G$alities are incl$ded as well. >roposals are handed in as priority lists by the member states of the Co$ncil of ,$rope. They are re%iewed by an ad %oc gro$p of specialists- and an independent e'pert carries o$t an on:the:spot appraisal. The .nal decision abo$t the award is taken by the Committee of #inisters of the Co$ncil of ,$rope. The diploma is awarded for " years and can then be renewed. When a site is $ndergoing degradation- the diploma may be withdrawnwhich happened in one case- the &rench >yrenees National >ark- in which the sit$ation degraded dramatically with the e'pansion of to$rism. C$rrently 9" diplomas in ." Co$ncil of ,$rope member states and Belar$s are awarded- to among others the 3wiss National >ark and the HermanC =$'emb$rg Nat$re >ark. &or .**" the applications of Hran >aradiso National >ark in Italy and >iatra Crai$l$i National >ark in Aomania were being e'amined for admission to the network 7see Co$ncil of ,$rope- .**"8.

3. WeiBenegger

and W. 3chenk

Originally being foc$sed on strict and often static conser%ation policies- the approach today is dynamic. In the %ast maDority of the sites in Western ,$rope that ha%e been awarded the diploma- a 7sometimes signi.cant8 h$man in.$ence e'ists 7Aiba$t- )00 8. Haco$rt 7)00/8 describes primarily positi%e effects deri%ing from the diploma- like the creation of Dobs- meas$res concerning aesthetics and the en%ironment and the e'tension of scienti.c research and information politics. Another positi%e aspect he mentions is that both the award and e'tension of the diploma contain recommendations or conditions to be followed by the responsible management agency. On the other hand- to$rist n$mbers increasewhich is considered to be a threat to the protected Bone. The Co$ncil of ,$rope =andscape Award is dedicated to local and regional a$thorities as well as NHOs which ha%e taken initiati%es for the conser%ation- management andIor de%elopment of landscape G$ality. The initiati%es ha%e to fall into one of the following categories4

Q Q Q

awareness- ed$cation and participationF scienti.c and technical acti%itiesF and protection- management and planning.

A process is to be stim$lated- in which high: G$ality landscape management is initiatedenhanced and recogniBed 7Co$ncil of ,$rope.**/8. The =andscape Award was introd$ced in )00! $nder the @,$rope C a common heritage? campaign. With the ,$ropean =andscape Con%ention entering into force- its Article )) is reg$lating the award process. A committee of e'perts is identifying the necessary criteria. Cultural landscapes in European spatial planning The o%erall framework for ,$ropean spatial planning is- altho$gh witho$t obligation- set by the ,$ropean 3patial +e%elopment >erspecti%e 7,3+>8. The ,3+> is the res$lt of a processlasting se%eral years- of intense disc$ssion among the member states of the ,$ropean 1nion 7,1:)"8

and with the Commission on 3patial +e%elopment 7C3+8 in the ,1. 3tarting from )00/ the main principles and important analyses were de%eloped $ntil in )00! the +$tch presidency presented a .rst of.cial draft- referred to as the @NoordwiDk >aper?. This draft was re%ised in Hlasgow in )00 and .nally adopted in )000 in >otsdam 7see B#Ba$)00"F ,$ropean Commission- )00!- )00 F Co$ncil of ,$rope- )0008. In the beginning of the process three operational obDecti%es for spatial de%elopment are identi.ed for an ,3+>4 de%elopment- balance and protection. The protection obDecti%e aims at C among others C preser%ing @Ec$lt$ral identity- the heritage of ,$ropean r$ral and $rban settlements- and the di%ersity of landscape? 7B#Ba$- )00"8. As one sphere of acti%ity the @wise management and s$stainable de%elopment of ,$rope?s nat$ral and c$lt$ral heritage? is s$ggested. This section of the paper proposes to set $p an in%entory of the ,$ropean heritages on the basis of consistent criteria taking into acco$nt the di%ersity of national and regional conte't. It is stressed that @at the same time- special attention has to be paid to the preser%ation of uc$lt$ral landscapesv- which form an important part of regional c$lt$ral identity in ,$rope.? +escribing policy aims and options for the ,1 territory- one s$b:chapter of the ,3+> is dedicated to the @creati%e management of c$lt$ral landscapes? 7Co$ncil of ,$rope- )0008. The way in which agric$lt$re is practised is seen as a maDor threat to the c$lt$ral landscapes- and the increasing $niformity in landscapes and the loss of biodi%ersity is considered. Therefore- the ,3+> s$ggests p$tting a small n$mber of places $nder protection as @$niG$e e'amples of historical c$lt$ral landscapes?. The following policy options are s$ggested for c$lt$ral landscapes. Nat$rallythose policy options are kept in general terms. R @>reser%ation and creati%e de%elopment of c$lt$ral landscapes with special historicalaesthetical and ecological importance.

C$lt$ral =andscape #anagement in ,$rope and Hermany

,nhancement of the %al$e of c$lt$ral landscapes within the framework of integrated spatial de%elopment strategies. Q Impro%ed co:ordination of de%elopment meas$res which ha%e an impact on landscapes. Q Creati%e restoration of landscapes which ha%e s$ffered thro$gh h$man inter%entionincl$ding rec$lti%ation meas$res.? Also within the ,3+> process- in )00! a concept for a 3t$dy >rogramme on ,$ropean 3patial >lanning 73>,3>8 was de%eloped in order to set $p a ,$ropean 3patial >lanning Obser%atory Network 7,3>ON8 7#inisteri$m fer Aa$mordn$ng =$'emb$rg- )00!8. In one of three programme sections indicators that re.ect ,$ropean spatial dif: ferentiation were to be de%eloped. One of the se%en working gro$ps within this section worked on c$lt$ral assetswhich incl$ded c$lt$ral landscapes./ >arallel to the de%elopment

of indicators the G$estion of the assessment of landscapes was treated. Concerning indicators- in a .rst step a distinction between @signi.cance degree indicators? and @endangering degree indicators? is made. 3igni.cance indicators stand for all the intrinsic properties of single c$lt$ral elements and of their conte't- as well as obDects- acti%ities and facilities that make them considerable and c$lt$rally signi.cant. ,ndangering degree indicators represent all those conditions and acti%ities- as well as obDects and facilities whose e'istenceabsence or inadeG$acy determine a condition of imbalance leading to sit$ations of degradation and refer mainly to probable f$t$re de%elopment of the c$lt$ral landscape. Then .%e categories of indicators are identi.ed4

Category I4 >hysical Heographical &ea t$res Category II4 H$man Heographical respec ti%ely ,conomic &$nctional &eat$res Category III4 3pecial Agric$lt$ral &eat$res Category IN4 3pecial =egislation Instr$ ments Category N4 C$lt$ral 3igni.cance Nal$es. &or the description of c$lt$ral landscapes- two alternati%e ways are followed4 a direct one by making $se of remote sensing data- in which abo%e all physiognomy of the landscapes is regarded- and a rather indirect one making $se of statistical data- which are collected within administrati%e borders. One problem lies in the a%ailability of the data which are rele%ant for c$lt$ral landscapes. Those data collected by ,1AO3TAT often are not detailed eno$gh. +ata collected on local and regional le%els are not comparable. This is why the selection of criteria has to follow a pragmatic way4 incl$ded are indicators s$ch as agric$lt$ral prod$ction- landscape dissection by traffic or pop$lation growth. Another problem of the statistical approach is the fact that c$lt$ral landscapes do not necessarily coincide with administrati%e borders. As disc$ssed abo%e- there remains the problem of ill$strating the comple' str$ct$re on a ,$ropean scale- where a h$ge amo$nt of simpli.cation is necessary.

Within the s$ccessor ,3>ON .**9which is carried o$t within the framework of the Interreg:III: >rogramme- c$lt$ral landscapes ser%e as frame:gi%ing topics within the working gro$p which deals with the role and spatial effects of c$lt$ral heritage and identity. This proDect was la$nched in October .**6. 4an European Biological and Landscape &iversit! 0trateg! The >an:,$ropean Biological and =andscape +i%ersity 3trategy was set $p for a period of .* years 7)009C .*)98 and foc$ses on contrib$ting to the realiBation of the Con%ention on Biological +i%ersity. In fo$r ":year action plans the ambitio$s obDecti%es are form$lated in the form of Action Themes. All actions are coordinated by the ,$ropean Centre for Nat$re Conser%ation 7,CNC8. Action Theme 6 aims at the conser%ation of landscapes by treating the following iss$es 7,CNC- )00!84 de%elopment of landscape indicators- links with corre: sponding topics- priorities for landscape management- strategies to sol%e con.icts- information policiesand proposals for integrated actions.

3. WeiBeneg
3pecial attention is paid to @soft? meas$res s$ch as cross:sector participation- specification of comm$nication mechanisms or learning and e'change of information. The landscape concept is interpreted in m$ltiple ways. Cultural landscapes )ithin 1.E0C; Borld 'eritage Within 1N,3CO World Heritage- c$lt$ral landscapes recei%e special attention4 two decades after the World Heritage Con%ention entered into force in )0!.- in )00. the operational g$idelines were adapted in so far as c$lt$ral landscapes of o$tstanding $ni%ersal %al$e can be incl$ded in the World Heritage =ist. Three categories of c$lt$ral landscapes are disting$ished 71N,3CO- .**/84

ger and W. 3chenk

The legislat$re of the &ederal Aep$blic of Hermany demands e'plicitly or implicitly in a n$mber of laws and decrees that planning sho$ld deal with the historical heritage of o$r landscapespartic$larly in the sectors of b$ilding conser%ationnat$re protection and spatial planning. In practicea comple' network of instit$tions and acti%ities for @historical c$lt$ral landscapes? has de%elopedwhich can hardly be seen thro$gh. In this chapter the speci.c contrib$tions of nat$re protection and b$ilding conser%ation as well as spatial planning towards the conser%ation of the assets of c$lt$ral landscapes will be presented.

'istorical landscapes and nature protection &or a long time since its .rst p$blication in )09 the law of nat$re protection had been the only one which e'plicitly demanded the protection of historical landscapes. In the present edition- that of .**.- the te't reads as follows4
Historical landscapes and parts of them with a speci.c character o$ght to be conser%ed. This incl$des landscapes or parts of landcapes with partic$lar signi.cance for the character or bea$ty of c$lt$ral mon$ments- historical b$ildings or archaeological sites which are $nder protection or considered to be protected. 7Historische 2$lt$rlandschaften $nd :landschaftsteile %on besonderer ,igenarteinschlie~lich solcher %on besonderer Bede$t$ng fer die ,igenart oder 3chPnheit geschetBter oder schetBenswerter 2$lt$r:- Ba$: $nd Bodendenkm[ler- sind B$ erhalten.8

). ..

/.

C$lt$ral landscapes designed and created intentionally by man. Organically e%ol%ed c$lt$ral landscapes 7these fall into the two s$bcategories relictIfossil landscape and contin$ing c$lt$ral landscapes8. Associati%e c$lt$ral landscapes.

The 3intra 7>ort$gal8 was incl$ded in the list in )00" as the .rst ,$ropean c$lt$ral landscape. One year later- in Nienna an e'pert meeting took place- which worked e'plicitly on Euro5ean c$lt$ral landscapes. #eanwhile at least /" c$lt$ral landscapes are inscribed in the World Heritage =ist- of which .. are located in ,$rope 7as of April .**6F the new design of the World Heritage Centre website does not allow search by heritage types any longer. &or detailed disc$ssion of the problems of identi.cation of c$lt$ral landscapes on the World Heritage =ist refer to WeiBenegger- .***8.

Cultural Landscape 4rotection and Management the =erman 4erspective

The legal and institutional frame of cultural landscape conservation in =erman!

Howe%er- the legislator omitted to install a speci.c category of protected landscape areas comparable to @nat$re protection areas?. That is the reason why this passage had been rather $nknown- especially in the lower le%els of nat$re protection administrations- for a long time. Nowadays the sit$ation has changed radically. In fact- nat$re protection mo%ements are D$st and once again e'ploring the @c$lt$ral landscape? for two reasons4

C$lt$ral =andscape #anagement in ,$rope and Hermany

).

..

The acceptance of @classic? strategies of single:species protection is declining in the arena of politics as well as in the p$blic. 3o the in%ol%ed instit$tions are looking for new .elds of acti%ity- and one area is the @historical landscape?. There is a general ret$rn to the roots of nat$re protection which are based on the holistic mo%ement of the @Heimatsch$tB? concept 7the protection of the homeland8 of the late )0th and early .*th cent$ry. This approach incl$des nat$re- landscape and mon$ment protection. Altho$gh it was widely mis$sed at the time of National 3ocialism 7and there is no do$bt that a lot of leading members of the Herman nat$re protection mo%ement in the .rst half of the .*th cent$ry had been %ery familiar with the ideas of National 3ocialism8- it can now be seen as an appropriate answer to the comple' in.$ences on modern landscapes.

As a res$lt- an increasing n$mber of proDects initiated by nat$re protection administrations are dealing with @c$lt$ral landscapes?.

'istorical landscapes and monument conservation There is no do$bt that the main task of the mon$ment administration is to take care of the b$ilt c$lt$ral heritage. Ne%ertheless- landscapes created by past generations sho$ld also be a part of the administration?s tasks of conser%ation. 1nfort$nately- most colleag$es working in this area are ed$cated in the arts C and the s$bDect @landscape? is rather o$t of their minds. In spite of this- a common paper of the Herman +enkmalschetBer on the relations of mon$ment preser%ation and c$lt$ral landscape was p$blished in .*** 7H$nBelmann- .**)8. Howe%er- this paper is hardly accepted in some parts of Hermany. +$e to the federal str$ct$re of Hermany- e%ery federal state has its own laws and practice in mon$ment protection. Th$s- landscape protection is often a matter of a single person?s engagement in mon$ment protection. ,specially in Ba%aria and in Baden:Werttemberg- two historical geographers

s$cceeded in @in.ltrating? these administrations. They were able to p$t the ideas of historical landscape preser%ation into practice by a broad interpretation of form$las in federal laws talking of @ensembles? and similar terms. In Ba%aria yo$ can .nd some e'amples of so:called @+enkmalland: schaften? 7@landscapes with important historical landscape elements and str$ct$res?8- like historical %ineyards- channels or railways- and the @+enkmalp.egerische ,rheb$ngsbogen? 7a standardiBed G$estionnaire concerning historical sites8 is nowadays a common instr$ment for pre: in%estigations of historical str$ct$res at the beginning of %illage renewal programmes. Howe%er- in comparison to the general practice of Herman mon$ment conser%ation there are only a small n$mber of proDects dealing with c$lt$ral landscapes C b$t it is a growing n$mber none the less.

'istorical landscapes and regional planning In the amendment of the &ederal 3patial >lanning Act 7@Aa$mordn$ngsgesetB?8 from ) Kan$ary )00 it is said that 7in principle )/8 @grown landscapes? 7@gewachsene 2$lt$rlandschaften?8 sho$ld be protected in their characteristic feat$res incl$ding the mon$ments of nat$re and c$lt$re close to them 7@+ie gewachsenen 2$lt$rlandschaften in ihren pr[genden #erkmalen sowie mit ihren 2$lt$r: $nd Nat$rdenkm[lern sind B$ erhalten?8. This article relates to the ideas of the ,1 of the c$lt$ral and nat$ral heritage as an important %al$e for regional de%elopmentF its .rst implementation in Hermany took place in the so:called @1N>H? 7HesetB B$r 1mwelt%ertr[glichkeitspref$ngF law on en%iron: mental impact assessment8 in the early )00*s. Howe%er- a large conference in .*** concerned with the term @c$lt$ral landscapes? showed that the maDority of Herman spatial planners were not familiar with the idea of protecting historical str$ct$res in processes of regional planning. Nobody act$ally knows how to deal with historical

3. WeiBenegger

and W. 3chenk

landscapes in this conte't. This is why a working gro$p of the @Akademie fer Aa$mordn$ng $nd =andschaftsplan$ng? 7AA=F Academy for 3patial Aesearch and >lanning- Hanno%er8 is looking for ways of implementation. The concept of historical geograph! It has been shown that the dilemma of historical landscape preser%ation is that it sits on the fence in terms of legal reg$lation in Hermany. &or this reason- it is indicated to show paths 7incl$ding the approaches of the 1N,3CO and the ,18 towards common strategies according to the concept of c$lt$ral landscape care 7C=C8. In this conte'tlandscape conser%ation is $nderstood as an interdisciplinary concept for the spatial management of the historical c$lt$ral heritage. In general- landscapes sho$ld be seen as archi%es of nat$re and h$man history and as an important basis for s$stainable regional de%elopment.

C$lt$ral landscape conser%ation can be $nderstood as a concept o%erwhelming the different approaches of planning and handling the c$lt$ral heritage in o$r landscapes. It is based on re.ections on what is important in historical landscapes for the present and f$t$re societies. &ig$re )/.. shows the process of C=C. &irst of all- an o%er%iew of the present historical str$ct$res and elements in o$r modern landscapes is needed. In Hermany we are talking abo$t @=andschaftskataster?- cadastral in%entories of historical elements and str$ct$res in catalog$es combined with te'ts- photos and maps. In the Aheinlande 7the western part of Nordrhein: Westfalen8 the historical geographers in Bonn 7B$rggraaff and 2leefeld- )00 8 are in%ol%ed in b$ilding $p a h$ge in%entory based on a geographical information system 7HI38- the so called 2$la+IH. 3econd- a broad disc$ssion on the %al$es of these str$ct$res and elements is necessary. That demands meas$res of %al$es. The most important %al$es in the

Fig# %(#+# The concept of c$lt$ral landscape care 7C=C8 as a circle of disc$ssions. 3o$rce4 W. 3chenk .**. after H.:A. ,gli- )009 7see 3chenk et al.- )00!8.

C$lt$ral =andscape #anagement in ,$rope and Hermany

is no longer incl$ded. concept of C=C are the age of landscape elements or str$ct$res- their speci.city and rarity relating to / The res$lts are p$blished in Herman and the regional conte't- their aesthetic G$ality and ,nglish 7BBA- .**)a- b8. their importance for the regional identity. These criteria are a mi't$re of nat$re and mon$ment "eferences conser%ation iss$es as well as regional planning concerns. In the federal state of 3aarland this BBA 7B$ndesamt fer Ba$wesen $nd Aa$mordn$ng8 7ed.8 approach has been applied %ery s$ccessf$lly in a 7.**)a8 'riterien ffr die rSumlic%e model proDect. 1ifferen4ierung des EU/Territoriums; The third step is to bring together all the 'ulturerbe. &orsch$ngen- )**.)- Bonn- Hermany. related instit$tions- societies and persons to disc$ss BBA 7B$ndesamt fer Ba$wesen $nd Aa$mordn$ng8 strategies of landscape management. Once again7ed.8 7.**)b8 #riteria for t%e *5atial the main idea is to $se the heritage in o$r 1ifferentiation of t%e EU Territory; #ultural landscapes for regional de%elopment C not to p$t Assets. &orsch$ngen- )**..- Bonn- Hermany. B#Ba$ the landscape $nder a @cheese co%er?. It is %ery 7B$ndesministeri$m fer Aa$mordn$ng- Ba$wesen $nd important to stress that c$lt$ral landscape care 3t[dteba$8 7ed.8 7)00"8 &rinci5les for a Euro5ean e'pressly accepts the e%ol$tion of landscapes- if *5atial 1evelo5ment &olicy. B#Ba$- Bonnhistorical assets- considered as potential for f$t$re Hermany. B$rggraaff- >. and 2leefeld- 2.+. 7)00 8 de%elopment- are not destroyed. +istorisc%e 'ulturlandsc%aft und

Conclusion

There are many e'amples of the realiBation of the concept of c$lt$ral landscape care 73chenk et al.)00!F 3chenk- .**/8. Howe%er- some of these e'amples re%ealed a general problem of C=C4 a lot of people do not know abo$t the %al$e of historical landscapes- so yo$ need a basic ed$cation abo$t that. ,ffecti%e ways to inform the p$blic abo$t the assets of their c$lt$ral landscape heritage incl$de writing @landscape g$ides? in the form of booklets or information sheets- installing @landscape m$se$ms?- prod$cing .lms abo$t regions with a rich heritage- or to offer .eld trips g$ided by local e'perts- in some cases ed$cated in special seminars. If yo$ are able to e'plain the landscape as a matter of o$r own- it is %ery impressi%e to feel the warm interest of people in the history and %al$es of their landscapes.

.otes

'ulturlandsc%aftselemente. Angewandte =andschaftsPkologie- .*- Bonn- Hermany. Co$ncil of ,$rope 7)00"8 Aecommendation No. A 70"8 0 of the committee of ministers to member states on the integrated conser%ation of c$lt$ral landscapes areas as part of landscape policies 7Adopted by the Committee of #inisters on )) 3eptember )00" at the "6/rd meeting of the #inisters? +ep$ties8. Co$ncil of ,$rope 7)0008 ,3+> C ,$ropean 3patial +e%elopment >erspecti%e. Towards Balanced and 3$stainable +e%elopment of the Territory of the ,$ropean 1nion. Co$ncil of ,$rope, =$'embo$rg. Co$ncil of ,$rope 7.***8 ,$ropean =andscape Con%ention. A%ailable at4 www.nat$re.coe.intIenglishImainI landscapeIcon%.htm Co$ncil of ,$rope 7.**/8 Co$ncil of ,$rope =andscape Award. A%ailable at4 www.coe.intItIeIC$lt$ral| Co: perationI,n%ironmentI=andscapeI>resentationI9|Co ntentI*6landscape|award.asp Co$ncil of ,$rope 7.**"8 The ,$ropean +iploma of >rotected Areas. A%ailable at4 www.coe.intItIeI C$lt$ral|Co: operationI,n%ironmentInat$re|and|biological|di%ers ityIecological|networksIthe| e$ropean|diploma

) .

@=andscapes and 3$stainability4 A ,$ropean Workshop on landscape assessment and policy tools?#arch )000- organiBed by the ,$ropean Centre for Nat$re Conser%ation and the Co$ntryside Commission. In the )00 edition of Euro5eFs Environment 7,,A- )00 8- the chapter on landscapes

3. WeiBenegger

and W. 3chenk

Co$ncil of ,$rope and Congress of =ocal and Aegional A$thorities of ,$rope 7)00 8 &ifth 3ession 73trasbo$rg- .9C. #ay )00 8. The >reliminary +raft ,$ropean =andscape Con%ention. ,'planatory #emorand$m. CH 7"8 - >art II. ,CNC 7,$ropean Centre for Nat$re Conser%ation8 7)00!8 Action Theme 64 ,$ropean =andscapes. +raft Action >lan for ,$ropean =andscapes. Tilb$rg 7$np$blished8. ,,A 7,$ropean ,n%ironment Agency8 7)00 8 Euro5eFs Environment; T%e *econd Assessment. ,$ropean ,n%i: ronment Agency- =$'embo$rg and O'ford. ,$ropean Commission 7)00!8 ,$ropean 3patial +e%elopment >erspecti%e. &irst of.cial draft . >resented at the informal meeting of #inisters responsible for spatial planning of the member states of the ,$ropean 1nion. NoordwiDk- 0 and )* K$ne )00!- =$'embo$rg. ,$ropean Commission 7)00 84 ,$ropean 3patial +e%elopment >erspecti%e 7,3+>8. Complete draft . #eeting of #inisters responsible for spatial planning of the member states of the ,$ropean 1nion. Hlasgow- K$ne- )00 =$'embo$rg. H$nBelmann- T. 7.**)8 ,rfass$ngen B$r 2$lt$rlandschaft innerhalb der +enkmalp.ege. In4 2ommm$nal%erband Hanno%er 7ed.8 'ulturlandsc%aften in Euro5a. egionale und internationale 'on4e5te 4u Bestand/ serfassung und Management. Beitr[ge B$r regionalen ,ntwickl$ng 0.- Hanno%er- pp. "!C90. Haco$rt- H. 7)00/8 +as e$rop[ische +iplom. 2aturo5a, !)- ).C)/. I1CN 7The World Conser%ation 1nion8 7)00/8 &ar3s for Life; e5ort of t%e I)t% ,orld #ongress on 2ational &ar3s and &rotected Areas. I1CN Hland- 3witBerland. Kob- H.- #etBler- +. and WeiBenegger- 3. 7.***8 3trategien B$r 3icher$ng des e$rop[ischen Nat$r: $nd 2$l t$rerbes. Informationen 4ur aument-ic3lung, .!7/I68- )6/C)"". #ee$s- K.H.A. 7)00"8 >an:,$ropean landscapes. Landsca5e and Urban &lanning /)- "!C!0. #ee$s- K.H.A.- WiDermans- #.>. and Nroom #.K. 7)00*8 Agric$lt$ral =andscapes in ,$rope and their Trans formation. Landsca5e and Urban &lanning ) - . 0C/".. #inisteri$m fer Aa$mordn$ng =$'emb$rg 7)00!8 2onBept B$r ,rricht$ng eines NetBwerk ,$rop[isches Aa$mplan$ngsobser%atori$m? 7N,AO8. 2onBeptpapier fer die 3itB$ng in ,chternach. ,chternach. Aiba$t- K.:>. 7)00 8 O$tstanding ,$ropean landscapes. A conser%ation tool4 the ,$ropean +iploma. 2aturo5a, 9- ./. 3chenk- W. 7)00!a8 Wie man @wert%olle =andschaften? macht C Heographische 2ritik an einer 2arte der @/* =andschaften ,$ropas? $nd am B$gehPrigen 2apitel in @,$rope?s ,n%ironment C The +obrd}s Assessment?. 'ulturlandsc%aft !- )- //C/!. 3chenk- W. 7)00!b8 2$lt$rlandschaftliche Nielfalt als ,ntwickl$ngsfaktor im ,$ropa der Aegionen. In4 Boesler2.A. and ,hlers- ,. 7eds8 1eutsc%land und Euro5a. +istorisc%e, 5olitisc%e und geogra5%isc%e As5e3te. &estschrift B$m "). +e$tschen Heographentag Bonn )00!- @,$ropa in einer Welt im Wandel?. #olloPuium !eogra5%icum .6- .*0C..0- Bonn. 3chenk- W. 7.**)8 2$lt$rlandschaft in Xeiten %ersch[rfter N$tB$ngskonk$rrenB. In4 Akademie fer Aa$mforsch$ng $nd =andesplan$ng- AA= 7ed.8 1ie du3unft der 'ulturlandsc%aft 4-isc%en )erlust, Be-a%rung und !estaltung. &orsch$ngs: $nd 3itB$ngsberichte AA= .)"- Hanno%er- pp. /*C66. 3chenk- W. 7.**.8 @=andschaft? $nd @2$lt$rlandschaft? C @getPnte? =eitbegriffe fer akt$elle 2onBepte geographischer &orsch$ng $nd r[$mlicher >lan$ng. &etermanns !eogra5%isc%e Mitteilungen )69798- 9C)/. 3chenk- W. 7.**/8 Historische 2$lt$rlandschaften als &aktor der Aegionalentwickl$ng. Local Land ] *oil 2e-s !I - IIIIIN- )9C) . 3chenk- W.- &ehn- 2. and +enecke- +. 7eds8 7)00!8 2$lt$rlandschaftsp.ege. Beitr[ge der Heographie B$r r[$mlichen >lan$ng. Hebreder Borntraeger- 3t$ttgart- Berlin. 3tanners- +. and Bo$rdea$- >. 7eds8 7)00"8 Euro5eFs Environment D T%e 1obrTgs Assessment. ,$ropean ,n%ironment Agency- Copenhagen. 1N,3CO 71nited Nations ,d$cational3cienti.c and C$lt$ral Organisation8 7.**/8 Operational H$idelines. A%ailable at4 www.$nesco.orgIwhc WeiBenegger- 3. 7.***8 An appraisal of approaches dealing with ,$ropean c$lt$ral landscapes C with special reference to the 1N,3CO World Heritage Con%ention. +iploma Thesis- 1ni%ersity of Trier- Hermany.

%- The "estoration of Forest Landscapes

through Farmland Afforestation Measures in 0pain
C. #ontiel #olina
#om5lutense University of Madrid and 1e5artment of egional !eogra5%y and &%ysical !eogra5%y, Faculty of !eogra5%y and +istory, #iudad Universitaria, Madrid, *5ain

Introduction
&armland afforestation is one of the agrien%ironmental meas$res that accompanied the Common Agric$lt$ral >olicy 7CA>8 of )00.. The obDecti%e of these ,$ropean meas$res was to promote early retirement systems for farmers and farm workers- to fa%o$r the recreational- en%ironmental and forestry $se of land withdrawn from agric$lt$ral prod$ction and to s$pport the protection of the en%ironmentlandscape and nat$ral reso$rces. The Aeg$lation 7,C8 No .* *I0.- which established the s$pport system for forestry meas$res in agric$lt$re- was applied in 3pain following the enactment of the Aoyal +ecree /! I0/- ) of ). #arch-

which established a s$pport system to promote forestry in%estment on farms and actions to de%elop and e'ploit forests in r$ral areas. It is this ,C reg$lation that has had the greatest territorial and socio:economic impact in 3pain- partly beca$se it has been the best .nanced. Its application was carried o$t thro$gh the National &armland Afforestation >rogramme- complemented by )! Aegional >rogrammes- whose initial implementation period 7)00/C)00!8 was e'tended to incl$de the years )00 C.***. The de%elopment of these actions has since contin$ed with the application of Aeg$lation 7,C8 No )."!I00 on s$pport for r$ral de%elopment- which was the c$lmination of the CA> reform process beg$n in the )0 *s and insisted on the importance of agri:en%ironmental instr$ments and partic$larly the afforestation of farmland- establishing the need to maintain the s$pport system for forestry meas$res. The application of this second reg$lation was reg$lated in 3pain by the Aoyal +ecree 9I.**)- of ). Kan$ary .**)- on the promotion of farmland afforestation. +$ring the period )00/C)000- 6/"-!/! ha of 3panish farmland were afforested

with ,C .nancial s$pport. Th$s- the &armland Afforestation >rogramme has not only contrib$ted to achie%ing the goals established in the ,C reg$lations 7changing land $se and assigning d$ties to farmers additional to prod$ction8b$t has also bro$ght abo$t meaningf$l changes in the landscape. The latter m$st be assessed differently according to the en%ironmental and socio:economic conditions in which the meas$res were taken. #ost of the afforested areas consisted of low:prod$cti%ity farmland that had been abandoned since the )09*s- where the < CAB International .**9. T%e #onservation of #ultural Landsca5es 7ed. #. Agnoletti8

C. #ontiel #olina
spontaneo$s regeneration of %egetation had already consolidated the restoration dynamics of forest ecosystems. In general- the planting done so far has led to a di%ersi.cation of the landscape in r$ral areas and has enhanced o$r forest heritage. None the less- the ,C reg$lations do not respond to the specificity of the #editerranean regional conte't and this has had notable conseG$ences for the landscape. afforestations ha%e been carried o$t on forest ecosystems 7meadows- broom .elds- esparto .elds8 and all this has been possible d$e to conf$sing reg$lations which allow the transformation of @open woodland? and @$nc$lti%ated grassland?whilst at the same time specifying that h$nder no circ$mstances may it be abandoned land?meaning- therefore- that its $se m$st be generating earnings. In reality- the $se of the 3panish word @agrarias? 7@agrarian?8 to designate the land to which the Afforestation >rogramme may be applied- instead of the word @agrTcolas? 7@agric$lt$ral?8- is a national response which aims to adapt the ,$ropean reg$lation to the problems and specificity of the #editerranean region. The real socio:economic- en%ironmental and landscape problem in r$ral #editerranean areas is not the intensi.cation of agric$lt$ral prod$ction- b$t instead the abandonment of less prod$cti%e dry lands. ConseG$ently- the main challenge in%ol%es regaining the management of these areassomething which is only possible by %al$ing agroforestry systems based on a criterion of m$lti: f$nctionality. Altho$gh the c$rrent legal framework- de.ned on the basis of Aeg$lation 7,C8 No )."!I)000corrects some of the problems that arose from the pre%io$s reg$lation regarding the fail$re of ,C pro%isions to respond to the speci.city of the #editerranean region- certain problems of form$la: tion and interpretation still e'ist. This is demonstrated by Article ." of Aeg$lation 7,C8 No )!"*I)000 which establishes pro%isions for the application of Aeg$lation 7,C8 No )."!I)0004
Agric$lt$ral land eligible for s$pport for afforestation according to Article /) of Co$ncil Aeg$lation 7,C8 No )."!I)000 shall be speci.ed by the #ember 3tate and shall incl$de in partic$lar arable land- grassland- permanent past$res and land $sed for perennial crops- where farming takes place on a reg$lar basis.

The Failure of EC "egulations to "espond to the 0peci#cit! of the Mediterranean "egion

The National >rogramme which reg$lates the implementation of the ,C reg$lations regarding farmland afforestation in 3pain $ses the phrase @su5erficies agrarias? 7@agrarian areas?8 which has a #editerranean meaning that is dif.c$lt to translate into other lang$ages. In 3panish- the term @agrario? 7@agrarian?8 encompasses agric$lt$ralstock:breeding and also forestry acti%ities. Thistogether with the speci.city of the #editerranean co$ntryside- where agrosil%opastoral land $ses often coe'ist or take place s$ccessi%elyintrod$ces an atmosphere of concept$al conf$sion which allows all kinds of r$ral lands to be eligible for the incenti%es- incl$ding forestlands themsel%es- which sho$ld not a 5riori be the target of this programme 7#ontiel et al.- .**/8. In fact- the Aoyal +ecree )".I)009 pro%ides a list of agric$lt$ral areas that are eligible for s$pport which incl$des cork oak forests and @open woodland and meadows- pro%ided that the crowns of the trees do not co%er more than .*M of the s$rface area and that it is mainly $sed for past$re.? It is clear that the original ,C philosophylinked to the CA> Aeform 7to red$ce s$rpl$s and di%ersify agric$lt$ral incomes and f$nctions8- is dif.c$lt to implement in #editerranean ,$ropemainly d$e to the low forest prod$cti%ity of the #editerranean co$ntryside. In the speci.c case of 3panish regions- most of the afforested plots consisted of land which had already been abandoned and were at different stages of spontaneo$s e%ol$tion towards the re: establishment of a forest canopy when the plantings were carried o$t. Th$s- many

This definition- which is specific and $neG$i%ocal for regions in north:west

Aestoration of &orest =andscapes thro$gh &armland Afforestation

,$rope and central ,$rope- is howe%er ambig$o$s and creates concept$al problems in the #editerranean conte't. Therefore- the Aoyal +ecree 9I.**)- for the p$rpose of implementing these incenti%es- considers @those areas which are not of.cially classi.ed as woodland and ha%e been reg$larly $sed for agric$lt$ral or stock:breeding acti%ities d$ring the last )* years- incl$ding4

contrasts- on the other hand- with the criteria and indices $sed in the b$dgetary distrib$tion process- .

Q Q Q Q Q Q Q

land occ$pied by wood cropsF land occ$pied by herbaceo$s cropsF family %egetable gardens or orchardsF nat$ral meadowsF past$resF fallow landF and $nc$lti%ated grassland.

It is tr$e that the wording of the Aoyal +ecree 9I.**) replaces the term @ eM5lotaciones agrarias? 7@agrarian farms?8- $sed in the Aoyal +ecree /! I0/- with that of @ tierras agrTcolas? 7@agric$lt$ral land?8. Howe%er- the list of property categories that are entitled to recei%e afforestation incenti%es still incl$des @$nc$lti%ated grassland?based on an obDecti%e technical definition which conceals the landscape and territorial reality of s$ch lands in 3pain. According to the Aoyal +ecree 9I.**)- $nc$lti%ated grassland is $nderstood to be @agric$lt$ral land which is technically and .nancially oriented towards stockbreeding?. Howe%er- the fact is that- in most cases- and depending on recent socio:economic dynamics- $nc$lti%ated grasslands constit$te consolidated forest ecosystems 7b$shes and scr$bland8- where stock:breeding acti%ities ceased some time ago and whose c$rrent sit$ation is the res$lt of a process of abandonment which began in the )09*s. The fact that the maDority of the afforestation proDects ha%e foc$sed on this kind of land has had territorial and landscape conseG$ences which highlight the speci.city of the #editerranean region and the need to take this sin: g$larity into acco$nt when defining territorial policies. The fail$re of the ,C reg$lations to adapt to the speci.city of the #editerranean region

which ha%e been criticiBed for fa%o$ring #editerranean regions at the e'pense of Atlantic regionswhich are more prod$cti%e in forestry terms. Howe%er- it is clear that there has been ins$f.cient coordination between the incenti%e:awarding ,C initiati%e and the territorial actions that it in%ol%es- both at a regional and local le%el. The need to assimilate and adapt an originally foreign approach to the territorial dynamics of the #editerranean conte't has generated operational and efficiency:related problems. &$rthermore- the fail$re of the ,$ropean reg$lation to take into acco$nt the specificity of the #editer: ranean region has led to the de%elopment of regional reg$lations that de.ne a permissi%e framework for the acceptance of applications which has manifested itself- in practice- in the type of land $se affected by afforestation and the effect of these incenti%es on the landscape. The actions ha%e been implemented almost e'cl$si%ely in areas where agrarian acti%ity no longer e'isted and which were often in an ad%anced state of nat$raliBation. 0panish "ural Landscapes According to the ,$ropean =andscape Con%ention- @landscape means an area- as percei%ed by people- whose character is the res$lt

of the action and interaction of nat$ral andIor h$man factors?. In the light of this de.nition- forestland is a nat$ral and c$lt$ral landscape- which means that its dynamic is not only nat$ralb$t also social and c$lt$ral. The #editerranean landscape- recog: niBed for both its sing$larity and its e'traordinary di%ersity- @is the most directly perceptible e'pression and re.ection of the transformation of o$r territories? 7Arias and &o$rnea$- )00 p. 08. Its speci.city is a conseG$ence of the material and immaterial components which de.ne it. The former are related to nat$ral aspectspartic$larly the #editerranean climate- and the latter are related to c$lt$ral aspects- arising from h$man in%ol%ement thro$gho$t history-

C. #onti el
thro$gh the e'ploitation and management of the land. The presence of the sea and- abo%e all- the architect$re of its basin- s$rro$nded by mo$ntains which gi%e it a closed- comple' and fragmented character and t$rn said regions into mo$ntaino$s backdrops topped by .ood plains- is the .rst element to determine the territorial characteristics of the #editerranean conte't. The climate- marked by many days of s$nshine and scarce and irreg$lar rainfall- together with the mo$ntaino$s topographyis responsible for the predominance of poor soils 7e'cept on the all$%ial plains8 and sclerophyllo$s %egetation- s$ited to s$ch en%ironmental conditions. The climate is- in fact- one of the most in.$ential factors in the s$ccess or fail$re of farmland afforestation d$e to the possibility of dro$ght- the most serio$s climatic risk s$ffered by #editerranean regions./

#oli na

The nat$ral components of the landscape thereby de.ne an ecosystem which is characteriBed by biodi%ersity and fragile ecological balances whilstat the same time- possessing an e'traordinary capacity for nat$ral regeneration which may- none the less- be affected by inappropriate h$man actions of a repetiti%e and freG$ent nat$re. Indeed#editerranean landscapes ha%e a distinctly h$man component. H$mans ha%e been present and acti%e e%er since the origins of these ecosystems- acting as a constit$ent element and agent of the latter. The #editerranean agrarian landscape is a mosaic that has been b$ilt and shaped by h$man acti%itiese'ploitation and management thro$gho$t history. 3ociety has helped to generate biodi%ersity by di%ersi:

fying territorial $ses and %al$ing agric$lt$ral and forest land for the p$rpose of e'ploiting reso$rces. Both farmland 7$nirrigated and irrigated8 and forestland are constructed landsca5es which possess strong c$lt$ral associations 7&ig. )6.)8. The origins of the #editerranean c$l: t$ral landscape are to be fo$nd in traditional methods of spatial organiBation. Th$s- the practice of transh$mance in the stock:breeding of sheep- pigs and goats has gi%en rise to a comple' agrosil%opastoral system consisting of meadows. 3imilarlythe adaptation of agric$lt$ral practices to the scarcity of water reso$rcesthro$gh arboric$lt$re 7oli%e- almond- carob and .g trees8- and the need to create and retain soil has led to hillside terracing. &$rthermore- the property str$ct$re and %ario$s s$bDecti%e factors related to the mentality of #editerranean farmers are also constit$ent elements which ha%e determined the dynamics of the landscape.

Aestoration of &orest =andscapes thro$gh &armland Afforestation

Biological and landscape di%ersity in the #editerranean co$ntryside is e%en greater when an acti%e h$man presence e'ists in harmony with the dynamics of the nat$ral ecosystem. Any alteration of this balance- as a conseG$ence of the abandonment or disorganiBed intensification of h$man inter%ention- will trigger off a tri%ialiBation and degradation of the biodi%ersity and landscaperespecti%ely. As a res$lt- policies which are aimed at re$sing and re%al$ing abandoned land offer an opport$nity for the restoration of r$ral landscapes. &$rthermore- the socio:economic e%ol$tion that the #editerranean forests e'perienced thro$gho$t the .*th cent$ry was characteriBed by the transition from $ses linked to the primary sector in the .rst half of the cent$ry- to the tertiariBation of $ses and f$nctions after the r$ral e'od$s which began in the )09*s. 3ince the )0 *s- their %al$ation has been f$ndamentally related to their landscape signi.cance- to the con: ser%ation of biodi%ersity and to the demand for open:air recreational areas. In this respect- actions which are aimed at restoring forest landscapes aro$se a great deal of not only nat$ral and c$lt$ral- b$t also socio:political interest.

The .ational Farmland Afforestation 4rogramme

The &armland Afforestation >rogramme- which res$lted from Aeg$lation 7,C8 .* *I0.- enables eligible applicants to recei%e incenti%es o%er a period of .* years. The G$antity and d$ration of the incenti%es- together with other secondary factors- ser%e to e'plain the territorial importance that the programme has had thro$gho$t 3painpartic$larly in the #editerranean region. The s$pport system is implemented thro$gh programmes which co%er se%eral years and specify the technical aspects- s$ch as the G$antity and d$ration of the incenti%es- conditions that m$st be f$l.lled in order to be eligible- e%al$ation reg$lations 7en%ironmental and territorial8- control proced$res- etc. In &ebr$ary )00/- the national framework programme was createdcomplemented by )! regional programmes 7K$ly

which may- in t$rn- be implemented thro$gh afforestation programmes that re.ect en%ironmental di%ersity- nat$ral conditions and agric$lt$ral str$ct$res. The 3panish case is D$st one of the dif: ferent national responses that ha%e been gi%en to the enactment of Aeg$lation 7,C8 .* *I0.- since one may speak of a national 7or e%en regional8 speci.city in the imple: mentation of the meas$res 7Barr$O: >astor et al.- )00"8. In fact- %ario$s st$dies ha%e highlighted the e'istence of marked differences in the implementation and res$lts of the National &armland Afforestation >ro: gramme in different 3panish regions 7Bona et al.- )00!F HameB:Ko%er and KimOneB- )00!F #ontiel et al.- .**/8. This is not only the res$lt of ecological- historical and socio: economic contrasts- b$t also- and abo%e all- differences in the decisions and reso$rces applied in each case by the regional administrati%e body implementing the meas$re. In general- the res$lts of the National &armland Afforestation >rogramme ha%e been the o$tcome of a disorganiBed set of $ncoordinatedone:off actions of comple' %iabilityd$e to the lack of a clearly de.ned o%erall strategy. The geographical distrib$tion of the afforestation proDects in different 3panish #editerranean regions and pro%inces
)00/8-6

has not been effecti%ely s$per%ised or determined by regional administra: ti%e bodiesF instead it has followed the spontaneo$s response of agrarian landowners to the s$ccessi%e ann$al programmes. In generalthe management of the programme has been characteriBed by a lack of planning and an absence of technical and territorial criteria 7#ontiel et al..**/8. None the less- the siBe of the total afforested area indicates that we are looking at a sectorial initiati%e with $ndeniable 7b$t as yet dif.c$lt to assess8 reperc$ssions for the territory and landscape 7Table )6.)8. The National &armland Afforestation >rogramme promotes a reforestation process which has achie%ed .g$res of o%er

C. #ont iel #oli na

A$tono mo$s region Andal$ sia Aragon Ast$ria s Baleari c Islands Canary Islands Cantab ria Castilla C=a >lanned area 7ha8 ."*-*** /*- * )"-* * 9-* * "-"9* /-"9* ).9-))/ Afforested area 7ha8 )"6-*!. 6-!9) !-!*" 060 M afforestedI planned 9).9. )".6 ").) )".9 *.* )/. ").)

C 60. 96-6!6

#anch a Castilla y =ean Catalo nia ,'trem ad$ra Halicia #adrid #$rcia Na%arr a =a AioDa Com. Nalenci ana BasG$e Co$ntr y Total

))*-*** ./-!.* 0-*** 9"-*** )*-*** 0-* * 6-"** 6-*** ./-".* /*-"** *9-"0/

0-*) )-96* 6)-9 ! .6- 99 9-*)0 9-"!/ )-66! )-/90 9-.") .6-6)6 6/"-!/!

*.0 9.0 69. / .. 9*.. !..6 /... /6.. .9.9 *.* "6.*

3o$rce4 +irectorate Heneral for A$ral +e%elopment 7#inistry of Agric$lt$re- &isheries and &ood8 and A$tonomo$s Ho%ernment of Andal$sia 7#ontiel et al.- .**/8.

!*-*** ha per year. To p$t it another way- and taking one of the greatest landscape transformations of contemporary history as a reference- reforestation is taking place at a pace close to that achie%ed by the p$blic forestry actions carried o$t between )0"* and )0!*- a period of ma'im$m intensity for reforestation processes in 3pain 7HameB and #ata- )00)- p. 6)8. Howe%er- in contrast to the $ni.ed nat$re of the p$blic actions carried o$t between )06* and )0 *- which had clearly de.ned obDecti%es 7the har%est ing of direct prod$cts- wood- resin- pine cones- etc.- and the protection of ri%er basins8- the process that we are now analysing has arisen from a combination of many $nconnected pri%ate initiati%es- with g$idelines pro%ided by different administrati%e bodies 7from the ,$ropean 1nion to regional go%ernments8 with a complete lack of territorial obDecti%es and only %ag$e en%ironmental indications 7recommendations regarding the most appropriate species8. &$rthermore- and d$e to %ario$s reasons which shall be e'plained later- the operations carried o$t will ha%e problems in g$aranteeing their f$t$re %iability and do not ens$re a promising f$t$re for all the new forests. Whilst the approach and initial achie%ements of the programme are debatable from a territorial point of %iew- the sit$ation is also rather limited from a social perspecti%e. The social obDecti%es that are attrib$ted to the programme- re.ected in the Aoyal +ecrees /! I)00/ and )".I09 thro$gh the idea of inDecting money into r$ral areas- ha%e not been f$l.lled in a satisfactory way. &or %ario$s reasons- most of the farm owners who ha%e bene.ted from these s$bsidies in 3pain ha%e been- in many cases- either people who are not directly linked to the r$ral conte't or p$blic entities 7local co$ncils8. In general- the programme has not achie%ed f$ll acceptance amongst the farmers themsel%es and m$ch less so a replacement of agric$lt$ral acti%ities 7HameB:Ko%er and KimOneB- )00!8. In many cases- farmland afforestation has represented an alternati%e for already:abandoned agric$lt$ral land. #ost of the areas affected are- therefore- $nprod$cti%e spaces whose owner is neither directly nor principally linked to the primary sector 7#ontiel et al.- .**/8.

Aestoration of &orest =andscapes thro$gh &armland Afforestation

Territorial 3aluation of Farmland Afforestation: Landscape Transformation

+espite arising from a sectorial agrarian approachthe implementation of the &armland Afforestation >rogramme and the other agri:en%ironmental meas$res of the CA> ha%e had important territorial conseG$ences of a general nat$re in 3pain- since they represent interesting instr$ments for the management of r$ral areas. Their socioeconomic and landscape res$lts ha%e been highly conditioned by the reg$latory form$lation with which the Aoyal +ecree /! I0/ has been adapted in each region and by the implementation of the incenti%es at a regional le%el. In any case- no landscape obDecti%es or criteria ha%e been applied in the implementation of the National &armland Afforestation >rogramme. The actions carried o$t in the different 3panish regions ha%e not considered landscape str$ct$re nor co$ntry planning criteriaF instead they ha%e been the combination of a disorganiBed collection of indi%id$al plantations. The r$ral landscapes most affected by farmland afforestation proDects in 3pain ha%e been mid/mountain agroforestry landscapes and abandoned dry regions inland. In fact- most of the afforestation proDects ha%e been carried o$t in mid: mo$ntain areas- which contain the best:conser%ed c$lt$ral landscapes and most of the protected nat$ral territories to be fo$nd in $rban fringe areas 7&ig. )6..8. In inland 3pain- the &armland Afforestation >rogramme has often been $sed to regenerate highly e%ol%ed meadows with open formations and old trees 7&ig. )6./8. In other casesold agric$lt$ral encla%es ha%e been forestedthereby ca$sing a loss of landscape di%ersity and open spaces which pre%io$sly played an important role in pre%enting forest .res 7&ig. )6.68. #ost of the planting has been done- abo%e allon the large farm estates located in these mid: mo$ntain areas- with the aim of di%ersifying f$nctions and impro%ing r$ral heritage. In the region of Nalencia- for e'ample- the afforestation work has been concentrated on the larger farm estates in inland %alleys and high plains- rather than coastal areas- where agric$lt$re has a greater economic and territorial importance. In the drier regions- there also e'ist e'amples of afforestation on impo%erished hill slopes where the planting work has not only restored the forest landscape b$t has contrib$ted to controlling the risk of erosion 7&ig. )6."8.
Fig# %-#+# Afforestation carried o$t on the @,l Canchal? and @Casablanca? farm estates in the Aegional >ark of C$enca Alta del #anBanares- #adrid 7aerial photograph HN# "//:2:)/- domestic .ight of A$g$st )0 68.

A large n$mber of afforestation proDects ha%e also been carried o$t in abandoned dry regions inland. As a res$lt of their management being neglected for decades- these landscapes are $s$ally highly degraded. They incl$de a wide %ariety of landscapes- depending on the morphology and $se of

C. #ontiel #olina

Fig# %-#(# Aegeneration of a meadow thro$gh afforestation with Q. ileM and Q. suber 73oto del Aeal#adrid8.

Fig %-#-# Hall oak afforestation of an agric$lt$ral encla%e in a leafy woodland area 7HinoDosa- 3oria8.

Fig# %-#># Aestoration of degraded forest landscapes in the region of H$Oscar 7Hranada8.

Aestoration of &orest =andscapes thro$gh &armland Afforestation

#orella 7Castellan de la >lana8.

Fig# %-#7# Afforestation of abandoned farming terraces in

the land- incl$ding open co$ntryside 7herbaceo$s crops8 and terraces 7wood crops8. The afforestation work has been conditioned in both cases by farm and property str$ct$rescharacteriBed by the fragmentation and smallholdings that are typical of the #editerranean region- and for this reason the actions ha%e generally been small scale 7&ig. )6.98. In contrast to mid:mo$ntain agroforestry landscapes and dry inland regions- the more nat$ral high mo$ntain landscapes ha%e barely been affected by farmland afforestation- partly beca$se they constit$te the most forested areas in the co$ntry and partly beca$se of the determining nat$re of their topography. With regard to the agrarian land $ses that ha%e been replaced by afforestation- most of the planted areas are old past$res which ha%e been $nprod$cti%e for o%er )* years- some of which already display a consolidated forest regeneration process. After past$res- the most freG$ent property category to .g$re in the applications for farmland afforestation is dry land. Together- past$res and dry lands represent !*M of the afforested area and if they are combined with @scr$bland? and harable or worked land with holm oaks in dry regions?they acco$nt for 0*.)"M of the afforested area. Therefore- the areas affected by the afforestation work generally consisted of $nprod$cti%e land. The afforestation of agric$lt$ral land is $ncommon. This is $nderstandable if we remember that a change from agric$lt$ral land $se to forest plantations in #editerranean regions brings with it a considerable red$ction in the %al$e of the land and a great loss in .nancial ret$rns- d$e to the low prod$cti%ity of the #editerranean co$ntryside. In contrast- afforestation is an interesting alternati%e for low:%al$e- $nprod$cti%e land since it pro%ides an income thro$gh ,C incenti%es and impro%es the area?s heritage. In this respect- the afforestation of agrarian land has pro%ided an

opport$nity for heritage %al$ation and landscape impro%ements on r$stic properties- which has been $sed- abo%e all- by large landowners and local co$ncils.

0uitabilit! of the Chosen "eforesting Method and 0pecies/ )ith "egard to the =eo ecological Characteristics of the Land
&armland afforestation can ser%e to impro%e the r$ral heritage of the affected estates and can help to control erosion and increase biodi%ersity in the medi$m and long term. Howe%er- s$ch actions ha%e a great impact on the landscape as a res$lt of the lack of territorial planning in their implementation 7e'cept in the distrib$tion

C. #ontiel #olina

o n s 8 . I ge n ne ral t ,$r h ope e an a g r i :

, f$ bet a$to C nd we nom in en o$s g r e g i en%ironmental meas$res ha%e not been applied in accordance with landscape criteria. The res$lts of the National &armland Afforestation &ramework >rogramme ha%e been the o$tcome of a disorganiBed set of $ncoordinated- one:off actions of comple' %iability- witho$t a clearly de.ned o%erall strategy. The geographical distrib$tion of the actions and afforested areas in the different 3panish #editerranean regions and pro%inces has not been effecti%ely s$per%ised or determined by the regional administrati%e bodiesF instead it has followed the spontaneo$s response of agrarian landowners to the s$ccessi%e ann$al programmes. When assessing landscape impact- one of the most interesting parameters is $s$ally the species and the afforestation method $sed 7preparation of the land- planting and maintenance work8. In this respect- the most freG$ently chosen species stand o$t as one of the most striking differences between plantations carried o$t by farmers and those carried o$t by the city:dwelling owners of large co$ntry estates. Whereas the former $s$ally choose Puercineas D more demanding- b$t with higher incenti%es and a greater en%ironmental %al$e from a s$bDecti%e point of %iew C the owners of large properties prefer to $se species of the &inus gen$s- which ha%e less %al$e and fewer incenti%esb$t are less demanding and ha%e greater g$arantees in terms of implantation and de%elopment. &armers tend to seek the highest incenti%es and are not concerned abo$t the commitment in%ol%ed since they ha%e s$f.cient time and interest. In the case of large co$ntry estates- howe%er- the aim is to limit risks and g$arantee bene.ts with ma'im$m ret$rns and minim$m effort. When it comes to selecting the species- p$rely financial criteria ha%e taken priority o%er sil%ic$lt$ral criteria in almost all cases- fa%o$ring the species that recei%e the highest incenti%es and

partic$larly those present in the region. This is partic$larly accent$ated in areas with large reforested areas d$e to a certain social reDection of conifers- pines in partic$lar. A detailed st$dy of the c$rrent species distrib$tion shows that there is no correspondence between the reforestation methods- species and seasonal conditions of the afforested landsF howe%er- it cannot be said that the general sit$ation is one of inappropriate species selection. Only in regions where en%ironmental conditions greatly limit afforestation 7for e'ample- the semi:arid area of Hranada8 co$ld one say that the choice has been completely inappropriate. The preparation of the land- planting work and maintenance of the afforested area is all f$ndamental in g$aranteeing the s$ccess of an afforestation proDect. If we start by recogniBing that many factors can in.$ence the s$ccess of a plantation- we cannot deny that the key to s$ccess or fail$re in #editerranean afforestation proDects is to be fo$nd- in the maDority of cases- in the g$aranteed completion of plantation maintenance work. This is another reason why the &armland Afforestation >rogramme fails to adapt to the territorial reality of the #editerranean conte'twhere plantations need more contin$ed s$pport. In order to ens$re the s$ccess of the afforestation- it sho$ld be s$bDect to maintenance work 7and therefore .nancial s$pport8- preferably for a period of )* years. &$rthermore- maintenance work is a determining factor in the landscape res$lts of the afforestation. Afforestations carried o$t by farmers tend to show an e'cellent state of growth. Howe%er- the maintenance work that determines this sit$ationalmost always typical of agric$lt$ral farming tech: niG$es- forms a landscape which co$ld be described as a @c$lti%ation of forest trees?- thereby

creating a distinctly reg$lar and homogeneo$s landscape that distances itself from the .nal obDecti%e- @to reconstr$ct a forest with a di%ersity of species and str$ct$res- forming a heterogeneo$s and str$ct$red plant pop$lation? 73iman- )00!8. The ecological and landscape res$lts are %ery similar in plantations carried o$t on largeprod$cti%e farming estates which ha%e their own permanent staff. The planta

Aestoration of &orest =andscapes thro$gh &armland

Afforestation

tions are $s$ally a complete s$ccess in s$ch casesF b$t they s$ffer similar limitations as a res$lt of maintenance work that is $ns$ited to forestry obDecti%es. Howe%er- when it comes to large co$ntry estates $sed for recreational and h$nting p$rposes- whose owners li%e in the capital or some other town or city and ha%e their main interests elsewhere- the most freG$ent res$lts are a high n$mber of missing trees- from the second or third year onwards- d$e to neglect of the plantation. In these afforestation proDects- maintenance work is limited to the replacement of missing trees. After the fail$re of the plantation- carried o$t on land already pop$lated by a %ariety of b$shes- one can normally obser%e the contin$ity of pre:e'isting forest dynamics- whilst hardly a trace of the action remains- e'cept for the protecti%e plant co%ers. In general- farmland afforestation ca$ses a great impact on the landscape as a res$lt of the introd$ction of new species in local or regional settings and thro$gh the creation of @patches of forest? in m$nicipalities and regions with a low proportion of forested land. The %is$al impact of the plantation is $s$ally highly noticeable 7abo%e all d$e to the $se of protecti%e co%ers8 b$t it is not necessarily negati%e. In some cases- it has allowed the impro%ement and reco%ery of degraded land located close to $rban areas 7i.e. land adDacent to the r$bbish tip in the city of 3oria8.

Effects upon the Biological and Landscape &iversit! of Forestlands

The plantations carried o$t ha%e not always been s$ccessf$lF howe%er- they ha%e contrib$ted to a di%ersi.cation of the land?s coloniBing speciespartic$larly thro$gh the introd$ction of leafy species and- abo%e all- the promotion of forestry acti%ities in these areas. One of the .rst G$estions to be asked when e%al$ating the res$lts of the &armland Afforestation >rogramme- as a complementary meas$re of the CA> Aeform that is c$rrently incl$ded in A$ral +e%elopment >rogrammes- as in the case of other sil%ic$lt$ral actions- is whether or not it has contrib$ted to the obDecti%es established in the &orestry 3trategy for the ,$ropean 1nion "

and incorporated into the 3panish

&orestry 3trategy and the 3panish &orestry >lan4 the m$lti:f$nctionality of forests- s$stainable management and the conser%ation and increase of biodi%ersity. In this respect- it is also f$ndamental to consider the species incl$ded in the appendices of the different regional orders- as well as the %al$e of the .nancial s$pport assigned to each gro$p. In contrast to the preferential $se of conifers in the reforestations carried o$t in 3pain thro$gho$t the .*th cent$ry- farmland afforestation has mainly $sed leafy species- abo%e all Puercineas. It is interesting to note that the lists pro%ided in the different regional reg$lations gi%e preference to nati%e species and not only the incl$sion of trees- b$t also se%eral types of b$sh. Howe%er- despite the considerable progress made in the knowledge and res$lts of n$rsery plant prod$ction- the actions ha%e been conditioned by the char: acteristics of the affected landdepending on its prior $se- and the species a%ailable in the n$rseries. The contrib$tion of afforestation to an increase in biodi%ersity also depends on the location and siBe of the plantations. In the #adrid region- for e'ample- the effects wo$ld be potentially more positi%e in the mo$ntains or on foothills- rather than in the so$thern and so$th:west sectors which is where the work has in fact been concentrated- with %ery small: scale actions 7#ontiel et al.- )0008.

In general- e%en in the case of actions co%ering more than ." ha on large estates in the #adrid region- we cannot talk of an increase in forest perimeters- the creation of new e'panses of forest or landscape di%ersi.cation. On the contrary- the total area forested by the applicants contrasts with the small siBe and irreg$lar perimeter of the large n$mber of plots into which the action is often fragmented. In realityplantations are $s$ally located on the farm?s most peripheral land and respond to a strategy of @gap:.lling? which- in many cases- fa%o$rs homogeniBa

C. #onti el
tion and tri%ialiBation rather than landscape di%ersity. This sit$ation- howe%er- %aries in other pro%inces where it is possible to find a tendencyalbeit partial- towards a grad$al increase in the species $sed and an integration of forested plots into the s$rro$nding areas 7i.e. the region of H$Oscar- Hranada8. Of partic$lar interest among the plantations that ha%e s$ccessf$lly impro%ed estate landscapes are those carried o$t on the peripheral land of large farms de%oted to agric$lt$ral prod$ction 7hillsides and slopes8- which ha%e contrib$ted not only to landscape di%ersi.cation- b$t also to soil binding and protection against erosion. 3pecial mention m$st be gi%en to the afforestation work carried o$t in the triangles formed by the irrigation pi%ots on maiBe plantations in =as Negas- an area in the region of #adrid. This is another case of @gap:.lling?F howe%er- it takes a rational approach based on profitability and impro%ement. &$rthermore- gi%en the limited territorial presence of woodland in this area- the contrib$tion of these plantations to biodi%ersity m$st be positi%ely %al$ed- altho$gh the $se of reg$lar distances and their monospeci.c nat$re may affect the increase in biodi%ersity. None the less- afforestation work in the #editerranean conte't cannot aim to achie%e an immediate increase in biodi%ersity- since the real dif.c$lties that e'ist in establishing many forest species mean that the choice of species is itself limited. The contrib$tion of afforestation to biodi%ersity m$st be assessed according to the medi$m:term effect that the new e'panse of forest will ha%e on the biodi%ersity of associated com: m$nities4 .ora- fa$na- soil organisms- etc. The importance of the forest areas created by arti.cial e'panses of conifers in many nat$re reser%es in Andal$sia is one of the best ill$strations of the effects of reforestation on the biology and landscape of an area 7l%areB- .**)8. In general- we can identify a set of factors which ha%e a greater or lesser determining in.$ence on both the s$ccess of the plantation and the G$ality of the en%ironmental and landscape res$lts4 Q the integration of forested plots into the

#oli na

estate- in order to pre%ent them from becoming forest islands located inside farmsF Q planning processes which st$dy the eco: logical s$itability and obDecti%es of the chosen species- as well as all other decisions 7reforestation methods- preparation proced$res- etc.8F and Q the pec$liarity of the #editerranean cli: mate- which has not been taken into acco$nt in adapting the ,$ropean reg$lations to the regional speci.city. This has res$lted in establishment limitations 7dro$ght8- slow growth- dif.c$lties in obtaining direct prod$cts- etc- and has led to an inappropriate interpretation and implementation of the incenti%es.

Conclusions
The concept$al conf$sion which characteriBes the 3panish reg$lations regarding farmland afforestation highlights the dif.c$lty of applying the spirit of the CA> reform 7to red$ce s$rpl$ses and di%ersify agric$lt$ral income and f$nctions8 in #editerranean ,$rope- d$e to the low forest prod$cti%ity of the region. The fail$re of the ,$ropean Aeg$lations to take into acco$nt the specificity of the #editerranean region has led to the de%elopment of national and regional reg$lations in 3pain which de.ne a permissi%e framework for the acceptance of applications. As a res$lt- the ecological- socio:economic and land: scape res$lts of farmland afforestation in 3pain ha%e been e'tremely mi'ed. It is not pro.table for landowners in #editerranean regions to change from agric$lt$ral land $se to forestry plantations- d$e to the low prod$cti%ity of the #editerranean co$ntryside in timber:yielding terms. As a res$lt- the afforestation work has been foc$sed on @$nc$lti%ated grassland? $sed for e'tensi%e stock:breeding in traditional farming systems or less prod$cti%e agric$lt$ral land in dry regions which was abandoned in the )09*s d$e to a lack of pro.tability. In short- farmland afforestation in

Aestoration of &orest =andscapes thro$gh &armland Afforestation

3pain has represented an alternati%e for already:abandoned land which has fa%o$red the reco%ery of degraded forest landscapes- some of which were affected by the risk of deserti.cation. In this respectafforestation work carried o$t on the peripheral land 7hillsides and slopes8 of large farms de%oted to agric$lt$ral prod$ction is of partic$lar interest. In other cases- afforestation has allowed the land and c$l : t$ral heritage of terraced landscapes to be conser%ed- whilst also reco%ering the original forestry $se of arable land at a time when there e'ist great demographic and socio:economic press$res. Howe%er- farm : land afforestation has also contrib$ted to the homogeniBation and tri%ialiBation of the forest landscape when implemented on areas of land which are located in the heart of a forest and pre%io$sly ser%ed a f$ndamental p$rpose in ecological and landscape terms- as an element of di%ersification- complementarity and contrast. In short- farmland afforestation offers interesting opport$nities for the restoration of forest landscapes in areas which ha%e become degraded as a res$lt of the abandonment and demographic e'od$s that took place in r$ral areas in the mid:.*th cent$ry. These territorial policies may pro %ide an alternati%e for the reco%ery of forestlands- b$t their effects depend largely on the degree to which the ,$ropean reg$ lations are adapted- addressed and applied to the speci.city of the #editerranean conte't.

.otes
). =ater modi.ed by Aoyal +ecree )".I09. .. Criteria and indices applied by the a$tonomo$s regions4 3$rface Area of 1sable Agric$lt$ral =and 73A18 Indication of acti%e prod$ction and agric$lt$ral prod$ction 7calc$lated according to &inal Agric$lt$ral >rod$ctionpop$lation working in the sector and pop$lation contrib$ting to the Agric$lt$ral 3ocial 3ec$rity 3ystem8 ,rosion rate In%erse of a%erage agric$lt$ral prod$cti%ity per hectare. /. The Aoyal +ecree )".I09 which modi.es Aoyal +ecree /! I0/ echoed this problem- indicating the need to @take into acco$nt the years in which prolonged dro$ghts occ$r- capable of destroying most of the plantations if the necessary meas$res are not taken?- and ga%e rise to a general modi.cation process similar to that of the regional orders. 6. These were all appro%ed by the ,$ropean Commission +ecision of .! April )006.

"eferences
l%areB- #. 7.**)8 &aisaCe Forestal Andalu4. Ayer y +oy. K$nta de Andal$cda:Ibersil%a- 3e%ille- 3pain. Arias- K. and &o$rnea$- &. 7)00 8 El &aisaCe MediterrRneo. 1ni%ersidad de Hranada:K$nta de Andal$cda- Hranada3pain. Barr$O:>astor- #.- Billa$d- K.>. and +e%erre- C. 7)00"8 Agriculture, &rotection de lFEnvironnement et ecom5osition des *ystImes urauM; les enCeuM de lFarticle 6>. INAA- I%ry:s$r:3eine- &rance. Bona- =.- Aramb$r$- #.>. and Cif$entes- >. 7)00!8 3eg$imiento del >rograma de Aeforestacian de Tierras Agrarias en s$ conte'to medioambiental y socioeconamico. In4 >$ertas Tricas- &. and Ai%as- #. 7eds8 Actas del I #ongreso Forestal +is5ano/Luso y II #ongreso Forestal Es5aUol I ATi/>A . Hrf.cas >amplona- >amplona- t. NIpp. .)C.9. HameB- K. and #ata- A. 7)00)8 Act$aciones forestales pgblicas desde )06*. ObDeti%os- criterios y res$ltados. Agricultura y *ociedad 9"- )"C96. HameB:Ko%er- &. and KimOneB- &.K. 7)00!8 Un &rograma de Forestaci$n de *u5er.cies Agrarias HLegislaci$n y a5licaci$nJ. #A>A- #adrid- 3pain.

C. #ontiel #olina

#ontiel- C.- &erreras- C. and l%areB- >. 7)0008 ,l >lan de &orestacian de 3$per.cies Agrarias de la Com$nidad de #adrid )00/C)00!4 Naloracian territorial y paisaDdstica. In4 El Territorio y su Imagen. Actas del ")I #ongreso de !e$grafos Es5aUoles. MRlaga, >D6? diciembre 6>>>. 1ni%ersidad de #flaga:AH,#flaga- 3pain- pp. )!0C)0*. #ontiel- C.- Haliana- =. and Na%arro- A. 7.**/8 >articipacian de las sociedades r$rales en la forestacian de tierras agrarias. In4 Harcda- K.3. and NfBG$eB- C. 7eds8 Las elaciones entre las #comunidades AgrTcolas y el Monte. 1ni%ersidad de CastillaC=a #ancha- C$enca- 3pain- pp. 0/C).6. 3iman- ,. 7)00!8 >royectos de forestacian de tierras agrarias. In4 OroBco- ,. and #onreal- K.A. 7eds8 Forestaci$n en Tierras AgrTcolas. ,dic. de la 1ni%ersidad de CastillaC=a #ancha- C$enca- 3pain- pp. .)C6..

>AAT III

Case 0tudies

In%estigations into landscape end $p in.$encing many different aspects of planning and management. The case presented by =atB in Chapter )9 presents a %ery interesting sit$ation on the estate of 3pannocchia- in 3iena pro%ince 7Italy8- where farming acti%ities are still going on and the owners are %ery interested in managing the land- not only preser%ing historical %al$es- b$t also taking ad%antage of the opport$nities offered by the @added %al$e? that landscape represents for typical prod$cts and for a different way of managing farmlands. It may be s$rprising- b$t in T$scany there is no policy of considering landscape as an important reso$rce for r$ral de%elopment- b$t rather as a minor element in the competiti%eness of the whole system. 3pannoc: chia is instead an e'ample of how this reso$rce can be considered a central element in the r$ral economy- altho$gh it s$ffers from the lack of economic incenti%es gi%en for conser%ation and de%elopment and from red$ced attention to inappropriate policies negati%ely affecting its G$ality. 3pannocchia is also an important case beca$se a part of the property is incl$ded in a nat$ral protected area- showing the problems of creating a network of areas to preser%e @nat$re? in c$lt$ral landscapes C an interesting case also for many other co$ntries in the world. In this range of different sit$ations- the Temple Nalley in 3icily- a 1N,3CO World Heritage siteis a place where $nreg$lated de%elopment has strongly and negati%ely affected a landscape that sho$ld ha%e been s$bmitted to %ery strict reg$lations. The landscape of the @#editerranean gardens? res$lting from the Arab in.$ence in 3icily

and restored by the proDect presented in Chapter ) had been left to progressi%e decay for years in many parts of so$thern Italy. They are an e'ample of the positi%e res$lts of the m$ltic$lt$ral infl$ences affecting many co$ntries of the worldF in this case they ha%e created landscapes now presented as a distincti%e c$lt$ral feat$re of the area. Wider iss$es are presented by Aotherham 7Chapter )"8 and Kohann 7Chapter )!8. The .rst shows the problem arising after .** years of intensi%e ind$stry with a legacy of dereliction and poll$tionwhere key sites ha%e been identi.ed for either conser%ation or restoration and habitat creationwith an interesting reintrod$ction of traditional systems- an acti%ity s$ggesting actions to reco%er many areas in the world degraded by intensi%e ind$strial acti%ity. The decline of ind$stry and the serio$s crisis of agric$lt$re create many abandoned areas where restoration proDects can be $ndertaken embedding s$ch proDects

>art III4 Case 3t$dies

in the c$lt$ral history of the region- thro$gh reinstatement of sympathetic and traditional management s$ch as graBing by rare:breed li%estock- as also described in Chapter ". There is in fact the chance to de%elop restoration- not only by re:creating nat$ral habitats- b$t also by restoring c$lt$ral landscapes especially in areas where the impacts of h$man $tiliBation are etched deeply into their fabric. In s$ch cases- there is a need to address the con.icts between contemporary s$stainable landscapes and their ecology and a need to recogniBe and conser%e the historic archi%es that these areas represent. The case of the Niennese forest 7Chapter )!8 is instead a %al$able e'ample of an important iss$e

concerning the $se and management of landscapes in the s$b$rbs of $rban areas- often affected by stronger con.icts compared to r$ral territories- d$e to the contrasting interests of different economic and social gro$ps. There are few capital cities owning a landscape of %ariety and eG$i%alent e'tension comparable to that of Nienna. With more than 6*-*** ha- .*M of it sit$ated in the $rban area- the forest has been dedicated totally to p$blic welfare. Besides showing the $se of historical in%estigation- this case shows how indi%id$al comm$nities can s$cceed in opposing inter%ention by local a$thorities and e%en by powerf$l market forces C a real iss$e of modern times.

%> 'istoric Landscape "estoration: Case

0tudies of 0ite "ecover! in 4ost industrial 0outh Cor2shire/ England
I.+. Aotherham
Tourism, Leisure and Environmental #%ange esearc% Unit, *%ef.eld +allam University, *%ef.eld, U'

Introduction
The idea of an informed historic conte't to site restoration has been addressed in a n$mber of papers by Aotherham and colleag$es 7e.g.- Aotherham and A%ison- )00 F Aotherham- .**.8. In post:ind$strial 3o$th Sorkshire- ,ngland- this is especially signi.cant. A region of en%ironmental di%ersity with a rich c$lt$ral and nat$ral heritage- o%er a period of aro$nd "** years its landscape has changed to a point often beyond recognition 7Aotherham- )009a- )0008. ,'tensi%e wetlands in $plands and lowlands ha%e been drained and @impro%ed? to facilitate agric$lt$re C graBing in the $plands and cereals in the lowlands. #$ch of the area was progressi%ely $rbaniBed from the )!**s onwards- and large tracts of land taken for massi%e ind$strialiBation C partic$larly steel and coal 7Harrison and Aotherham- .**9F Aotherham- .**.F Aotherham et al.- )00!8. Now- with ind$stry in decline and agric$lt$re in serio$s economic crisis- many sites are abandoned and derelict 7Beynon et al.- .***F Handley and Aotherham- .***F Aotherham and Cartwright- .***8. This creates maDor opport$nities to re:establish sites- to restore lost wildlife habitats and to reco%er degraded ecosystems 7Aotherham and =$nn- .***8. &or ma'im$m s$ccess and to embed s$ch proDects in the c$lt$ral history of the region- knowledge of the former landscapes 7s$ch as from 3c$r.eld and #edley)0". and )0"!F and 3c$r.eld- )0 98 is $sed to better inform the renewal of the region?s en%ironment. TechniG$es being applied incl$de both site restoration and reco%ery C thro$gh reinstatement of sympa : thetic and traditional management s$ch as graBing by rare:breed li%estock. Along with this some sites are created within new landscapes- b$t where possible $sing seed and materials from donor sites across the region. The sites described incl$de a di%ersity of landscape types and ecological comm$nities. Aotherham et al. 7.***b8 disc$ss the approaches taken to restore a maDor heath:land area at Wharncliffe. This site can be dated back to a s$bstantial Aomano:British G$ern:stone factory perhaps )!** years ago. Now with remo%al of encroaching scr$b and secondary woodland- with controlled heather b$rning and c$tting- and spraying of bracken- the site is being managed to safeg$ard heathland wildlife and the rich archaeological reso$rce. To control the re:establishment of woodland and scr$b the site is being graBed by rare:breed li%estock.
< CAB International .**9. T%e #onservation of #ultural Landsca5es 7ed. #. Agnoletti8

#anagement here has to balance the ecological reG$irements of key species with the physical recognition and protection of the historic landscape. In some sit$ations the two are not compatible and compromise is so$ght. Along the banks of the Ai%er Aother lies the dereliction of .** years of intensi%e ind$stry lea%ing a legacy of decay and poll$tion. Here- key sites ha%e been identi.ed for either conser%ation or restoration and habitat creation. The techniG$es applied incl$de maDor creation of large:scale wet: lands on post:ind$strial areas- down to small:scale creation of comple'es of ponds within a matri' of created and relict wet grasslands and marshes. Once created- sites are then s$bDect to agreed conser%ation management plans. Where the aim is restoration thro$gh management rather than inter%ention with habitat creation- the approaches taken incl$de re:establishing hay c$tting and follow:$p with graBing by rare:breed li%estock 7sheep and cattle8 s$ited to the ro$gh wet conditions. Along with this the e'isting drainage of the sites is being re%ersed to allow them to become m$ch wetter. 3ite reco%ery is being monitored with key indicator species 7plants and animals8 recorded to help assess whether the restoration is s$cceeding 7Handley and Aotherham- .***F Aotherham et al.- .***a8. A target wildlife habitat and landscape has been that of $nimpro%ed grasslands. These incl$de traditional graBing past$res and hay meadows. In partic$lar- the sites ha%e been ri%erine wet meadows and marshes- and relict meadows now within the s$b$rban area 7see Aotherham- )000for e'ample8. Aelict b$t abandoned grasslands in $rban green space and parks ha%e been bro$ght back into traditional management- $tiliBing c$ttings where possible- and appropriate graBing with li%estock. &inally- along with the restoration and reco%ery of heathlands- wetlands and grasslandsare presented e'amples of woodlands bro$ght into conser%ation management. This may incl$de traditional coppice work and the creation of conser%ation glades in amenity woods. It is within the woodland proDects that there is considerable scope for tension between different interest gro$ps and lobbies. These woodlands mi' both relict ecology and the c$lt$ral landscapes of former management systems. The balance of restoration and reco%ery to conser%e and bene.t different aspects of the woodland reso$rce may be

problematic. The wooded landscapes present a palimpsest of history o%er more than /*** years. +eciding which period to conser%e or enhance raises f$ndamental iss$es abo$t restorati%e ecology- abo$t conser%ation and abo$t priorities. There are serio$s concerns abo$t the lack of $nder: standing of the interactions between wooded sites and other landscapes- and of the importance of antiG$ity in woodland conser%ation. The planting of trees to @create? woodland may destroy other comm$nities of great %al$e and may not generate the type of en%ironment hoped for by its creators. It is important that these proDects are effecti%ely constr$cted in terms of ecology and- for e'amplelikely recoloniBation rates of key species 7see- for e'ample- Nickers and Aotherham- .*** and Nickers et al.- .***8. The techniG$es and case st$dies are presented along with an assessment of dri%ers for changeand triggers and barriers for appropriate and s$stainable landscapes in the f$t$re. The balance between @restoration? and @creation? in the wider conte't of landscape @renewal? is considered in the light of the case:st$dy sites and proDects. &$rthermore- it is important for long:term s$stainability that these initiati%es ha%e resonance with local comm$nities and that they are economically %iable.

The Case 0tudies

&o$r case:st$dy areas are disc$ssed. These incl$de speci.c indi%id$al sites- and in some cases gro$ps of sites. All are located in the Sorkshire and +erbyshire region of northern central ,ngland. They incl$de a ri%erine meadow landscape 7Woodho$se Washlands8- a dry heathland and ancient woodland 7Wharncliffe Heath and Wood8-

Historic =andscape Aestoration

an acidic grassland and relict woodland 7Westwood8- and a gro$p of ancient coppice woods 7,cclesall Woods- Hleadless Nalley Woods and Owler Carr Wood8. Broad concl$sions and common threads are drawn from the different e'amples. All the areas re.ect the ine'tricable links between landscape historysite $tiliBation and s$bseG$ent abandonmentand then recognition by conser%ationists and a desire to restore or re:create in part the former interests. There are key iss$es that arise in terms of economic history and in the relationships between the en%ironmental reso$rce and the local people or comm$nity that %al$e and $tiliBe this. In former times these landscapes were e'ploited b$t conser%ed C essential for s$stainable li%ing. Today they are %al$ed for leis$re- for recre: ation and for conser%ation. The indi%id$al proDects demonstrate %ery tangibly the h$ge potential for landscape reco%ery on these areas- b$t along with this they highlight some ca$ses for concern and tension. Best)ood ;pencast Coaling 0ite The case:st$dy site is on Coal #eas$res 3eries geology at an altit$de of aro$nd )!* m- and sloping gently to the so$thwest. It is abo$t "** m long by ) * m wide- totalling aro$nd )* ha in a greenbelt area with a history of pre%io$s mining $se and s$bseG$ent abandonment 7&ig. )".)8. The site has p$blic access and is now managed by appropriate and self:.nancing- low:key graBing. Historically- the area was a part of the ancient woodland of Westwood and associated with Tankersley >ark- a maDor medie%al deer park to the east- and Wortley >ark to the west 7Kones- )0 68. +$ring the late )0 *s there was increasing press$re on green space in the area for ind$strial parks and b$siness parks. The region has s$bstantial areas of derelict and despoiled ind$strial land- b$t some of these areas are $ne'pectedly rich in wildlife and may ha%e a signi.cant conser%ation %al$e. There was a proposal to open:cast mine this area primarily for the @pillars? of coal remaining from pre%io$s mining acti%ity. In the case of this partic$lar area- interest and awareness were heightened by both an acti%e and en%ironmentally

aware parish co$ncil- and an acti%e local conser%ation gro$p. =ocal action was to assess the site and to design and o%ersee the restoration. The res$lt was a scheme with maDor conser%ation and comm$nity bene.ts. The compromise to allow mining- b$t with a comprehensi%e conser%ation plan and restoration- achie%ed a positi%e res$lt. The scheme sec$red the effecti%e restoration of the site $sing local wild.ower seed- and the creation of new conser%ation feat$res 7ponds and heath8. A maDor element of the proDect was the protection and then restoration of the remnants of the ancient West:wood. These occ$rred as isolated relicts aro$nd the site perimeter- and the lane:side hedgerows.

Here- site history has a bearing on the potential @archaeology? and landscape historical feat$res- and also on the contemporary ecology. Indeed- the di%ersity and conser%ation %al$e of the .ora and fa$na relate directly to the history 7recent and long:term8 of the area. The western edge of the site is formed by Westwood =ane- the bo$ndary of the parishes of Tankersley and Wortley- probably dating back to the ).th cent$ry. It is likely that Westwood =ane and its ditched bank and hedge are of similar age or older. This was gi%en a high priority in the assessment of the site. A map of the area in )!!. shows the site as part of the ancient Westwood- which co%ered a considerable proportion of Tankersley >arish. The s$r%i%ing remnants of this predominantly mi'ed sessile oak woodland lie to the so$th of this site and ha%e parts that are of high .oristic interest with plants typical of ancient woods. The western bo$ndary is probably a remnant of these ancient comm$nities. >rior to )0*9 Westwood had been felled in the northern portion of the site. There is e%idence in the form of collapsed workings that this was done by early miners working the shallow seam as drift mines or by bell:pits. The wood may in fact ha%e been $sed in the local iron:works that sprang $p in the ) th and )0th cent$ries- taking ad%antage of the Coal #eas$res ironstone that was e'tensi%ely mined at this time. It is likely that Westwood was felled $p to the bo$ndary woodland present in the )0 *s. &ollowing these small:scale workings- the site was open:cast d$ring the war years aro$nd )06.C )06/. >robably d$e to the necessities of wartimethe site was restored only minimally with a thin layer of rather poor soil. Inspection of aerial photographs from )0!) shows that nearly /* years on there was little regeneration. The woodland that had occ$pied this lower part of the site was probably clear:felled d$ring the wartime open: casting. Three small hillocks at the so$th:western corner of the site were probably from tipping of o%erb$rden that was not back:.lled. The site passed into agric$lt$ral management as low:grade past$re. 3mall pockets of botanical indicator species did e'ist where the coaling operations had not dist$rbed them- partic$larly in the woodland remnants- b$t trampling and o%ergraBing by li%estock signi.cantly affected e%en these. In concl$sion- beca$se of the pre%io$s open:cast operations on this site- most feat$res of

archaeological or historical interest had long since been remo%ed- and the main thr$st of the conser%ation plan was to safeg$ard what remained of the ecology and $se this as the basis for reco%ery. A preliminary s$r%ey was $ndertaken and the area di%ided into main Bones and feat$res4 woodland relicts- hedgerows and drystone wallsgrassland and ponds. National Negetation Classification 7NNC8 s$r%eys 7Aodwell- )00.8 were not carried o$t since the preliminary g$idance was only D$st becoming a%ailable. 3imilarly- this proDect pre:dated both @Nat$ral Areas? and @Biodi%ersity Action >lans?. If $ndertaken today- all these in.$ences wo$ld be taken into acco$nt. According to Aotherham and =$nn 7.***8- the res$lts of restoration ha%e been s$rprisingly good. +espite initial problems with s$b:contractors in the replanting of woodland and establishment of hedgerows- the proDect?s s$ccess has been spectac$lar. The woodland areas ha%e reco%ered s$bstantially- and there is already e%idence of old woodland species s$ch as wood sage recoloniBing into the new areas. The ponds and ditches are %ery attracti%e and %ery s$ccessf$l in terms of their .ora and fa$na 7with Odonata and both great crested newt and grass snake coloniBing from a site close by8. The grasslands established well and G$ickly- with the heath area lagging perhaps 6C" years behind. 7By )000- yo$ng heather plants and a range of #ladonia lichens and wet heath bryophytes were establishing well. Horse and broom began to establish G$ite G$ickly.8 The grassland was sampled for NNC classi.cation / years

Historic =andscape Aestoration

after establishment. This prod$ced two main @comm$nities?. The .rst came o$t as NNC #H0whilst the @hay meadow? area did not matchprobably being a mi't$re of comm$nities still in .$' and missing some e'pected constants of- for e'ample- #H". The site was established as a comm$nity open space with agric$lt$ral management- and so an attracti%e landscape with reinstatement of p$blic rights of way was important. The grassland is now c$t for hay in late K$lyIearly A$g$st and then graBed by cattle. The acid grasslandIheathland is $nc$t- b$t graBed. There is no management of the ponds and ditches. The woodlands and hedges are presently $nmanaged- b$t- importantly- the woodland areas are no longer graBed. In the short to medi$m term- effecti%e management of the grassland areas was seen as a priority. By establishing economically effecti%e managementb$t led by conser%ation g$idelines- this is essentially a s$stainable regime. There has been no inp$t to the proDect by any formal conser%ation body- and the c$rrent management does not cost anything to either the local a$thority or the region?s conser%ation bodies. The key to s$ccess here was the effecti%e in%ol%ement of local people. They were %ery m$ch in%ol%ed with the proDect from the o$tset. The company in%ol%ed was s$f.ciently enlightened to recogniBe the bene.ts of this in%ol%ement- and the need for the cons$ltants as the interface with local people. The scheme has been %ery s$ccessf$l. One ca$se for concern- as is so often the case in s$ch sit$ations- is that no f$nding was set aside for monitoring and re%iew. The %al$able lessons to be learnt from s$ch proDects are too often lost for the contrib$tion of a minimal amo$nt of .nance. >er: haps less than )M of the proDect costs wo$ld s$ffice- b$t witho$t stat$tory @enco$ragement? de%elopers seem to ba$lk at the idea` Bharncliffe 'eath and Boods Wharncliffe Heath and Crags is a recently established- maDor $rban nat$re reser%e described by #cCarthy et al. 7)00/8. It is located on the most easterly of the >eak +istrict ,dges- tho$gh o$tside the >eak National >ark C this is now a

Sorkshire Wildlife Tr$st Nat$re Aeser%e- managed by the 3hef.eld Wildlife Action >artnership 73WA>8 7#cCarthy- )009a-b- .***8. The site incorporates a Heological 3ite of 3pecial 3cientific Interest- 3ched$led Ancient #on$ments- an early medie%al deer park- and ancient woodlands- all s$rro$nded by and o%erlooking contemporary ho$sing e'pansion- road and rail networks- and a mi't$re of hea%y ind$stry and maDor ind$strial dereliction. The landscape here has a long history of $tiliBation and s$bseG$ent abandonment- with impacts of ind$stry and $rbaniBation- and now management as a wildlife site. The site is h$gely important in terms of regional biodi%ersity- being a %ital stronghold for locally rare species s$ch as night:Dar- red deer- green tiger beetle- adder and grass snake. The importance of these species- and of local comm$nity s$pport in helping to sec$re %ital grant aid- and a balance of appropriate management and low:key access and promotion- ha%e been maDor iss$es here. Wharncliffe Heath and Wood has long been known as one of the .nest wildlife areas in the 3hef.eld district. Being in the core Bone of the 3o$th Sorkshire &orest- the &orest Team commissioned a comprehensi%e biological s$r%ey in )00/ to be carried o$t by the 3hef.eld City ,cology 1nit. It was accepted for Co$ntryside 3tewardship f$nding by the then Co$ntryside Commission. This comm$nityIen%ironment is not typical of the 3hef.eld area today- b$t historically was widespread and common. 1nmanaged- m$ch of the interest was $nder serio$s and imminent threat. The core area is a mosaic of decid$o$s- semi: nat$ral and plantation- woodland- heathland and acid grassland. The area is floristically rather impo%erished d$e to poor management and former high le%els of air poll$tion. In most of the woods there remain patches of m$ch richer woodland .ora. These are $s$ally along streams and woodland edges. Howe%er- the fa$nal interest of the comple' is considerable. 3e%eral bird species are at the edge of their ranges- and Wharncliffe Heath is one of the few remaining intermediate moorland habitat:types in the region- s$pporting the area?s largest breeding pop$lation of nightDar 7#a5rimulgus euro5aeus8- with locally and regionally signi.cant breeding pop$lations of reptiles and amphibians. Wharncliffe Woods ha%e

been e'tensi%ely researched for their in%ertebrate fa$na and are notable for a di%ersity of insect species- in partic$lar the Coleoptera 7beetles8 and 3yrphidae 7ho%er.ies8. Wharncliffe Wood and Heath- together with the Hreno Wood area- are listed as Hrade B 7regionally signi.cant8 on the ,nglish Nat$re In%ertebrate 3ite Aegister. The area is also of special archaeological and geological signi.cance. =and ten$re of the case:st$dy site is shared between two landowners. Wharncliffe Chase- together with some adDacent farmland and woodland- is owned and managed by Wharncliffe ,states =td- whilst Wharncliffe Wood and Wharncliffe Heath are owned by the &orestry Commission and managed by &orest ,nterprise.

The past and present land $ses are of interest with e%idence of early h$man acti%ity dating back to aro$nd !"** BC. Close to the con.$ence of the +on and =ittle +on ri%ers at +eepcar is a nationally important #esolithic site- probably $sed as a s$mmer camp by h$nters following seasonal animal migrations to the $plands of the >ennines. The Wharncliffe area was intensi%ely $sed d$ring the Aomano:British period- and settlements from this time ha%e been e'ca%ated and the remains of b$ildings and .eld bo$ndaries ha%e been identi.ed $nder what is now the Wharncliffe Chase bo$ndary. The Crags were G$arried e'tensi%ely d$ring this period for G$ernstones 7hand mills for grinding grain8 which- it is tho$ght- ga%e rise to the original name- @\$ern Cliff?. The disc:shaped base stones and beehi%e:shaped rotating stones can still be fo$nd at the base of the crag- mostly as $n.nished artefacts. +$ring the early medie%al period the .rst of a series of enclos$res of the Chase took place. These were carried o$t between the early )/th and late )9th cent$ries and the area was s$bseG$ently de%eloped as a deer park. The remains of two %illages- the inhabitants of which were e%icted d$ring the enclos$res- can still be fo$nd within the present Chase bo$ndary. There is m$ch e%idence of past ind$strial $se- partic$larly within Wharncliffe Wood- the most notable being mining. The local coals and their associated ganister and .re:clay ha%e been e'tensi%ely worked and se%eral old drift mines and adits are in e%idence on the tal$s slope below Wharncliffe Crags. Hrenoside sandstone was G$arried thro$gho$t Hreno Wood and the eastern Chaseand was renowned as a high:G$ality b$ilding stone. OrganiBed e'ploitation of the woodland reso$rce has probably been ongoing for at least 9** years. #anagement probably took the form of @coppice: with:standards? $ntil the )0th cent$ry when the planting of conifers s$ch as 3cots pine and larch was carried o$t. By the early part of the .*th cent$ry traditional woodland management had all b$t ceased. Both landscape and %egetation ha%e been considerably modi.ed d$ring the .*th cent$ry. =arge areas of Wharncliffe Wood were felled d$ring World War I- d$ring the Heneral 3trike in )0.9- and to a lesser e'tent d$ring World War II. &$rther destr$ction of the woodland reso$rce took place d$ring the period $p to )0"6- when woodland adDacent to the railway was destroyed in a series of se%ere .res ca$sed by the sparks from passing steam trains. 3ince then- the dominant land

$se has been commercial forestry- with blanket afforestation of the so$thern section of Wharncliffe Woods. This has red$ced what was described in )0*/ by W.H. 3mith 7former >resident of the British ,cological 3ociety8 as @probably one of the .nest oak woods in the co$ntry? to a m$ch simpli.ed comm$nity 7Aotherham- )00"- )009a8. #ore recently- the area has e'perienced intensi%e and largely $nplanned recreational $se with walking and Dogging- b$t also more intensi%e and organiBed pastimes s$ch as mo$ntain biking- orienteering- horse riding- clay pigeon shooting and fo' h$nting. In the )00*s- an initiati%e was de%el

Historic =andscape Aestoration

oped to address key iss$es of site restoration and conser%ation. ,stablishing the Heath as a nat$re reser%e was perhaps the most signi.cant. Here- the desired management obDecti%es were easy to agree- b$t more dif.c$lt to achie%e. A programme of controlled b$rning- of birch c$tting and more recently of graBing with rare:breed li%estock was initiated to bring the site back to heathland in a mosaic of woodland. There ha%e been some dif.c$lties and compromises. This is a sensiti%e area for wildlife- recreation- scientific geological interest and archaeology. Aecent s$r%eys on behalf of ,nglish Heritage ha%e identi.ed the area as the most important Aomano:British G$ern factory in the 12 and possibly in ,$rope. This has serio$s implications for some of the proposed nat$re conser%ation management. The proposals for the Chase also highlight the need for a caref$l and holistic approach to historic sites e%en when they appear to be in desperate need of management. The Chase was seen as a h$ge opport$nity to re:establish heathland close to the Crags and the Heath itself. Hrant aid in the form of Co$ntryside 3tewardship was a%ailable to both areas- and has $nderpinned m$ch of the work. On the Chase- grant was taken $p to decrease the le%els of graBing stock and hopef$lly tackle the e'pansion of bracken. Howe%er- there was also the chance to re:establish heather in a more radical approach to the site. 3ite s$r%ey indicated a total absence of heather on the Chase- b$t e'panding bracken and poor acidic grass land. This seemed an ideal opport$nity to inter%ene and re:seed heather or e%en to enco$rage nat$ral regeneration. It was belie%ed that heather had been present not that long ago. The Chase has a n$mber of stone and sod re%etted mo$nds- described on the Ordnance 3$r%ey maps as @b$tts?- and it was well:known that the ,arls of Wharncliffe had $sed the site for shooting. The concl$sion was that these were indeed shooting b$tts for gro$se shoots- and therefore the site m$st ha%e been heath or moorland within the last )**C)"* years. This interpretation was completely wrong. 3amples of soil taken to e'amine dormant seed banks prod$ced no heather at all. This seemed perple'ing- b$t perhaps the heather was lost too long ago. +etailed research s$ggested a totally different concl$sion and therefore alternati%e recommendation for the site. The @b$tts? are not gro$se b$tts at all- b$t are medie%al pillow mo$nds for keeping rabbits- and of great historic interest. The $se for shooting was for target practice by soldiers from the estate d$ring wartime training and not after gro$se at all` It is probably at least "** years since heather formed the dominant comm$nity on the Chase- and perhaps not e%en then. Aestoration of this historically important and comple' area to heathland wo$ld ha%e been both misconcei%ed and dif.c$lt to achie%e. #anagement now seeks to decrease graBing- allowing the Chase to reco%er any di%ersity @nat$rally?- and allowing some areas to reco%er from drainage operations that ha%e s$bstantially de:watered the entire site. Heathland restoration is targeted at the Heath and then perhaps at areas of the wood below the main Crags. Boodhouse Bashlands The Woodho$se Washlands Nat$re Aeser%e is a maDor Sorkshire Wildlife Tr$st proDect of aro$nd !* ha in the shadow of the former Orgrea%e Colliery- in the heart of $rban- ind$strial 3o$th Sorkshire 7&ig. "..8. It is one of the last signi.cant remnants of low:lying ri%erine wetland that were formerly e'tensi%e along the Aother Nalley. These were perhaps $p to /*C6* km in length and $p to possibly . km width in a m$ch wider %alley bottom. 3igni.cant areas remained intact b$t increasingly degraded $ntil the )0"*s 7#cCarthy- )006 and )00"8. This case st$dy e'empli.es the historic conte't of abandonment and dereliction of the Aother Nalley washlands- their e%ent$al recognition in the Ai%er Aother Wildlife 3trategy 7Anon.- )006b8- and now piecemeal reco%ery. The triggers for practical conser%ation action are noted by Aotherham et al.

Fig# %>#+# Coot feeding yo$ng at Woodho$se Washlands.

7.***a8. These are e'amined along with the constraints on the present restoration- as a strategic .oodplain site- and as a maDor amenity reso$rce for local people. The initial res$lts of long:term monitoring and the reco%ery of key species are most enco$raging with key plants of the ancient meadows reco%ering and re:establishing across the site. ,ffecti%e and strategic grant:aid- targeted b$siness s$pport- and local comm$nity action in this $rban setting- ha%e been %ital in the reco%ery of this site o%er a )*:year period. The area remained $nde%eloped and to some e'tent protected by designation as strategic .oodland by the %ario$s agencies with a$thority o%er the years. This was Sorkshire Water A$thority $ntil the late )0 *s- and then the National Ai%ers A$thority- now the ,n%ironment Agency. All these bodies- as essentially absentee landlords- managed the site by means of tenant farmers. The area was intensi%ely graBed so that when adopted as a nat$re reser%e in the mid:)00*s- the grass sward was %ery species:poor and only /C" cm in length. 3imple- s$per.cial drains had been c$t across the area and were %ery s$ccessf$l in de:watering m$ch of the site. This is an ancient site with a long his: tory of h$man impact and massi%e change. There are- or were- tiny areas of degraded b$t relict wildlife habitat s$r%i%ing. It is a greatly degraded site on the $rban fringe and has e'perienced problems of poor management and low landscape %al$e. Howe%er- it does ha%e a s$perb wildlife reso$rce- incl$ding relicts and =ocal Aed +ata Book species- and along with this- s$bstantial local comm$nity interest 7Aotherham and Whiteley)00"8. There were and still are serio$s limits on what co$ld be done4 these incl$de the constraints of a stat$tory .ood:control area- pl$s the fact that the prime target areas are wetlands- b$t the site no longer .oods. It is a regionally $niG$e site- $rban fringe and so important to many people- an

important link in a strategic green corridor- and linking laterally into the 3hire Brook Co$ntryside #anagement area. Two f$rther de%elopments were critical in the conser%ation of this site. &irst- the 3o$th Sorkshire &orest >artnership was established and was able to target f$nds and strategic recognition towards the area. 3econd- the Co$ntryside 3tewardship Hrant Aid 3cheme came online in time to s$pport m$ch of the necessary work. These two effecti%ely oiled the wheels of action once the area had been identi.ed in the 3hef.eld Nat$re Conser%ation 3trategy 7Bownes et al.- )00)8 and the Ai%er Aother Wildlife 3trategy 7Anon.- )006b8. The o%erall aims are to conser%e the remaining relict wildlife habitat- restoring the degraded wildlife habitats and increasing desired wildlife habitats. The e'perience of managing the reser%e and charting the changes pro%ides a deeper $nderstanding of how and where on the reser%e those aims may be achie%ed. 2ey components of f$t$re work are to de%elop the monitoring systems to pick $p f$t$re changes- to enco$rage responsible local comm$nity in%ol%ement and to work in partnership with other stakeholders. The management of the reser%e is also set into the @biodi%ersity? conte't and the targets set in the local BA>s 7Biodi%ersity Action >lan8 $sed where appropriate. A challenge for a large and %aried site s$ch as the Washlands is to acc$rately assess the potential for achie%ing a range of different BA> targets. 3e%eral G$estions remain aro$nd the initial %iabil

Historic =andscape Aestoration

ity and then s$stainability of any wildlife habitat or species management- and how the reser%e .ts into the bigger regional and national pict$res. In order to f$l.l the need for information- and to inform the monitoring and management processa strategy for %egetation monitoring has been de%eloped. As well as pro%iding obDecti%escienti.c information for the site?s managers- this also pro%ides a f$rther opport$nity to in%ol%e local people- st$dents and others in the process. The site is a comple' mi' of different- tho$gh sometimes closely related plant comm$nitiesI%egetation types. To f$rther complicate the sit$ation- some of these comm$nities are in a state of rapid .$'- related to both the changed management of recent years- and also perhaps to the %arying weather patterns of recent years. To address this problem- and to monitor changes- to inform management and to record the stat$s of species considered of nat$re conser%ation importance on the site- a mi'ed strategy was proposed. This approach ass$mes that the present lack of dedicated reso$rces for monitoring will contin$e- and that work will be carried on by %ol$nteers- st$dent researchers and professionals donating their time and s$pport. Thro$gh the monitoring programme- a com: prehensi%e package of managed restoration 7with graBing by li%estock- red$ction in drainage- and with targeted hay c$tting8 has been achie%edalong with a programme to create $p to "* ponds o%er the ne't .*C/* years. Aro$nd )" new ponds ha%e already been constr$cted and the impacts on wildlife species ha%e been immense. In concl$sion- Woodho$se Washlands is a decepti%ely complicated site that still has potential for f$rther impro%ement as a biodi%ersity conser%ation reso$rce. It has had- and will contin$e to ha%e- a range of h$man impacts placed on it. 3ome of these may be positi%e with local people feeling @ownership? of the site- and wishing to care for itF some are negati%e s$ch as the impacts of %isitors on %$lnerable and sensiti%e breeding birds. Work on the reser%e o%er the past )* years has shown how with relati%ely few reso$rces- parts of a formerly poorly managed site can be impro%ed as a wildlife conser%ation reso$rce. This case:st$dy site demonstrates how Biodi%ersity

Action >lan targets may be achie%ed- and the %al$e of sometimes not doing %ery m$ch b$t letting wildlife habitats reco%er nat$rally- with a gentle helping hand` The once species:poor areas now ha%e an increasingly rich .ora and fa$na. The site boasts e'tensi%e wetland meadows with n$mero$s locally rare species incl$ding se%eral orchids. It is the best site in the region for Odonata and one of the best for b$tter.ies. It is an e'cellent habitat for mammals s$ch as water %ole and har%est mo$seand has breeding king.shers- sand martinsskylarks and m$ch more. This is all in an area of former gross ind$strial poll$tion and with a comm$nity that has maDor social and economic problems. This site highlights the following4

Q Q Q

the need for partnershipsF

the critical role of indi%id$als in making it happen and keeping it goingF Q the %ital roles of relict areasF the signi.cant 7and $nknown8 potential for reco%eryF Q the key iss$es of local ownership- of local empowerment and- hence- local action. One of the most important lessons to be learned from this case st$dy is the enormo$s potential for reco%ery of a site thro$gh caref$l management and targeted restoration. As described by Handley and Aotherham 7.***8 nothing has been introd$ced here and all the reco%ery has been thro$gh nat$ral processes. The 0hef#eld Area Boodlands The case st$dies here represent a series of ancient woodland sites that ha%e been bro$ght back into restoration and conser%ation management o%er a period of aro$nd .* years. The process and conte't were disc$ssed by Aotherham 7)009b8- and by Aotherham and Kones 7.***b8. #onitoring and o%erseeing m$ch of this work has generated a n$mber of important iss$es and ideas. The c$rrent research is based on a regional assessment of woodlands aro$nd 3o$th Sorkshire and North +erbyshire in ,ngland. In partic$lar the following areas ha%e been considered in detail4

Q Q Q Q

,cclesall Woods in 3hef.eldF Hleadless Nalley Woodlands in 3hef.eldF Hrimethorpe Woods in BarnsleyF

the 1pper #oss Nalley Woodlands in +erbyshire. Ancient woodlands in the 12 are amongst the most %al$able of o$r conser%ation reso$rcesF pro%iding habitat for %$lnerable and interesting wildlife species- with many of these being associated e'cl$si%ely with s$ch wooded en%ironments. There is also an emotional response to wooded landscapes- especially @ancient? woodsas fragments of a percei%ed prime%al @wildwood?. This is of co$rse almost totally incorrectF in reality these wooded landscapes are comple' palimpsests of h$man acti%ity and ha%e been shaped o%er co$ntless cent$ries. The special importance of ancient woodland is the feeling of walking in the footsteps of the ghosts of people that li%ed and worked there o%er tho$sands of years 7Aotherham and Kones- .***a8. Indeed it is these @ghosts? that ha%e left their mark on the wooded landscape and e%en on the %egetation itself. It is also important to recogniBe that many of today?s ancient woodlands probably incorporate phases of non:woodlandoften agric$lt$ral or e%en settlement $se. The soilsthe landform- the %egetation- the hydrology and the fa$na- all re.ect h$man impact o%er the millennia. Ancient woodlands in Britain ha%e been e'tensi%ely researched and in many cases thoro$ghly doc$mented. +espite this- there still remains a dearth of collaborati%e research that considers both the ecology and archaeology of many of these sites. This has maDor implications for the effecti%e restoration of wooded landscapes. +espite this- m$ch progress has been made in recent years to both manage by re%ersion ancient decid$o$s woodland sites that were planted with conifersand to reinstate conser%ation management in former decid$o$s coppice woods. 3ome significant iss$es and threats still remain 7Aotherham and A%ison- )00 8. Two maDor problems are highlighted here in relation to woodland assessment and management. These relate in part to the roles of the professions that o%ersee and initiate s$ch work. The .rst relates to woodland s$r%eys and s$bseG$ent management being often led by foresters or by ecologists. These

two professions often ha%e little e'perience or training in the recognition or interpretation of landscape or archaeological feat$res. The second problem is concerned with what is recogniBed as @archaeology? by professional archaeologists. The key to $nderstanding the nat$re of partic$lar ancient woodlands is the soil- the gro$nd and s$rface feat$res- and the trees and other %egetation. These may all hold cl$es to former management and indeed to former landscapes- and these may be %ital to informing c$rrent conser%ation management. Howe%er- these aspects of woodland are often ignored by archaeologistsgenerally either more interested in mon$mentsearthworks and artefacts than earth and %egetationor simply $ntrained to recogniBe these s$btle land: scape feat$res. Trained archaeologists tend to recogniBe archaeology in woods- b$t not the archaeology of woods. Both a ca$se and a conseG$ence of this sit$ation is that there is presently almost no literat$re to g$ide the wo$ld: be .eld worker or to inform a site manager in s$r%eying or e%al$ating the archaeology of their woodland reso$rce. In many cases- the restoration and conser%ation management of these %al$able sites is f$ndamentally .awed as a conseG$ence 7Ardron and Aotherham- )0008. The presence of woodland on a site may effecti%ely preser%e landscape feat$res going back o%er tho$sands of years. This is clearly demonstrated by ancient woodlands in ,ngland- in some cases in the heart of maDor $rban areasholding e%idence of landscape $tiliBation going back o%er /"** years. Only recently has m$ch of this e%idence been formally recogniBed- and there are serio$s iss$es for cross:disciplinary col: laboration and for effecti%e training and

Historic =andscape Aestoration

s$pport for .eld workers. #any of these ancient woodland landscapes are e'tremely %$lnerable to inappropriate management or to intensi%e recreational disr$ption. Often $nrecogniBed- they may be lost or degraded %ery easily and %ery G$ickly. This work is based on case st$dies from 3o$th Sorkshire and North +erbyshire in ,nglandb$t the .ndings apply widely across ,$rope and the 13A. The archaeology both of woodland and in woodland is of h$ge interest. #$ch of the %ital e%idence for the $niG$e site history is in s$btle feat$res and these combine h$man interferenceecological and edaphic characteristics. 3ince ancient woods often represent landscapes relati%ely $naffected by gross dist$rbance- they may hold e%idence of c$lt$ral and ecological histories spanning many cent$ries. Howe%er- these cl$es to the past are %ery %$lnerable to damage and destr$ction thro$gh contemporary management. This management is often intended to bring abo$t en%ironmental impro%ement and loss is $s$ally 7tho$gh not always8 inad%ertent. The research has bro$ght into sharp foc$s the need for4

Q
tationF

more reliable and informati%e doc$men:

awareness raising C especially for foresters- conser%ation managers- ecologists andindeed- archaeologistsF Q effecti%e ed$cation for the p$blicF

f$rther research to e%al$ate and G$antify the reso$rceF Q conser%ation g$idelines for site man: agers. The woods being restored here are generally ancient woodland $sed for cent$ries to pro%ide coppice wood as f$el and as b$ilding material to s$pport the ind$strial re%ol$tion in ,ngland?s heartland. This $se was generally abandoned in the ) **s and sites were con%erted to high forestry often with e'otic species and later left as amenity areas for local people. Howe%er- the imprint of management is written deep in the landscape and in the ecology of the sites- and $nderstanding this has maDor implications for restoration and for conser%ation. Too often this has been

mis$nderstood or simply o%erlooked. There is also a %ery signi.cant iss$e of the importance of archaeology of the cent$ries of management now e%idenced within the sites in terms of %eteran working trees- soil s$rface str$ct$res and feat$res s$ch as charcoal pits and hearths. 3ome of the work points to the importance of the trees themsel%es. Here- signi.cant trees and- in partic$lar- trees of historic interest- especially @working? trees from the past- may ass$me importance. This may be within a wood or in wooded landscapes beyond the formal bo$ndaries. The %al$e of s$ch trees may be to do with ecologyb$t often it is c$lt$ral- historical and aestheticF and all too freG$ently they are neglected. Wooded heaths and commons- for e'ample- can ha%e signi.cant trees- b$t are often o%erlooked. This lea%es some iss$es and problems and despite regional and local policies and strategies recogniBing the importance of old trees- of dead wood- and of habitat for sapro'ylic fa$na and .oracontemporary 7"*C)"* years8 economic management of woods has generally left them impo%erished in terms of dead and decaying wood. In the st$dy area- o$r regional woods in partic$lar are depa$perate in terms of the deadIdecaying wood reso$rce. This is probably red$ced to less than "M of that in a @nat$ral woodland? and may be less than )"M of that in a traditionally managed woodland. The 3hef.eld Nat$re Conser%ation 3trategy 7Bownes et al.)00)8 noted the rarity of trees o%er .** years old in 3hef.eld- and in de%eloping ideas in the 3hef.eld Woodlands >olicy )0 ! it notes that the A$thority will contin$e to implement the policies and proposals set o$t in this policy. In partic$lar- it notes the ,,C Committee of #inisters Aecommendation No. A 7 8)* @On the >rotection of 3apro'ylic Organisms and their Biotopes? and stresses the importance of dead wood in woodlands. Howe%er- Nictorian foresters- and then .*th:cent$ry amenity woodland managers- liked clean and tidy woods 7bad news for deadwoodwildlife and history8 and in many cases this trend contin$es today despite the conser%ation policies. In 3hef.eld we ha%e e%en had oak trees aged aro$nd ..* years 7which is %ery old for the region8 felled in order to regenerate oak. ,%en big trees selected for conser%ation are still felled in

p$blicly f$nded management proDects.

A f$rther complication is that the o$r oldest trees may be ones s$ch as holly 7 IleM aPuifolium8 clones that are not what people e'pect or e%en what most people see as %eteran trees. These are relicts of former management and are a $niG$e archi%e of information on woodland and landscape history. These %estiges of the former coppice woods are easily remo%ed by today?s management. This is not $s$ally deliberate- b$t is inad%ertent damage thro$gh management. 3ome of these indi%id$al trees may not always be of great ecological interest- not always @%eterans? and are not recogniBed by archaeologists. Indeed many .eld archaeologists- $nless they ha%e a partic$lar interest in woods- cannot act$ally identify tree species anyway. &$rthermore- most .eld ecologists ha%e not got m$ch idea on these specimens or their interpretation either. =ong:term st$dies ha%e identi.ed both opport$nities and threats to the effecti%e conser%ation and restoration of ancient- wooded landscapes. The .rst iss$e is that of recognition of the reso$rce and then prioritiBing Bones for management and appropriate tools for conser%ation. There may be some conflicts between interests and approaches and therefore ways of addressing these within formal management plans need to be established. C$rrent approaches are failing to do this in an effecti%e or systematic way. In part there may be a need to rein%igorate woods thro$gh the inter%ention of traditional management. In other areas- identi.cation of long: term non:inter%ention or minimal inter%ention areas may help to maintain and increase dead: wood content as a nat$ral reso$rce. 3ensiti%e and enlightened approaches need to be applied to re: planting as well as tree or wood remo%al- since re: planting of a semi:nat$ral woodland can serio$sly damage its conser%ation %al$e. #anaged regeneration is a m$ch more satisfactory approach. There is also a desire to generate new ancient trees C not conser%ing %eterans- b$t generating new %eterans and enhancing dead and dying wood reso$rces. This is inherently long term- b$t reG$ires action and %ision now. If felling e'isting oaks- for e'ample- then it wo$ld be best to take only those $p to "C).* years old- lea%ing those older than this. &or somewhere like o$r 3hef.eld st$dy area this means lea%ing and protecting all trees o%er ) * years- and if in do$bt $sing the preca$tionary principle and lea%ing them.

One f$ndamental problem is that woodland management is inherently long term- b$t contemporary short:term grant aid and short rotation employment enco$rage short b$rsts of sometimes inappropriate or irredeemable action. There is often a need to be seen to be doing management- e%en if this is inappropriate in terms of long:term conser%ation.

Conclusions
This chapter draws on .ndings from fo$r distinctb$t related case st$dies. These are all part of a coherent programme of research across the 3o$th Sorkshire area. Together- they highlight the potential for restoration and reco%ery of historic landscapes. In some cases the res$lts ha%e been G$ite remarkable. Howe%er- the work also highlights important iss$es of a lack of holistic thinking and working- and dif.c$lt iss$es of the reco%ery and restoration of c$lt$ral landscapes. These are not nat$ral areas and the impacts of h$man $tiliBation are etched deeply into their fabric 7Aotherham et al.- )00!8. In s$ch casesthere are legitimate G$estions abo$t what we are restoring to and why. How do we address con.icts between contemporary s$stainable landscapes and their ecology and a need to recogniBe and conser%e the $niG$e historic archi%es that these areas representW These st$dies help inform the debate and they raise iss$es and G$estions to be considered f$rther.

Historic =andscape Aestoration

"eferences

Anon. 7)006a8 An Ecological *urvey of t%e ,%arncliffe Area. 3hef.eld City ,cology 1nit- 3hef.eld- 12. Anon. 7)006b8 iver ot%er ,ildlife *trategy. +erbyshire Co$nty Co$ncil and partners- #atlock- +erbyshire12. Ardron- >.A. and Aotherham- I.+. 7)0008 Types of charcoal hearth and the impact of charcoal and whitecoal prod$ction on woodland %egetation. &ea3 1istrict .ournal of 2atural +istory and Arc%aeology )- /"C6!. Beynon- H.- Co'- A. and H$dson- A. 7.***8 1igging U5 Trouble D T%e Environment, &rotest and L5encast #oal Mining. Ai%ers Oram >ress- =ondon. Bownes- K.3.- Ailey- T.- Aotherham- I.+. and Nincent- 3.#. 7)00)8 *%ef.eld 2ature #onservation *trategy. 3hef.eld City Co$ncil- 3hef.eld- 12. Handley- C. and Aotherham- I.+. 7.***8 Woodho$se Washlands C a maDor $rban nat$re reser%e. In4 Abstract &roceedings of t%e *out% jor3s%ire Biodiversity #onference Marc% ?999 . 3o$th Sorkshire Biodi%ersity Aesearch Hro$p- 3hef.eld- 12. Harrison- 2. and Aotherham- I.+. 7.**98 A memory re:disco%ered4 map:based reconstr$ction of the former wetlands of the historic landscape of eastern 3o$th Sorkshire. >aper presented at Sorkshire Nat$ralists? 1nion ConferenceHarrogate- &ebr$ary .**64 The H$mberhead le%els C their %al$e to biodi%ersity in wetness. T%e Bulletin 7in press8. Kones- #. 7)0 68 Woodland origins in a 3o$th Sorkshire parish. T%e Local +istorian )9- ! C /. #cCarthy- A.K. 7)0068 ,ood%ouse ,as%lands &ro5osed 2ature eserve D Feasibility *tudy . 3hef.eld Centre for ,cology and ,n%ironmental #anagement- 3hef.eld- 12. #cCarthy- A.K. 7)00"8 ,ood%ouse ,as%lands Management &lan. 3hef.eld Centre for ,cology and ,n%iron: mental #anagement- 3hef.eld- 12. #cCarthy- A.K. 7)009a8 ,%arncliffe +eat% 2ature eserve Management &lan 6>>BD?996. 3hef.eld Centre for ,cology and ,n%ironmental #anagement- 3hef.eld- 12. #cCarthy- A.K. 7)009b8 ,%arncliffe #%ase #onservation &lan 6>>BD?996. 3hef.eld Centre for ,cology and ,n%ironmental #anagement- 3hef.eld- 12. #cCarthy- A.K. 7.***8 ,%arncliffe +eat% 2ature eserve D A +eat%land Management &lan ?999D?997. Andrew #cCarthy ,cology- 3hef.eld- 12. #cCarthy- A.K.- +$lie$- 2.- Aotherham- I.+. and #ilego- C. 7)00/8 The nat$ral history of the Wharncliffe area. *orby ecord /*- !C)0. Aodwell- K.3. 7ed.8 7)00.8 Britis% &lant #ommunities, )ol. 7; !rasslands and Montane #ommunities. Cambridge 1ni%ersity >ress- Cambridge- 12. Aotherham- I.+. 7)00"8 1rban heathlands C their conser%ation- restoration and creation. Landsca5e #ontamination and eclamation /7.8- 00C)**. Aotherham- I.+. 7)009a8 Habitat &ragmentation and Isolation in Aelict 1rban Heathlands C the ecological conseG$ences and f$t$re potential. In4 &roceedings of t%e ?@t% International !eogra5%ical #ongress; Land, *ea and +uman Effort. A$g$st )009. AH3IIBH- The Hag$e- The Netherlands- p. /09. Aotherham- I.+. 7)009b8 The s$stainable management of $rban:fringe woodlands for amenity and conser%a tion obDecti%es. >roceedings of the conference on %egetation management in forestry- amenity and con ser%ation areas4 #anaging for m$ltiple obDecti%es. Association of Applied Biologists 3ymposi$m- Sork- )009. As5ects of A55lied Biology 66- //C/ . Aotherham- I.+. 7)0008 1rban ,n%ironmental History4 the importance of relict comm$nities in $rban biodi%ersity conser%ation. &ractical Ecology and #onservation /7)8- /C... Aotherham- I.+. 7.**.8 Woodland landscapes in 3hef.eld- ,ngland C reconstr$cting the e%idence of fo$r tho$sand years of h$man impact. In4 &roceedings of t%e International #onference, Florence, *e5tember ?99?; Analysis and Management of Forest and ural Landsca5es. Aotherham- I.+. and A%ison- C. 7)00 8 3$stainable woodlands for people and nat$reW The rele%ance of landscape history to a %ision of forest management. In4 Atherden- #.A. and B$tlin- A.A. 7eds8 ,oodland in t%e Landsca5e; &ast and Future &ers5ectives . The proceedings of the one:day conference at the 1ni%ersity College of Aipon and Sork 3t Kohn- Sork- 12- pp. )06C)00. Aotherham- I.+. and Cartwright H. 7.***8 The potential of 1rban Wetland Conser%ation in economic and en%ironmental renewal C a case st$dy approach. &ractical Ecology and #onservation 67)8- 6!C9*. Aotherham- I.+. and Kones- #. 7.***a8 3eeing the woodman in the trees C some preliminary tho$ghts on +erbyshire?s ancient coppice woods. &ea3 1istrict .ournal of 2atural +istory and Arc%aeology .- !C) . Aotherham- I.+.

and Kones- #. 7.***b8 The impact of economic- social and political factors on the ecology of small ,nglish woodlands4 a case st$dy of the ancient woods in 3o$th Sorkshire- ,ngland. In4 Forest

+istory; International *tudies in *ocio/economic and Forest ecosystem c%ange. CAB InternationalWallingford- 12- pp. /0!C6)*. Aotherham- I.+. and =$nn- K. 7.***8 >ositi%e restoration in a green belt opencast site4 the conser%ation and comm$nity bene.ts of a sympathetic scheme in Barnsley- 3o$th Sorkshire. In4 Abstract &roceedings *E ?999. The 3ociety for ,n%ironmental Aestoration- =i%erpool. Aotherham- I.+. and Whiteley- +.W. 7)00"8 The importance of relict and created wetlands with reference to in%ertebrates and %egetation in $rban and post:ind$strial sites. >reliminary .ndings from the 3o$th Sork:shire Biodi%ersity Aesearch >rogramme. British ,cological 3ociety Conference4 Aecent Ad%ances in 1rban and >ost: ind$strial Wildlife and Habitat Creation. =eicester- .*C.. #arch- )00". >oster presentation. Aotherham- I.+.- Ardron- >.A. and Hilbert- O.=. 7)00!8 &actors determining contemporary $pland landscapes C a re: e%al$ation of the importance of peat:c$tting and associated drainage- and the implications for mire restoration and remediation. In4 Blan3et Mire 1egradation. #auses, #onsePuences and #%allenges. >roceedings of the British ,cological 3ociety Conference in #anchester- )00!. British ,cological 3ociety and the #aca$lay =and 1se Aesearch Instit$te- Aberdeen- 12- pp. / C6). Aotherham- I.+.- Aose- K.C.- Handley- C. and Hoodman- 2. 7.***a8 Aestoring $rban wet meadows4 .%e years of reco%ery of a maDor .oodplain in $rban 3o$th Sorkshire- 12. In4 Abstract &roceedings *E ?999. The 3ociety for ,n%ironmental Aestoration- =i%erpool- 12. Aotherham- I.+.- Aose- K.C. and >ercy- C. 7.***b8 =inking past and f$t$reF the dynamic in.$ence of history and ecology on the restoration of a maDor $rban heathland at Wharncliffe- 3o$th Sorkshire . 12. In4 Abstract &roceedings *E ?999. The 3ociety for ,n%ironmental Aestoration- =i%erpool- 12. 3c$r.eld- H. 7)0 98 3e%enteenth cent$ry 3hef.eld and en%irons. jor3s%ire Arc%aeological .ournal " - )6!C)!). 3c$r.eld- H. and #edley- I.,. 7)0".8 An historical acco$nt of the %egetation in the 3hef.eld district4 the %egetation of the 3o$thall 3oake in )9/!. Transactions of t%e +unter Arc%aeological *ociety !- 9/C!!. 3c$r.eld- H. and #edley- I.,. 7)0"!8 An historical acco$nt of the %egetation in the 3hef.eld district4 the >arish of ,ccles.eld in )9/!. Transactions of t%e +unter Arc%aeological *ociety !- ) *C) !. Nickers- A.+. and Aotherham- I.+. 7.***8 The response of Bl$ebell 7 +yacint%oides non/scri5ta8 to seasonal differences between years and woodland management. As5ects of A55lied Biology " - )C: . Nickers- A.+.- Aotherham- I.+. and Aose- K.C. 7.***8 Negetation s$ccession and colonisation rates at the forest edge $nder different en%ironmental conditions. As5ects of A55lied Biology " - /")C/"9.

%7 Comparative International "esearch on

Agricultural Land use 'istor! and Forest Management 4ractices: the Tuscan Estate of Castello di 0pannocchia and 3ermontAs Marsh Billings"oc2efeller .ational 'istorical 4ar2
H. =atB
Lf.ce of International Affairs, &ortland *tate University, &ortland, Lregon, U*A

Introduction and 4urpose

The p$rpose of this chapter is to report on ongoing research sponsored by the 13 &$lbright Commission@Comparati%e International Aesearch on Agric$lt$ral =and:1se History and &orest #anagement >ractices4 The T$scan ,state of Castello di 3pannocchia and Nermont?s #arshCBillingsCAockefeller 7#BA8 National Historical >ark? 7=atB- .**)8. Other s$pporters of the research incl$de the 13 National 3cience &o$ndation- the &orest History 3ociety- >ortland 3tate 1ni%ersity- the 1ni%ersity of &irenBe- and the #arshC BillingsCAockefeller National Historical >ark 7=atB- .**. and .**68. The proDect?s research obDecti%es are threefold and incl$de comparati%e st$dy of4

). ..

>olicies and legal instr$ments in the 13A and Italy for stewardship and conser%ation of sites deemed representati%e of %al$able c$lt$ral- en%ironmental and historical landscapes. ,%al$ation of opport$nities for s$stainable forestry and agric$lt$re as demonstration sites and for p$blic ed$cation.

(# 3trategic master planning for s$stainable forestry and agric$lt$re- incl$ding e%al$ation of Heographic Information 3ystem 7HI38 and Hlobal >ositioning 3ystem 7H>38 techniG$es for constr$ction of a series of m$ltip$rpose land:$se maps of the 3pannocchia estate and their comparison to the #BA National Historical >ark 7&o$lds- )006F Brown et al.- .***8. Aesearch .ndings presented here foc$s on the latter two research obDecti%es as they pertain to the Italian case st$dy- Ten$ta di 3pannocchia4 the role of HI3IH>3 land:$se maps- compiled for the years ) ./- )0"6and .**.- for comm$nicating concepts of s$stainable forestry and agric$lt$re in the reso$rce management planning process- and for p$blic ed$cation.

4ro?ect Bac2ground and Characteristics of 10 and Italian Case 0tudies

A brief s$mmary of the backgro$nd to the research proDect is as follows. +$ring the
< CAB International .**9. T%e #onservation of #ultural Landsca5es 7ed. #. Agnoletti8

.**)C.**. academic year- the a$thor cond$cted research $nder the a$spices of the 13 &$lbright Commission as a %isiting research scholar at the 1ni%ersity of &lorence. Academic collaboration there was primarily with +r #a$ro Agnoletti- and secondarily with +r Hherardo Chirici- both of the 1ni%ersity of &lorence. At the Ten$ta di 3pannochia estate- proper- the a$thor?s primary contact was its ownerImanager- #r Aandall 3tratton. The primary obDecti%e of the a$thor?s soDo$rn at 3pannocchia- .**)C.**.- was to cond$ct a rigoro$s analysis of the physical and c$lt$ral geography of the estate- a step deemed essential prior to proceeding with detailed- comparati%e research with the 13 site. The .rst stage of the research proDect began with the compilation and analysis of the renowned ) /. Cadastre for T$scany- the historical fo$ndation for assessment of land:$se changes o%er the past two cent$riesfoc$sing on the estate of 3pannocchia. Comprehensi%e- digitiBed land:$se maps ha%e been crafted and interpreted for ) ./- )0"6 and .**.. These will be disc$ssed later in the chapter. The D$sti.cation for and signi.cance of the compilation and analysis of historical and contemporary cartographic data in the cross: c$lt$ral comparison of agric$lt$ral land $se and forest management was endorsed in .*** with the signing of a @#emorand$m of 1nderstanding? between the 13 National >ark 3er%ice and the Italian Nat$re Conser%ation 3er%ice- #inistry of the ,n%ironment. The memorand$m pledges- in part4
to recogniBe the m$t$al interest in identifying nat$ral and c$lt$ral heritage sites of international signi.cance E and toward that end E bwec s$pport a Doint work program in s$ch areas as4 information e'change- e%al$ation of inno%ati%e strategies for management of new national parks- preparation and $se of geographical information systems- and promotion of en%ironmental ed$cation programs. 713IItaly #emorand$m of 1nderstanding- .***8

and Italy coincides with the .**th anni%ersary of the birth of Heorge >erkins #arsh 7) *)C) .8. Abraham =incoln appointed #arshan accomplished lawyer and Nermont legislator- as Ambassador to the newly created 2ingdom of Italy in ) 9). +$ring #arsh?s .) years as ambassador 7) 9)C) .8- a length of ten$re yet to be eG$alled in the American diplomatic ser%ice- he was highly regarded in Italy not only as a diplomat b$t also as a conser%ationist. 3e%enteen years of his ten$re were spent li%ing in &lorence and elsewhere in T$scany- and his great conser%ation op$s- Man and 2ature; &%ysical !eogra5%y as Modi.ed by +uman Action- a$thored there in ) 96- pro%ed to be as in.$ential in Italy as in the 13A in f$rthering national forestry legislation in both co$ntries 7see #arsh- )09"8. Today- Man and 2ature is considered to be the .rst book to challenge the American myth of the ine'ha$stibility of the earthF as the fo$ntainhead of the 13 conser%ation mo%ement- it has had a profo$nd effect on worldwide perceptions of the h$man relationship to the nat$ral world and its impact end$res in the contemporary debate abo$t s$stainable reso$rce management in the .)st cent$ry. >arenthetically- it sho$ld be $nderscored that- as the principal namesake of the #arshC BillingsCAockefeller 7#BA8 National Historical >ark- #arsh and his legacy are an important and $nderst$died connection between en%ironmental mo%ements in Italy and the 13A 7Hall- )00 a- b8.

The Case 0tudies

The 10A The %al$e attrib$ted to conser%ing traditional r$ral landscapes- and e'plaining their signi.cance thro$gh p$blic stewardship and ed$cation- is well ill$strated by the #arshCBillingsCAockefeller 7#BA8 National Historical >ark- in WoodstockNermont. This protected area is the premier e'ample in the 13A of efforts by the National >ark 3er%ice to foc$s on the theme of conser%ation history and the changing nat$re of land stewardship in America 7#BA National Historical >ark- Conser%ation 3t$dy Instit$te- %ario$s doc$mentsF 3ellars- )00!F #cClelland- )00 8. BeG$eathed by the Aockefeller family in )00. and a$thoriBed by Congress as a national park and

This doc$ment con.rms an $nprecedented opport$nity to coordinate interested parties and information e'change for the proposed st$dy at both a national and regional le%el in Italy and the 13A. Comparison of en%ironmental iss$es in the 13A

opened to the p$blic in )00 - the #BA National Historical >ark incl$des .*" ha 7""* acres8 of forest and- within a protected Bone- a pri%ately owned- 6*:ha 7 :acre8 farm- with an acti%e dairy and interpreti%e m$se$m. The >ark also ser%es as the headG$arters for the National >ark 3er%ice?s Conser%ation 3t$dy Instit$te- an organiBation that works nationally and internationally to promote ed$cation and training- research- and network b$ilding for the conser%ation comm$nity 7#BA National Historical >ark- Conser%ation 3t$dy Instit$te- %ario$s doc$ments8. The #BA National Historical >ark has been proposed as one of the .rst pilot proDects in the nation for independentperformance:based- third:party certification of forest stewardship on federal land.

In collaboration with the Instit$te- the #BA National Historical >ark is c$rrently initiating a master planning process for de%elopment of a s$stainable forestry programme that will ser%e as a demonstration and ed$cation site for the p$blicfor 2C). ed$cation- and for professional a$diences. Indeed- a model for the comprehensi%e planning to be considered at 3pannocchia is s$ggested by three p$blications on the #BA National Historical >ark4 Land/Use +istory for Mars%DBillings 2ational +istorical &ar3 7&o$lds- )0068F e5ort of t%e +istoric Forest &lanning #%arrette- 2ovember 7D8, ?999 7Nadenicek et al.- .***8F and the Conser%ation 3t$dy Instit$te?s #ultural Landsca5e e5ort for t%e Forest at MB 2ational +istorical &ar3; *ite +istory and EMisting #onditions 7Wilcke- .***8. The latter doc$ment incl$des a de.niti%e e'ample of the %al$e of $tiliBing HI3 techniG$es for land:$se planning in order @to pro%ide a comprehensi%e assessment of the c$lt$ral landscape of the forest? 7Wilcke- .***- p. "8. Heorge >erkins #arsh and &rederick Billings- the >ark?s principal namesakes- were among the most significant )0thcent$ry American conser%ationists and their legacy is re.ected by more than a cent$ry of tho$ghtf$l land management of the present >ark?s property. Indeed- the forests contained within the >ark are among the oldest contin$o$sly managed forest stands in the 13A- and these lands- along with the Billings &arm- offer tangible e%idence of both the theory and practical applications of land stewardship principles 7#BA National Historical >ark- %ario$s doc$ments8. #any researchers ha%e identified #arsh?s ) 96 book as a prescient e'ample of early global thinking abo$t the potential haBards of ecological destr$ction in America- and his writing had a profo$nd in.$ence on Billings- who p$rchased the #arsh estate in ) !6- s$bseG$ently implementing many of #arsh?s ideas in reaction to se%ere deforestation and o%ergraBing that characteriBed the New ,ngland region at that time. In the p$rs$it of comparati%e st$dy between the #BA National Historical >ark and 3pannocchiaone a%en$e that seems especially promising is e'ploration of #arsh?s early thinking abo$t the signi.cance of creating a m$se$m of r$ral life. This proposal- which appeared in speeches in ) 6!$nderscores a conception of social history at least

half a cent$ry ahead of its time- incl$ding the obser%ation thathistory for the people m$st be about the people. E Abo%e all E history o$ght to encompass things along with words- not D$st archi%es and genealogies b$t m$ndane tangible relics E bwhichc were more %i%id and memorable than written te'ts. 7=owenthal- .***8

Aelics of wild nat$re- as ill$strations of h$man interaction with the en%ironment- are incl$ded in #arsh?s thinking abo$t the c$lt$ral geographical feat$res worthy of stewardship for f$t$re generations 7#arsh- )09"8. #arsh?s %iews abo$t the desirability of a m$se$m of r$ral life- and the reasons he ga%e for it- are central to the c$rrent agenda of the #AB National Historical >arkF in the ne't section- the chapter t$rns to re%iew an e'ample of how #arsh?s thinking can be applied to the present sit$ation in T$scany- with partic$lar reference to 3pannocchia.

Ital! Conser%ation is the central obDecti%e of all acti%ities on the appro'imately 6"*:ha 7)***:acre8 property of Castello di 3pannocchia. Indeed- as described by its owner and managers- the estate is being de%eloped as a li%ing m$se$m of traditional T$scan r$ral life- which is fast disappearing after nearly )*** years of relati%ely minor changes 73tratton- personal correspondence- .**.8. A sketch of 3pannocchia?s disting$ishing characteristics wo$ld incl$de4 its designation as a historic siteF its incl$sion within the Aiser%a Nat$rale Alto #erseF its stat$s as a wildlife ref$geF its certi.cation as an organic farm raising endan: gered breeds of domestic farm animals and prod$cing wine and oli%e oilF and its acti%ities as an ed$cational centre- incl$ding programmes in archaeology and architect$ral conser%ations$stainable agric$lt$re and landscape stewardship in association with the American not:for:pro.t ,tr$scan &o$ndation and 3pannocchia &o$ndation 7the 3pannocchia &o$ndation?s ann$al Amici di *5annocc%ia 2e-sletter\ 3tratton and Anderson- personal comm$nication- )00 C.**.8. 3pannocchia is a %al$able e'ample of and connection to pre:modern r$ral life- partic$larly gi%en its location within T$scany- one of the world?s great c$lt$ral landscapes. As a tenuta- or agric$lt$ral estate- the property represents in the present day the system by which r$ral T$scany was organiBed and f$nctioned- probably since the 0th cent$ry 7Cosgro%e- )00/F Agnoletti and >aci)00 8. 1ntil the middle of the .*th cent$ry- when there was a mass e'od$s of r$ral labo$rers- the estate proper contin$ed to operate $nder the me44adria tenant farming system- de%eloped in T$scany as early as the ))**s 73albitano- )0 F 3ereni- )00!8. Changing little o%er time- the me44adria system represents a form of share: cropping defining the relationship between landowner and peasant that shaped r$ral life in the region for cent$ries- encompassing social relationships- c$lt$ral practices and agric$lt$ral methods 73pender- )00.F H$idi and >i$ssi- )00/F Nanni- .***8. Thro$gho$t this period- forest $se was integral to agric$lt$re for the prod$ction of wood prod$cts complementary to agric$lt$ral operations 7timber- .rewood- charcoal- implements8 and food crops- directly and indirectly- wild and c$lti%ated 7e.g. berries- other wild fr$its- m$sh: rooms- game- n$ts8 and domestic animals past$red

in woodland and n$t tree gro%es 7Agnoletti and Anderson- .***F 3tratton and Anderson- personal comm$nication- )00 C.***F =atB- 3pannocchia site %isits- )000- .**)C.**.8. Inter%iews with 3pannocchia?s property owner and managers indicate interest in creating a detailed land:$se history- with the aim of de%eloping a professional management plan for 3pannocchia?s woods- emphasiBing its ed$cational %al$e as a historic e'ample of traditional agric$lt$ral and forest land $ses 7=atB3pannocchia site %isits- )000- .**)C.**.8. Howe%er- despite interest in and commitment to conser%ing the historical agric$lt$ral landscape of this site- these efforts ha%e yet to be organiBed into a comprehensi%e land or landscape planning doc$ment. In partic$lar- the G$estion of how to identify a s$stainable economic base for the property looms large. As one looks to the f$t$re of the estate- additional research and policy recommendations m$st be considered to ens$re 3pannocchia?s s$r%i%al as a li%ing historical m$se$m for the ne't generation. These incl$de4 cross:c$lt$ral comparison of the legal instr$ments and policies in Italy and the 13A for conser%ing %al$able historical and c$lt$ral landscapes 7e.g. management designation as a p$blic historical park- as a pri%ate non:pro.t organiBation- or some combination of p$blic and pri%ate land stewardship8F the need for a comprehensi%e cartographic in%entory of the property- laying the fo$ndation for comprehensi%e planningF and the speci.cation of an economic and ed$cational strategy that engages the larger comm$nity in a dialog$e abo$t the conser%ation of this important historical landscape.

&reliminary analysis of t%e 6@?7, 6>8: and ?99? land/use ma5s of Tenuta di *5annocc%ia Cartographic analysis of the historical e%ol$tion of the landscape of 3pannocchia is m$lti:dimensional and incl$des archi%al materials 7Ten$ta di 3pannocchia )0."C)0""8historical and contemporary cadastres 7#atasto Leo5oldina) /.F #atasto Toscano, )00 8- aerial photographs 7)0"6 and )009- 1ni%ersity of &lorence8- on:site confirmation of mapped data 7.**)C.**.8- inter%iews 7)000C.**.8 and literat$re re%iew. The following disc$ssion represents a preliminary s$mmary of the data obtained from these so$rces 7Chirici and #irra.**.- $np$blished workF =atB- .**.- .**68. Interpretation of 3pannocchia?s landscape is based on collection of spatial data describing the physical and h$man geography of the estate. Cartographic so$rces are key to s$ch analysis. The basic so$rce of cartographic information for 3pannocchia comes from two cadastre 7 catasto8 compilations- one from the ) .*s and ) /*s- and one from the )00*s. Cadastres identify precisely the distrib$tion of speci.c types of land $se on a gi%en parcel of land. Their primary p$rpose is to organiBe information abo$t land $sage for ta' assessment p$rposes based on the types of impro%ements to the land- and the %al$e of crops grown or reso$rces har%ested. In addition- these land:$se data so$rces are repositories of information abo$t both the social appraisal of reso$rces and the kinds of crops act$ally prod$ced on a gi%en parcel of land. In the case of 3pannocchia- this distinction is e'tremely importantF the landscape fo$nd there represents a c$lt$rally distincti%e e'ample of h$man interaction with the en%ironment. 3$ch interaction is m$lti: dimensional and incl$des comple' strategies for o%ercoming site:speci.c limitations as well as adaptation of the local en%ironment to prod$ce commodities which are locally cons$med or traded. The earliest written record of 3pannocchia doc$ments the donation of a parcel of land by Xacaria dei 3pannocchi in the year ).." to the monks of the nearby monastery of 3anta =$cia for the protection of the so$l of his mother- +onna Altigrada. The remains of this monastery as well as the early medie%al fortress known as Cas:

tiglione che +io 3ol 3a and the AomanesG$e bridge- >onte della >ia- are among the elements which still shape the landscape of 3pannocchia 7\$i%iger- .**.8. An agric$lt$ral estate for at least ** years- 3pannocchia passed in the early part of the .*th cent$ry from the 3pannocchi family to +el.no Cinelli- a &lorentine aristocrat and noted Italian writer of that period. The estate at that time contin$ed to be farmed $nder the me44adria tenant farming system. It was with the passing of that era in the .rst decades after World War II that +el.no?s son- Co$nt &erdinando Cinelli- initiated a new co$rse for 3pannocchia as an ed$cational and c$lt$ral centre thro$gh its association with the American non:pro.t:making ,tr$scan &o$ndation 7Hrosse >ointe- #ichigan8 and 3pannocchia &o$n: dation 7>ortland- #aine8- which incl$de programmes in archaeologyarchitect$ral conser%ation- s$stainable agric$lt$re and landscape stewardship. 3pannocchia is located in the 1pper #erse watershed appro'imately .* km so$th:west of 3iena. The estate comprises a portion of the appro'imately .!** ha Aiser%a Nat$rale Alto #erse 7see &ig. )9.)8. The %ast maDority of 3pannocchia is wooded- appro'imately /Mconsisting predominately of low:density 76M8 and high:density 7 "M8 stands of coppiced oak 7Quercus ileM, etc.8, mi'ed with chestn$t 7castagno8 and other species 7see &ig. )9..8.
Fig# %7#%# Ten$ta di 3pannocchia.

Nirt$ally all of the forests are coppiced- a forest management techniG$e that enco$rages the spro$ting of m$ltiple shoots- and which lea%es appro'imately one mat$re tree e%ery ! m to pro%ide shade- enco$rage regeneration- and make a%ailable large:diameter tr$nks for har%esting on a m$ltiyear cycle 7so:called @coppicing with standards?8. A secondary concentration of the forested area is high stand- coppiced chestn$t and mi'ed chestn$t with the ingress of associated species 7/M8. A similarly small percentage of the forested area is low:density- high stands of maritime pine 79M8- with associated oak and chestn$t species. The remainder 7)!M8 of 3pannocchia is past$re for farm animals- or c$lti: %ated farm land that raises wheat and other grainshay- oli%es and grapes. Wine is prod$ced and cons$med on the estate- as are oli%e oil- honeyfaro 7spelt8 and sa$sageF with the e'ception of sa$sage- each is sold to %isitors- b$t not on the open market. The estate prod$ces the maDority of its %egetables in intensi%ely managed gardens adDacent to the main castle. There are se%en farmho$ses on the property- in addition to the main castle comple'F these ser%e as an important so$rce of rental property re%en$e- primarily for foreigners 7#cNamara- .**6F 3pannocchia &o$ndation website- www.spannocchia.org8. This pattern of forest distrib$tion clari.es the two primary historical $ses of 3pannocchia?s forested areas- for b$ilding material- and for charcoal prod$ctionF secondary $ses of the forest incl$de wood past$re- wild %egetables and m$shroom gathering. Charcoal was especially important to income generated by estate reso$rces $ntil the period immediately after World War IIrepresenting ro$ghly 9*M of the gross estate proDect between )0." and )06*- with e%idence of the signi.cance of charcoal prod$ction stretching m$ch f$rther into the estate?s past 7archi%es of 3pannocchia8. This pattern of reso$rce $se is well ill$strated- for e'ample- by aerial photographs from )0"6 7&ig. )9./8. It is important to note that the smaller G$antity and area of the chestn$t gro%es- and their distrib$tionsho$ld not be conf$sed with their h$ge importance to peasant agric$lt$re. #$ch like the coppiced stands of oak- chestn$t stands also are a primary indicator of h$manIen%ironment interaction at

3pannocchia gi%en the fact that in a nat$ral statechestn$ts do not congregate into gro%es of trees. The chestn$t was and is essential for its fr$it 7eaten or made into .o$r- a staple of peasant life into the .rst half of the .*th cent$ry8- b$ilding constr$ctionagric$lt$ral implements and growing poles for %ineyards- fence posts and charcoal. 3pannochia?s spatial pattern of land $se%egetati%e co%er and h$man settlement present the research proDect with a n$mber of e'amples of landscape contin$ity and change o%er the appro'imately )!":year time:frame between the earlyImiddle )0th and early .)st cent$ries 7see &igs )9..- )9.6 and )9."8. &o$r .ndings stand o$t in partic$lar. The .rst concerns the relationship between the maps of )0"6 and .**.. The earlier map date was selected beca$se it allowed for digitiBation of the .rst aerial photographs of the area after World War II. This aerial information- in t$rn- co$ld be incorporated in and compared to the most recent aerial co%erage of the area- in )009. In the comparison of these two @snapshots? of land $ses at 3pannocchia- there is dramatic e%idence of the e'tent to which the wooded portions of the property s$pported charcoal prod$ction. The circ$lar areas 75ia44a8 that characteriBe the sites where the coppiced wood was carboniBed are clearly e%ident in the )0"6 aerial photograph- both in their siBe and their n$mber 7see &ig. )9./8. Indeed- the geometric pattern discernible is so reg$lar that f$t$re research is called for 7Agnoletti.**.8. This .nding represents end$ring e%idence of the estate?s reliance on a @%al$e:added? reso$rce con%ersion process e%ident not only in early .*th: cent$ry written archi%al records- b$t in 3pannocchia?s present:day woods.

Fig# %7#+# 3pannocchia land $se- .**..

Fig# %7#(# >atterns of charcoal prod$ction- mid:.*th cent$ry.

Comparison of the .*th and .)st cent$ry maps also re%eals that there has been a slow b$t steady e'pansion of forested area- from !!M to /M- a change in arable land $se of abo$t /* ha. This re.ects- b$t clearly does not come close to mirroring- pro%ince:wide trends that indicate T$scany today is 9*M more forested than half a cent$ry ago 7Agnoletti- .**.F Agnoletti- personal comm$nication- .**/8. Indeed- the degree of land: $se contin$ity re.ected by the 3pannocchia case s$ggests that the site more clearly re.ects the traditionalme44adriain.$enced T$scan landscape. As is tr$e thro$gho$t the region- at the same time- 3pannocchia:speci.c .ndings are consistent with the recent and rapid depop$lation of r$ral areas in T$scany. In the pre:World War II period- 3pannocchia s$pported as many as ."C/" tenant families- abo$t /** peopleF today- there are no tenant farmers or families on the estate. This past land:$se pattern is represented by the more e'tensi%e crop land associated with the main castle comple'- and especially some of its peripheral properties 7i.e. 3anta =$cia8- areas that by )009 saw a net increase of arable land that had become reforested 7see &igs )9.9 and )9.!8. A third obser%ation concerns land $ses at 3pannocchia in ) ./- and is directly related to the ratio of crop land to forested land disc$ssed abo%e. The research proDect?s earliest- detailed land:$se records present a remarkable story in comparison to the .)st cent$ryF whereas in .**. the forested area of the estate stood at /M- in ) ./ the amo$nt of forested land at 3pannocchia was 9!M of the total area 7!)M- if one incl$des @wood past$re? in the calc$lation8. This .nding is signi.cant not only beca$se it is an indication of the degree to which land was $sed for .eld crop prod$ction at that time. In addition- it allows $s to highlight a fo$rth and .nal point- that of contrasting the pattern of past forest %egetation with the present. What stands o$t in the analysis of the earlier- ) ./ map is the e'tent to which the forested areas- tho$gh smaller in terms of absol$te area compared to the presentare none the less $sed more intensi%ely and managed more precisely 7see &ig. )9."8. ,'amples of the comple'ity of reso$rce $se as a feat$re of the estate?s economy in ) ./ can be ill$strated by the fact that there were three speci.c designations

for the chestn$t tree at this time4 5alina 7gro%es managed for poles8F marroneta 7gro%es managed for high:G$ality n$ts8F and castagneto 7gro%es managed for lower:G$ality n$ts8. Other e'amples of contin$ity or change abo$nd in the close analysis of these maps. These incl$de changes or contin$ity in the distrib$tion of together by an e%ol%ing transportation net:oli%e gro%es%ineyards- past$reland- the work linking it internally- as well as to local aforementioned wood past$re- along with markets. changes in the %ery way the estate was knit

Fig# %7#-# 3pannocchia land $se- )0"6.

Fig# %7#># 3pannocchia land $se- ) ./.

Fig# %7#7# C$lti%ated area s$rro$nding 3anta =$cia)0"6.

3anta =$cia- )009. Fig# %7#9# Aeforestation of c$lti%ated area s$rro$nding

Broader Impacts and 0igni#cance of the "esearch Agenda: Nuestions of OCerti#cationA and Landscape 0te)ardship
>reliminary thinking regarding the long:range signi.cance of the proDect centres on the concept of s$stainable land management. Here- the thesis is that early modern ,$ropean agric$lt$re and forestry embodied an $nderstanding of s$stained: yield forest management that is analogo$s to con: temporary de.nitions of s$stainable forest managementF salient e'amples are third:party forest certi.cation sponsored by the &orest 3tewardship Co$ncil 7&3C8 and >an ,$ropean &orest Certification 7>,&C8 73ample and 3edDo)009F #acArth$r &o$ndation- )00 F 3ample.**.8. The methodology for e'ploring this thesis is e'amination of pres$med linkages between s$stained:yield forest management at the comm$nity scale for early ,$ropean forestry and the standards $tiliBed by proponents of s$stainable management today 7Agnoletti and Anderson.***8. I wo$ld arg$e that contemporary interest in s$stainable land management can be deepened thro$gh st$dy of late ) th: and early )0th:cent$ry land:$se practices of T$scan estates like 3pannoc: chia. 3$ch territories were in effect @closed economies? bo$nded geographically by the needs of the estate and its immediate hinterlandF local forests were the primary so$rce of a contin$o$s s$pply of wood for b$ilding p$rposes and cooking f$el 7e.g.- .rewood- charcoal8- as well as a place for li%estock graBing and fodder gathering 7socalled @coppicing with standards?F Agnoletti and >aci)00 F =owenthal- .***8. These geographically bo$nded systems of s$stained:yield management sim$ltaneo$sly prod$cing f$el wood- timber prod$cts for constr$ction and woodland past$reha%e been radically altered by modern trans: portation and market systems. Historical st$dy allows identi.cation of the difference between regionally oriented s$stained:yield forestry that aims to meet a %ariety of localiBed %al$es and $sesand the contemporary characteristics of large:scale ind$strial:style forestry management for the global market. 3$ch insight can contrib$te to a .)st: cent$ry model of s$stainable land and forest management. 3pannocchia- in and of itself- as well as its detailed comparison to the #BA National Historical >arkoffers a $niG$e opport$nity to e'plore these ideas. In the words of one co$nsellor to the research proDect-

what is really intrig$ing abo$t the #BAI3pannocchia connection is the opport$nity to e'amine the E reso$rces of two sites whose forests are being managed along the lines of the early ,$ropean model- one in ,$rope itself and the other as adapted to an American setting by owners- both #arsh and Billings- who were thoro$ghly familiar with the ,$ropean e'perience. At both sites- the in%estigation wo$ld not be limited D$st to what is being practiced on the gro$nd at this moment- b$t wo$ld incl$de what each of the sites is trying to create on the basis of historical scholarship. Clearly- the ind$strial model of intensi%e timber management bthe norm in m$ch of the world todayc- while $sef$l in some instances- is $nlikely to be considered appropriate in many others. If we as a society are more att$ned to the m$ltiple:$se s$stained:yield model- might independent- third: party certi.cation programs s$ch as &3C and >,&C ser%e as a $sef$l mechanism to get thereW 7+. Alaric 3ample- >resident- >inchot Instit$te for Conser%ation- personal comm$nication- )0 +ecember- .***8

3$ch inter%iews with e'perts in the .eld- as well as literat$re re%iew- indicate that there is a pressing need to incorporate site:specific historical data within e'isting forest certi.cation proced$res in order for forest managers- partic$larly small wood: lot owners- to p$rs$e s$stainable forest management in the .)st cent$ry. The T$scan and Nermont sites selected for case:st$dy analysis can ser%e as prototypes for s$ch in%estigation of the relationship between historical land:$se practices and contemporary forest certi.cation protocols. 3t$dy of certi.cation and land stewardship will foc$s on $nderstanding a critical omission of contemporary forest certi.cation policy C that ishow site:speci.c historical st$dy of forest manage: ment can shed light on the past methods and decisions of small wood:lot property owners to de%ise s$stainable land management practices 7#acArth$r &o$ndation- )00 8. 3ite:speci.c st$dy of the history of land management in forested areas speaks both to policy and academic research G$estions now s$rro$nding the debate abo$t certi.cation of forests for s$stainable management. On the one hand- scholarship on land:$se history C that is- case:st$dy analyses of the traditionspractices- and s$ccesses and fail$res of h$manIen%ironment interaction C can deeply inform contemporary forest management disc$ssions- with m$ltiple implications for policy: makers. On the other hand- knowledge of land:$se history deepens $nderstanding of traditional

reso$rce management practices as compared and contrasted to ind$strial:style forestry management paradigms that shape contemporary timber har%esting practices. Th$s- one of the most compelling aspects of the research proDect- long range- is its potential to contrib$te both to o$r $nderstanding of en%ironmental history as well as $nfolding reso$rce management policy. In this sense- the proDect is Kan$s:faced- looking forward and backward at the same time.

An important aspect of longer:range research is to ga$ge the impact of historical information on forest certi.cation policy thro$gh comparison of two certi.cation protocols- e.g.- the &orest 3tewardship Co$ncil 7&3C8 and the >an ,$ropean &orest Certification 7>,&C8 programme- with regard to which applies best in geographicallyhistorically and c$lt$rally distinct regions in North America and ,$rope- respecti%ely. In partic$lar- it can be arg$ed that witho$t s$ch information- small land holders cannot be incorporated effecti%ely into present:day certification strategies. Aesearch sho$ld proceed by clarifying the essential principles that shaped s$stainable land management in the late ) th and early )0th cent$ries in terms of economic- ecological and social %al$es. Insight th$s gained- step by stepclari.es how the estate of 3pannocchia managed to meet food- shelter and f$el needs gi%en its location within the @reach? or hinterland of the adDacent city of 3iena. This G$estion in t$rn ass$mes a need to $nderstand clearly what the forest management regime looked like and how it was managed. The lessons res$lting from s$ch historical st$dy will identify a set of distinctions between more regionally oriented s$stained:yield forestry that aims to meet a %ariety of localiBed %al$es and $sesand the contemporary characteristics of large:scale ind$strial:style forestry management for the global market. 3$ch historical insight can help to b$ild a model of more s$stainable land management that f$rther informs the standards g$iding the forest certification process in the .)st cent$ry.

lots- th$s leading to more effecti%e contemporary management of pri%ate lands in di%erse en%ironmental and socio:economic settingsF they can also grant insight into how historical research can ha%e a constr$cti%e impact on certi.cation proced$res for small:scale timber marketing by small wood:lot owners. A final proposed aspect of f$t$re research is to e%al$ate the role of HI3: and H>3:based land: $se maps for comm$nicating concepts of s$stainable forestry and agric$lt$re for p$blic ed$cation. One f$t$re .eld:work obDecti%e is to collect data pertinent to the establishment at 3pannocchia of a T$scan landscape stewardship m$se$m of traditional and contemporary farm and forest management practices. This proposal complements international trends s$ch as the World Conser%ation 1nion?s creation of Category N @protected landscapes? as well as pro%incial efforts in Italy- s$ch as The #$se$m of the Woods 7Brown et al.- .***F #olteni- )00/8. This e'panded research stage will organiBe and comment on spatial data mapped for m$se$m display- to incl$de an electronic retrie%al system granting researchers- ed$cators- st$dents and the p$blic the opport$nity to st$dy a historical and contemporary e'ample of s$stainable forestry and agric$lt$re. A disting$ishing characteristic of the proposed m$se$m and web page is the idea of creating walking itineraries of 3pannocchia that portray the gro$nd:le%el reso$rce management practices of T$scany?s traditional socio:economic system.

Conclusions
Comparati%e research .ndings will be of %al$e to the World Bank and %ario$s NHOs p$rs$ing .)st: cent$ry forest certi.cation policies. Aigoro$s comparati%e research in the 13A and Italy on the certification options for small wood:lot owners creates an opport$nity to recommend the establish: ment of no%el demonstration proDects incor: porating site:le%el analysis of land:$se history- as well as training programmes for widespread dissemination of the lessons learned to rele%ant researchers and policy:makers in ,$rope- the 13A and other mid:latit$de forested areas. +emonstration proDects and training sites can f$rther deepen comparati%e $nderstanding of the comple' land:$se histories of small:scale wood:

The proposed m$se$m?s displays and electronic retrie%al system will foc$s on landscape stewardship in a region of Italy where traditional reso$rce:$se patterns are fast disappearing after end$ring for nearly )*** years. &ield:work obDecti%es in this regard will incl$de map- te't and site:speci.c itineraries portraying contemporary and historical reso$rce $tiliBationF organiBation and interpretation of the estate?s archi%al material on the me44adria tenant farming system 7)0."C present8F designation of e'tant forest management sites and arable land parcelsF statistics doc$: menting the contrib$tion of these geographically distinct areas to o%erall gross estate prod$ctionF and pro.les of tenant families who managed these reso$rces 73pannocchia archi%es8. The most compelling aspect of the research proDect- in my %iew- will be $tiliBation and interpretation of spatial data in this st$dy of en%ironmental land:$se history. #ap:based analyses of the traditions and practicess$ccesses and fail$res of h$manIen%ironment interaction and adaptation can deeply inform $nderstanding of contemporary forest management disc$ssions- with m$ltiple implications for the p$blic- researchers- ed$catorsst$dents and policymakers.

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Hall- #. 7)00 b8 Ideas from o%erseas4 American preser%ation and Italian restoration. T%e !eorge ,rig%t

Forum; A .ournal of #ultural and 2atural &ar3s and eserves )"7.8- .6C.0.

=atB- H. 7.**)8 Comparati%e international research on agric$lt$ral land:$se history and forest management practices4 the T$scan estate of Castello di 3pannocchia and Nermont?s #arshCBillingsCAockefeller 7#BA8 National Historical >ark. &$lbright >rogram- Italian:13A >ark and >rotected Area Twinning >roDect- )/*9- .**)C.**.- 1ni%ersity of &lorence- Italy. =atB- H. 7.**.8 =?area di st$dio di 3pannocchia 7Aiser%a Nat$rale Alto #erse8. In4 Agnoletti- #. 7ed.8 Il &aesaggio Agro/forestale Toscano, *trumenti 5er lFAnalisi, la !estione e la #onserva4ione 7The Agric$lt$ral and &orested =andscape of T$scany4 Instr$ments for Analysis and Conser%ation #anagement8. AgenBia Aegionale per lo 3%il$ppo e l?Inno%aBione nel settore Agricolo:forestale- &lorence- Italy- pp. )))C... =atB- H. 7.**68 Comparati%e international research on agric$lt$ral land:$se history and forest management practicesItaly and 13. INTIWest ,$rope >rogram- National 3cience &o$ndation- >roDect *)/9. 6- .**.C.**6. =owenthal- +. 7.***8 !eorge &er3ins Mars%; &ro5%et of #onservation . 1ni%ersity of Washington >ress- 3eat: tle- Washington. #acArth$r &o$ndation 7)00 8 T%e Business of *ustainable Forestry; #ase *tudies . A >roDect of the 3$stainable &orestry Working Hro$p. #acArth$r &o$ndation- Chicago- Illinois. #cClelland- =. 7)00 8 Building t%e 2ational &ar3s; +istoric Landsca5e 1esign and #onstruction . The Kohns Hopkins 1ni%ersity >ress- Baltimore- #aryland. #cNamara- #. 7.**68 3et for T$scany. Los Angeles Times )9 #ay- .**6. A%ailable at4 http4IIwww.latimes.comItra%elIla:|tr:italy)9may)9-*-6 .!!//.storyWcollila:tra%el:headlines #arsh- H.>. 7)09"8 Man and 2ature; &%ysical !eogra5%y as Modi.ed by +uman Action . Belknap >ress of the Har%ard 1ni%ersity >ress- Cambridge- #assach$setts. #olteni- H. 7ed.8 7)00/8 Il Museo del Bosco, Lrgia 7The #$se$m of the Woods- Orgia8. >rotagon ,ditori Toscani3iena- Italy. Nadenicek- +.K. et al. 7.***8 Mars% Billings oc3efeller 2ational +istorical &ar3; e5ort of t%e +istoric &lanning #%arrette, 2ovember 7D8, ?999 . >enn 3tate 1ni%ersity- Center for 3t$dies in =andscape History+epartment of =andscape Architect$re- 1ni%ersity >ark. Nanni- >. 7.***8 &orests and forestry c$lt$re in T$scany between the ) th and the )0th cent$ries. In4 Agnoletti- #. and Anderson- 3. 7eds8 Forest +istory; International *tudies on *ocioeconomic and Forest Ecosystem #%ange. CAB International- Wallingford- 12- pp. !0C0.. \$i%iger- >. 7.**.8 *5annocc%ia. 3ator >rint- 3iena- Italy. 3albitano- &. 7ed.8 7)0 8 +uman In.uence on Forest Ecosystem 1evelo5ment in Euro5e . >itagora ,ditrice Bologna- Bologna- Italy. 3ample- N.A. 7.**.8 &orest management certi.cation4 where are we- and how did we get hereW >aper presented at the 3o$thern Center for 3$stainable &orests workshop on &orest #anagement and &orest >rod $ct Certi.cation- AaleighNorth Carolina. 3ample- N.A. and 3edDo- A.A. 7)0098 3$stainability in forest management4 an e%ol%ing concept. International Advances in Economic esearc% .7.8- )9"C)!/. 3ellars- A.W. 7)00!8 &reserving 2ature in t%e 2ational &ar3s; A +istory. Sale 1ni%ersity >ress- New Ha%enConnectic$t. 3ereni- ,. 7)00!8 +istory of t%e Italian Landsca5e. >rinceton 1ni%ersity >ress- >rinceton- New Kersey. 3pender- #. 7)00.8 ,it%in Tuscany; e.ections on a Time and &lace. Niking >ress- New Sork. Wilcke- 3. 7.***8 #ultural Landsca5e e5ort for t%e Forest at Mars%DBillingsD oc3efeller 2ational +istorical &ar3; *ite +istory and EMisting #onditions . 13 National >ark 3er%ice- Conser%ation 3t$dy Instit$te- Wood:stock- Nermont.

%9 0haping the Landscape: Long term Effects of

the 'istorical Controvers! about the 3iennese Forest 5Biener)ald:
,. Kohann
University of 2atural esources and A55lied Life *ciences )ienna, )ienna, Austria

Introduction
The global disc$ssion of the ca$ses of deforestation in the tropics has led to renewed interest in the history of forests in co$ntries which are now considered de%eloped. What factors were the process of deforestation and the s$bseG$ent e'pansion of forest area based on in those co$ntriesW What meas$res- if any- were taken to re%erse the direction of changeW Can lessons be learned from the e'perienceW The repre : sentation of history is more than the s$m of information acc$m$lated in the past and presented. By becoming acG$ainted with the historical 7social8 manner and beha%io$r of h$man beings in relation to forests and analysing it- concl$sions can be drawn relating to the di%ersity of interactions between man and forests. By these means the G$estion can be answered of what kind of relationship between man and forests is able to meet the %ario$s h$man needs concerning the $tiliBation of the forest witho$t destroying its s$stainability. &oresters and other scientists often lack the necessary information to integrate the present sit$ation in a long:term historical conte't with regard to forestry. Therefore- case st$dies are necessary to impro%e the knowledge of long:term historical changes in the forest area reso$rce. The scienti.c %al$e of a sing$lar case st$dy is less important than the ill$stration of its linking. In doing so the representation of comm$nicati%e processes gains high importance. The beha%io$r of h$man beings in relation to en%ironment is of a high representati%e rele%ance 72echli- )00 8. The case st$dy presented in this chapter deals with the history of the @sil%a %iennensis?- as it was called in )//.- which nowadays is f$l.lling e'cl$si%ely bene.cial f$nctions. The main part of this forest- with an e'tent of . -*** ha- is sit$ated close to the western districts of the city of Nienna at an altit$de of between 9** m and )9* m abo%e sea le%el 7see &ig. )!.)8- with .*M of the forest district sit$ated in the $rban agglomeration area. There are only a %ery few capital cities that own a landscape of comparable %ariety to that of Nienna and eG$i%alent e'tension of landscape potential gi%en by nat$ral factors. With more than 6*-*** ha of forest area 7sit$ated in the &ederal >ro%inces Nienna- =ower A$stria and 3tyria8- the city owns the second:largest area of forest- after the A$strian 3tate- among the forest owners in A$stria. The forests ha%e been dedicated totally to p$blic welfareF whereby watershed management and the safeg$arding of the forest area for recreation p$rposes are the main targets 7Ballik and >rossinagg- )00/8.
< CAB International .**9. T%e #onservation of #ultural Landsca5es

7ed. #. Agnoletti8

3haping the =andscape

Fig# %9#%# Niew of Nienna from the Niennese &orest 72ahlenberg8 in )

. 3o$rce4 2ronprinB ,rBherBog A$dolf- )

Today the Niennese people take weekend e'c$rsions to the recreational forest near the city and clean- fresh water is a%ailable at any time. The .ndings of general inG$iries made among the $rban pop$lation indicate that the forests close to Nienna are the most pop$lar recreation areas of the capital. The historical decisions to establish a water s$pply system from the alpine region and the resol$tion to implement a green belt consisting of forests and meadows close to the city mark a milestone in establishing the e'cellent li%ing conditions in Nienna at present.

switch to new so$rces- s$ch as coal- from the middle of the )0th cent$ry onwards 7see &ig. )!..8. =arge:scale $se of coal was a decisi%e de%elopment. Coal red$ced the $rban demand for timber as a so$rce of energy and promoted ind$strialiBation. Ancient con.icts o%er reso$rce $tiliBation disappeared as the press$re on the forests was red$ced. The long:heralded %ision of forestry as an independent discipline mo%ed closer to becoming reality.

The 0uppl! of Bood for Fuel to the Capital

1ntil the ) th cent$ry- the Niennese &orest was owned by the imperial family. Not later than the )"th cent$ry- a forest administration of.ce was established and forest $tiliBation was reg$lated %ery caref$lly by se%eral laws and orders. &orest har%esting was carried o$t for the s$pply of f$elwood to the r$ral pop$lation close by- the %ario$s p$blic administration b$ildings in the city and not least the Niennese pop$lation. In the co$rse of the cent$ries the demand increased d$e to the fast:growing pop$lation and the increasing f$elwood cons$mption of the different branches of trade and ind$stry. Beca$se of its ad%antageo$s position close to the ri%er +an$be the city was able to co%er most of the demand for timber and f$elwood from forests located $pstream. Howe%er- the inhabitants preferred to p$rchase the f$elwood they needed from the Niennese forest beca$se the price was controlled and reg$lated by the local adminis: tration and was %ery low compared to the price of .oated f$elwood. With the increasing demand- a lack of local f$elwood came into being mainly ca$sed by lack of transport facilities. The lack of f$elwood and increasing prices of f$elwood coming down the ri%er forced the cons$mers to

The 4rotection of Forest "esources: Forest Administration and Forest La)

To ens$re forest ownership and to estimate the growing stock- which was considered to

Sear Inhabitants 7n$mber8 Ann$al c$t 7c$bic metre8

&$elwood cons$mption per capita 7c$bic metre8 >rice 7florins per c$bic metre8

Fig# %9#+# &$elwood har%esting in the Niennese &orest in relation to f$elwood cons$mption and price de%elopment in Nienna.

be the basis of s$stainable management planningin%entories were carried o$t by the imperial forest of.cers from the )9th cent$ry onwards 73chachinger- )0/68. The .rst precise in%entory dates back to )!.*. It was ca$sed by the debts of the ,mperor 2arl NI who mortgaged the Niennese &orest to the Hofbank- which was taking o%er his debts. On the occasion of this in%entory- in addition to the calc$lation of the s$stainable felling b$dget the .nancial yield of the Niennese &orest was estimated for the .rst time. The in%entory co%ered the total area of the forest incl$ding ) forest districts of a total e'tent of 69-*** ha. In )!""- #aria Theresia placed the Niennese &orest into the ownership of the 3tate. Ne%ertheless- the forest was managed in the same way as before. &orest laws of this time already aimed at sil%ic$lt$ral methods as well as the implementation of special c$tting seG$ences and the s$stain:ability of wood prod$ction- b$t the main target of p$blishing these laws was to a%oidgenerally- forest destr$ction and forest de%astation. &rom ) )) to ) "! the Niennese &orest was s$bordinated to an intact administration. Broadleaf stands were regenerated by the coppice systemconifer forests were regenerated after clear: c$ttings by remaining seed trees- with pre: regeneration of beech and .r. &rom ) .* onwards there was a switch to the compartment method implemented by Hartig- accompanied by a regen: eration period of abo$t .* to /* years. In ) ". a new forest law- @AeichsforstgesetB?- was implemented in all parts of the co$ntry. According to this law- c$tting was only allowed with of.cial permission- the forest area was not to be red$ced any f$rther- and forest owners were obliged to carry o$t reforestation 7see &ig. /./8. It also contained f$rther legal restrictions on pri%ate ownership taking into acco$nt p$blic welfare and p$blic interest in relation to the $tiliBation of forests. Altho$gh forest de%astation was forbidden by law- forest enterprises were occasionally sold to

foreign in%estors D$st for c$tting- who sold the clear:c$ts again in order to sa%e money for reforestation.

The In#uence of 0ustained !ield Forestr! in "elation to the =round "ent and the Financial "e<uirements of the 0tate
In ) 60- the administration of the Niennese &orest passed o%er to the #inistry of =andscape C$lt$re and #o$ntain Affairs 7#inisteri$m fer =andesk$lt$r $nd Bergwesen8- which instigated the carrying o$t of a new estimation of growth and yield of the forest taking into acco$nt the A$strian assessment method. When the administration shifted to the #inistry of &inance in ) 9.- the calc$lated ann$al c$tting seemed to be estimated too low. Therefore- based on

3haping the =andscape >ercentage )** 0* * !* 9* "* 6* /* .* )* * )! )0./ ) 09 Sear

Fig# %9#(# +istrib$tion of c$lti%ated land4 de%elopment in the western s$b$rbs of Nienna- )!

C)0./.

national orders- the rotation period was red$ced by )9M 7from ).* to )** years8- the felling b$dget was remarkably increased 7$p to )6*C)0*M of the former ann$al c$t8 and har%esting was deli%ered $p to timber merchants- who were allowed by go%ernmental licences to make large clearings. 3ince ) 6*- an economic system was already practised in some forests considering the operable timber land as capital- which had to bear a .'ed rate of interest in forestry. &$rthermore- at the same time there was a disad%antageo$s in.$ence on forestry by the ma'ims of Adam 3mith. The selling of forests administered by the state was ca$sed by 3mith?s theory- saying that only pri%ate timber holders were able to recei%e a %ery high bene.t thro$gh c$lti%ation of land. Therefore- parts of the Niennese &orest sho$ld be cleared and $sed for agric$lt$ral p$rposes 7Anon.- ) 9/8.

The 4rotest of the 3iennese 4opulation an E$ample of Earl! 4articipation

As far back as )"* years ago- some foresters began to G$estion the e'tent to which the desire for pro.t co$ld be allowed free rein before it posed a threat to the ecological f$nction of forests. They also began to e'press concerns abo$t protecting the work of pre%io$s generations C )0th cent$ry forestry laws 7e.g. the AeichsforstgesetB ) ".8 were partly infl$enced by these ethical considerations. Howe%er- the ret$rn of the trees was m$ch more likely a res$lt of the ongoing social and economic changes that took place in the ) "*s. &rom the beginning of the )0th cent$ry- the $rban pop$lation made $se of the Niennese &orest as an e'cellent recreation area of scenic bea$ty. Witho$t long tra%el distances- the region pro%ided s$f.cient co$ntry ho$ses and cottages and offered possibilities to stay for s$mmer %acations as well as for weekend e'c$rsions and was open for the rich as well as for the poor 7see &ig. )!.68. In ) "!- &eistmantel- head of the forest department of the #inistry of =andscape C$lt$re and #o$ntain Affairs at this time- had already pointed o$t the importance of forest stands beyond their %al$e for the prod$ction of wood. He emphasiBed the bene.cial in.$ence on health- fertility- climate and condition of soil as well as its protecti%e f$nctions. >$blic welfare was considered to be G$ite closely connected to the conser%ation and c$lti%ation of forests 7Ne$mann- ) 8. When the administration of the Niennese &orest shifted to the #inistry of &inance- a place was set $p for the sale of f$elwood at the main railway station in Nienna in ) 9.. The p$rpose was to pro mote the selling of wood prod$cts from the forest. In ) 9"- this place was sold to a timber merchant and two years later the #inister of &inance also made a ":year f$el:wood and timber sales contract with this merchant concerning the large:scale $tiliBation of the Niennese &orest. In doing so he a%oided the hearing and cons$ltation of the foresters who were of.cially responsible for the management of the forest. These con : tracts were at this time the most disc$ssed e%ent within A$strian forestry and were analysed with great interest by foresters.

In ) 9 - the monetary crisis ind$ced the go%ernment to $ndertake the selling of wide areas of state: owned forests to spec$lators. &rom ) 90 to ) !*- .!** ha of the Niennese &orest- especially those which were pro%ided with transport facilities 7railway and boat8- were opened for e'ploitation p$rposes. The transformation of timber from an item of e%eryday $se to a commercial com modity f$ndamentally started to change the character of the Niennese &orests. This was especially tr$e where chessboard forestry replaced forests which had been $sed in traditional ways and in which regeneration had occ$rred nat$rally. This logging system in.$enced the nat$ral composition of tree species and increased the proportion of conifers 7mainly spr$ce and pine8 on sites originally dominated by broadlea%ed forests 7see &ig. )!."8. O%ere'ploitation of reso$rces did indeed occ$r in many parts of central

>ercentage

)** * 9* 6* .* distrib$tion of tree species in the

Sear Niennese &orest- )!0)C)0/..

3haping the =andscape

,$rope in the )0th cent$ry- hand in hand with rapid economic de%elopment. The demand for timber- accompanied by a rise in timber pricesind$ced the felling of mat$re trees with increasing reg$larity. The e'ploitation of the Niennese &orest was promoted by the newly established #inister of &inance in ) 9 and in ) !* the proDect to sell the Niennese &orest passed thro$gh >arliament. When the law was p$blished- the Niennese inhabitants started to protest against it for the .rst time. The c$rrent sit$ation of the Niennese &orest was also disc$ssed among the m$nicipal co$ncillors who de%eloped the proDect to b$y the forested area on offer for sale. At that time foresters being employed by the go%ernment or local administration did not ha%e the co$rage to protest against the go%ernment?s plan to sell the Niennese &orest for the p$rpose of timber har%esting and clear:c$tting- either orally or in writing beca$se of their impending dismissal. It was a long:lasting- se%ere and .erce .ght between the different interest gro$ps- mainly between the .nancial interest of the 3tate and the demand of the local pop$lation for the m$ltiple $se of the forest. The con.ict at least was resol%ed to the bene.t of the conser%ation of the forest- with p$blic participation and the assistance of se%eral newspapers. At that time Koseph 3chPffel- an independent scholar and a member of %ario$s scienti.c associations- started a Do$rnalistically cond$cted campaign for the resc$e of the Niennese &orest with an article in a Niennese newspaper 7,iener Tagblatt8. This campaign lasted for more than . years and by this 3chPffel became the .rst pioneer of nat$re and landscape protection in A$stria. >arallel to this campaign- the Niennese m$nicipal co$ncil handed o%er a protest note against the destr$ction of the Niennese &orest to the A$strian Ho%ernment. The aim of the press campaign was to sa%e and to g$arantee for the f$t$re the Niennese &orest as a recreation area for p$blic $se- taking into acco$nt the high demand of the increasing pop$lation of a capital of more than . million inhabitants 7>rossinagg- )00/8. The disc$ssion took place among scientists

and foresters engaged in theoretical and practical work. The main important items were theories of s$stained:yield forestry in relation to the gro$nd rent and the importance of the forest in relation to its bene.cial in.$ence on health- fertility- climate and condition of soil. Beca$se no standardiBed teaching doctrine in forestry or forest policy e'isted in those days- the points of %iew were e'tremely antagonistic. Already in the .rst part of the )0th cent$ry efforts were $ndertaken to establish forestry on the basis of science corresponding to other nat$ral sciences and to do research work instead of solely teaching 72illian)0!68. Howe%er- not $ntil ) 9 were these ideas broadly disc$ssed among Herman foresters and agric$lt$rists at an international meeting in Nienna. Therefore- science was not able to contrib$te essentially to the ongoing disc$ssion. In spite of these circ$mstances- the dean of the forestry college- Kosef Wessely- ha%ing been nominated to the international committee for planning forest e'perimental stations- pointed o$t the importance of forest stands beyond their %al$e for the pro: d$ction of wood. He considered p$blic welfare to be in close connection with the conser%ationc$lti%ation and ef.cient r$nning of operable timber land. 3e%eral representati%es of practical work and members of the A$strian &orest Association organiBed an e'c$rsion to the region near Nienna that was already e'ploited by logging operations. The res$lt of this e'c$rsion and the following disc$ssion on the basis of e'perience after personal re%iew was a petition to the go%ernment to stop the de%astation of the forest stands 7Jsterreichischer Aeichsforst%erein- ) !*8. Heated debates had already beg$n to rage among foresters prior to ) !*. Those who fa%o$red a nat$ral approach arg$ed that concentrating e'cl$si%ely on timber prod$ction was an $nnat$ral form of forest $se for which a price wo$ld e%ent$ally ha%e to be paid in terms of poor yields. Co$nter:arg$ments were ad%anced by ad%ocates of modern forestry techniG$es- who scoffed at the @pompo$s words? associated with nat$ral forest management 7#ilnik- )00!8.

&acing large clear:c$t areas aro$nd Nienna- the pop$lation became aware of the importance of woods with regard to their aesthetic and bene.cial %al$es. Thereby- the m$ltiple f$nctions of the forests recei%ed a higher rating in p$blic opinion than their economic and commercial %al$e. Taking into acco$nt that the prices for f$el:wood were relati%ely high at that time- the appreciation of the Niennese pop$lation of the non:economic ser%ices of the forests was remarkable 7Hede- )0/.a8. As a res$lt of the s$bseG$ent p$blic protest and the p$blished details of the cor r$ption in which se%eral members of the go%ernment had been in%ol%ed- all agreements with the fa%o$red timber merchant were .nally cancelled in ) !.. The of.cers who had been responsible for the felling contracts were forced to retire 7incl$ding the #inister of &inance8- and some of them were imprisoned 7for not ha%ing proceeded according to the &orest =aw8. The administration and responsibility for the management of the Niennese &orest shifted to the #inistry of Agric$lt$re. The Do$rnalistic .ght of 3chPffel at least led to the preser%a : tion of the Niennese &orest and was hono$red by the pop$lation of the s$rro$nding comm$nities.

The Creation of a Boodland and Meado) Belt around 3ienna

Tho$gh the f$ndamentals of regional planning had not yet been de%eloped in those days- the Niennese m$nicipal co$ncil started acti%ities to establish p$blic gardens and to c$lti%ate open areas from aro$nd ) " . &orced by the increase of b$ilt:$p areas- especially along the roads and railway tracks- which had already reached the bo$ndary of the Niennese &orest- a proDect was de%eloped by the m$nicipal co$ncil to create a belt of gardens and parks aro$nd the densely pop$lated city area 7see &igs )!./ and )!.98. This proDect sponsored the idea of designing a woodland and meadow belt aro$nd the capital. The plan was s$pported by the =ord #ayor +r 2arl =$eger and legally dedicated by the Niennese m$nici pal co$ncil in )0*"- ca$sing a sensation in international p$blic opinion in those days. In protecting the Niennese &orest against destr$ction- its bene.cial f$nctions co$ld be preser%ed for the $rban pop$lation. Thereby clean air and recreation areas of s$f.cient e'tension sho$ld be offered to the inhabitants. The area originally enclosed 6*** ha- b$t some adD$stments had to be made in the co$rse of time. After World War I- the Niennese &orest s$ffered from so:called @wild? timber and f$elwood logging- which took place for the s$pply of the pop$lation e%erywhere. =arge clear:c$ts came into being again and former well:forested areas t$rned into waste land 7see &ig. )!.!8. >eople also settled and b$ilt ho$ses within the protected area. The ho$sing de%elopment ca$sed se%ere damage to the forest stands especially $ntil )0/* when a law came into being generally prohibiting

.**** !*****

)!"**

9*****

)"*** "***** )."** 6*****

N$mber ofb$ildings

N$mber ofinhabitants

B$ildings Inhabitants )**** !"** /***** .*****"*** ."** )***** * * Sear Fig# %9#7# +e%elopment of b$ildings and inhabitants in s$b$rbs neighbo$ring the Niennese &orest- )!0"C)0./.

3haping the =andscape

SearIperiod Fig# %9#9# &$elwood har%esting in the Niennese &orest- ) ."C)0/..

the constr$ction of new b$ildings e'cept those for recreational p$rposes 7Hede- )0/.b8. Beca$se of the lack of a%ailable b$ilding areas to satisfy the demand for ho$sing and ind$stry- the protection of a large part of the forest owned by the capital was considered to be a @l$'$ry? in the )0/*s. >ress$re was again p$t on the #$nicipal Co$ncil to sell these areas to the pop$lation and to se%eral other instit$tions and to ind$stryF b$t the #$nicipal Co$ncil of Nienna still had in mind the former idea of installing a green belt aro$nd Nienna and therefore not only ref$sed the sale- b$t also stim$lated the creation of additional gardens in densely pop$lated parts of the city.

The Implementation of 0cienti#c Findings and Eno)ledge in Forest 4olic! and Forestr! 4ractice
No other landscape in A$stria has been of higher interest for forest science and forest policy and has been more disc$ssed among e'perts than this forest area aro$nd Nienna. &rom the %ery beginning the administration of the Niennese &orest has always tried to impro%e forestry by implementing scienti.c knowledge and the res$lts of scientific research. At present the most important target of forest policy is the pro%ision of the beneficial f$nctions of the Niennese &orests. By this the implementation of alternati%e sil%ic$lt$ral methods- de%eloped with the assistance of scienti.c instit$tions- is of high importance. .ature reserves natural forest reservations national par2 Owing to the acti%ities mentioned pre%io$sly- the Niennese &orest today is one of the richest forests in A$stria in relation to its biodi%ersity. This

statement is pro%en by an in%estigation into the botanical biodi%ersity in A$stria- which has been p$blished on behalf of the WW&- discerning more than .* e'isting %egetation types still character: iBed as close to nat$re 7&lesch and &raissl- )0068. Taking into acco$nt the increasing instability of the forest ca$sed by e'ternal stress factors 7e.g. air poll$tion- global warming- diseases8comprehensi%e protection of the Niennese &orest appeared to be of great importance at the beginning of the )00*s- D$st as )** years earlier a widespread disc$ssion took place concerning the establishment of wilderness areas inside the Niennese &orest. Ha%ing signed the con%ention for biological biodi%ersity 71NC,+IAio de Kaneiro )00/8 and the resol$tions of the #inisterial Conference for >rotection of ,$ropean &orests 7H.IHelsinki )00/8- the A$strian go%ernment is obliged to establish a network of clima' forestsnat$ral forests and special forest types. Nat$ral forest reser%es are considered as a s$itable tool to ass$me these liabilities. &or the district of the Niennese &orest a working party was established composed of representati%es from the regional go%ernment- forest owners- NHOs- scienti.c instit$tes from the 1ni%ersity and the &orest Aesearch 3tation. The scienti.c res$lts of the brainwork of this st$dy gro$p were the form$lation of recommendations and criteria to establish nat$ral forest reser%es. Today- these recommendations and criteria are not only imple: mented in the Niennese region- b$t also ser%e as a model for the whole of A$stria in relation to the programme of creating nat$ral forest reser%es.

In the Niennese &orest abo$t )9* ha ha%e been p$t o$t of $tiliBation %ol$ntarily and are managed $nder scienti.c consideration. In this area the forest stands remain $nto$ched in accordance with their nat$ral dynamics. At present- scienti.c re%ision is e%ident for more than /* years regarding the de%elopment of these nat$ral forest reser%es. The contin$ation of this doc$mentation will show the way to interesting and new acknowledgements. In the total area of the Niennese &orests great efforts are made to impro%e the biological str$ct$re by way of adeG$ate sil%ic$lt$ral methods and scientific considerations. The scienti.c basis 7e.g.caref$l site mapping of open and forested areas or the composition of wildlife management plans8 is pro%ided by proDects s$per%ised by A$strian $ni%ersities. A s$ccessf$l e'ample of these efforts is the coordinated management of the =ainBer Tiergarten as a $niG$e reser%ation sit$ated within the city bo$ndary 7Kanda- )00/8. Forestation in relation to the bene#cial functions of forests the enlargement of the urban recreation area 3ince the )0"*s- the afforestation policy of the Niennese &orest Administration has foc$sed on the bene.cial f$nctions of the forested area by enlarging the green belt of forest and meadows aro$nd the capital. This afforestation happened partly $nder e'treme conditions- for e'ample- on former ind$strial sites 7=aaer Berg8. &$rther s$c: cessf$l afforestation plans were realiBed recently on the islands in the +an$be Ai%er. The new c$lti%ated forests on these islands and in the lowland forest area are good e'amples of the prod$cti%e teamwork of theoretical and practical knowledge. The afforestation of a former brickyard and garbage deposition area 7Wienerberg8 together with the shaping of a nat$ral recreation area in the so$thern district carried o$t by the Niennese &orest Administration concerning " ha has been the last forestation for bene.cial p$rpose within the city bo$ndary to date. In this way- new forested areas of more than /"* ha ha%e been created in Nienna within the last few decades 7Ha$benberger- )00/8. Today- the main emphasis of the city?s forest policy is the maintenance of forest stands close to nat$re as well as the enlargement of the $rban recreation area. One h$ndred years after the creation of a woodland and meadow belt aro$nd Nienna and the

protection of the Niennese &orest by local peoplethe main target of the $rban forest administration of today is the establishment of additional recreation areas and gardens of an e'tent of )*** ha as of .**". Thereby the &orest Administration aims to impro%e p$blic participation and p$blic relations with regard to sil%ic$lt$ral methods practised in the $rban forests and other en%ironmental acti%ities.

Conclusion
The case st$dy of the Niennese &orest gi%es e%idence of the high importance of p$blic participation for the s$r%i%al of forests being $nder press$re from different interest gro$ps. The sale of the Niennese &orest and the planned logging operations wo$ld not ha%e led to the complete destr$ction of the woodland 7beca$se of the liability to reforestation8- b$t wo$ld ha%e increased the percentage of conifero$s trees alien to the site. It is G$ite clear that the b$ilt:$p area of the growing city wo$ld ha%e diminished the forest land to a large e'tent. The green l$ngs of Nienna and the recreation area wo$ld ha%e been lost.

3haping the =andscape

The historically e'perienced awareness and responsibility for the shaping of the s$rro$nding landscape is still in the minds of the Niennese pop$lation. Therefore- the sensiti%ity of the pop$lation with regard to changes to the en%ironment might possibly ha%e a higher %al$e than in other ,$ropean cities. This has been pro%en recently when- )** years after the contro: %ersy abo$t the Niennese &orest- the lowland forest down the Ai%er +an$be was dedicated as a storage lake for the water s$pply of a planned power station. Once again- p$blic opinion- a press campaign and the engagement of the yo$nger generation forced the go%ernment to cancel the planned destr$ction of the forest- making possible the creation of the +ona$a$en national park 73chreckeneder- )00/8. The case st$dy of the Niennese &orest is only one e'ample among others. History shows that indi%id$al comm$nities can s$cceed in opposing inter%ention by higher a$thorities- and e%en in resisting powerf$l market forces. It is notable that

near:nat$ral- high:G$ality forests often s$r%i%e in s$ch comm$nities. =ocal resistance is on the rise in many marginal areas of the world- where the effects of centraliBation and global economic penetration are now being felt. Hro$ps in ci%il society and nongo%ernmental organiBations often play an important role in ad%ocating the rights to which local people are entitled. These gro$ps are freG$ently rooted in the $rban world. It has been pro%en that scienti.c .ndings ha%e always played an important role in forest policy decisions and also in the history of the Niennese &orestF b$t it has also to be pointed o$t that long: lasting scienti.c disc$ssions abo$t a certain problem ha%e often been o%err$n by c$rrent affairs- if scientists ha%e not been able or did not propose to implement the res$lts of their research in ongoing political decisions.

"eferences

Anon. 7) 9/8 +er kaiserliche Wienerwald. sterr. )iertelCa%ressc%rift ffr Forst-esen )/- " C9). A$racher %. A$rach- K. 7) ..8 &ers5e3tivisc%e Ansic%ten der landesffrstlic%en *tadt Baden und derselben Umgebungen. Carl Herold- Wien- p. ... Ballik- 2. and >rossinagg- H. 7)00/8 Wald $nd &orstwirtschaft. In4 ,o ,Slder sein mfssen. Magistrats/ abteilung :>. &orstamt $nd =andwirtschaftsbetrieb der 3tadt Wien- Wien- pp. ).!C)/ . &lesch- >. and &raissl- C. 7)0068 2atur-aldreservate im ,iener-ald. Norst$die im A$ftrag der #A 60. &orstamt $nd =andwirtschaftsbetrieb der 3tadt Wien- Wien. Hede- K. 7)0/.a8 +ie forstliche Bewirtschaft$ng des Wienerwaldes in ihrer geschichtlichen ,ntwickl$ng $nter besonderer Berecksichtig$ng der Tannenfrage. #entralblatt ffr das gesamte Forst-esen 9!7!I 8- )"9C)" F 0)!*C)!.. Hede- K. 7)0/.b8 A$fgaben $nd Xiele der &orstwirtschaft $nd des &orstbetriebes im Wienerwald. Aeferat- erstattet anl[sslich der Tag$ng des Jsterr. Aeichsforst%ereins $nd des NiederPsterr. &orst%ereins in Wien am /. K$li )0/.. Jsterreichischer Aeichsforst%erein- pp. 6*C9/. Ha$benberger- H. 7)00/8 +er Wald als ,rhol$ngsra$m. In4 ,o ,Slder sein mfssen. Magistratsabteilung :>. &orstamt $nd =andwirtschaftsbetrieb der 3tadt Wien- Wien- pp. )/0C)"!. Kanda- H. 7)00/8 +ie &orst%erwalt$ng =ainB. In4 ,o ,Slder sein mfssen. Magistratsabteilung :>. &orstamt $nd =andwirtschaftsbetrieb der 3tadt Wien- Wien- pp. )*)C)*". 2illian- H. 7)0!68 +ie Hrend$ng der k.k. &orstlichen Ners$chsleit$ng in Wien. #entralblatt ffr das gesamte Forst-esen 0)7/8- ).0C)".. 2ronprinB ,rBherBog A$dolf 7ed.8 7) 8 1ie sterr. Monarc%ie in ,ort und Bild. ,ien und 2ieder(sterreic%, ?. Abt. 2ieder(sterreic%. k.k. Hof: $nd 3taatsdr$ckerei- Wien- p. 0. 2echli- C. 7)00 8 Forests of +o5e. *tories of egeneration. New 3ociety >$blishers =td- =ondon- pp. ..9C./). #ilnik- A. 7)00!8 +ugo #on-ent4 F2atursc%ut4, ,ald und Forst-irtsc%aftF. Brandenb$rgischer &orst%ereinBerlin- pp. 0C)0. Ne$mann- &.(.- %. 7) 8 Nolkswirtschaftliches =eben in NiederPsterreich. In4 1ie Lsterreic%isc%/ungarisc%e

Monarc%ie in ,ort und Bild . ,ien und 2ieder(sterreic%. ?. Abt. 2ieder(sterreic% . k.k. Hof: $nd 3taatsdr$ckerei- Wien- pp. /)!C/9*.

Jsterreichischer Aeichsforst%erein 7Hg.8 7) !*8 +er Wienerwald. ,hrengabe des Jsterr. Aeichsforst%erins an die Bes$cher seiner Heneral:Nersamml$ng %on ) !*. sterr. Monatssc%rift ffr Forst-esen .*- . )C.... >rossinagg- H. 7)00/8 Heschichte der W[lder der 3tadt Wien. In4 ,o ,Slder sein mfssen. Magistratsabteilung :>. &orstamt $nd =andwirtschaftsbetrieb der 3tadt Wien- Wien- pp. )"C9". 3chachinger- A. 7)0/68 1er ,iener-ald. Eine landes3undlic%e 1arstellung. Forsc%ungen 4ur Landes3unde von 2ieder(sterreic%. Nerein f. =andesk$nde $nd Heimatsch$tB %on NiederPsterreich $nd Wien )I.- pp. !.C .- /"!C/"0. 3chreckeneder- A. 7)00/8 +ie &orst%erwalt$ng =oba$. In4 ,o ,Slder sein mfssen. Magistratsabteilung :>. &orstamt $nd =andwirtschaftsbetrieb der 3tadt Wien- Wien- pp. )*9C))".

%* "ecover! and 3aloriDation of a 'istorical

Fruit ;rchard: the Eol!mbetra in the Temple 3alle!/ 0icil!
H. Barbera- #. Ala- +.3. =a #ela Neca and T. =a #antia
1i5artimento di #olture Arboree, Universit= di &alermo, &alermo, Italy

Introduction
In so$thern Italy- partic$larly in 3icily- citr$s orchards are traditionally called @gardens?. This has been the case e%er since the introd$ction of some citr$s species in the Islamic gardens 7there is e%idence of the presence of bitter orange and lemon at the end of the ))th cent$ry8- e%en tho$gh citr$s monoc$lt$re has been established since the mid:)0th cent$ry in coastal areas- in order to s$pply the ,$ropean market 7Barbera- .***8. The word @garden?- $sed both for the mi'ed orchards and for the specialiBed ones- shows that the citr$s species had been appreciated either for their prod$cti%e or c$lt$ral f$nctions based on aesthetic and sensory pleas$res- s$ch as the shape of the trees- the colo$r- shape and taste of the fr$its- the showy and scented .owers- and the shade of the crown. In )0.0- ,rnst Kenger- walking @in a garden of thick lemon gro%e? d$ring a 3icilian trip- e'perienced @s$ch feeling of obser%ing an e'otic fr$it mat$ring that we ha%e known e%er since we were children. There is a presentiment of the hea%en garden? 7Kenger- )00/8. In east: ern 3icily- according to Trischitta 7)0 /8- today the citr$s orchards are still called 5aradisi and in >antelleria- in order to celebrate both $tility and bea$ty- they e%en refer to imposing- dry stone b$ildings that contain a single orange or lemon tree as @gardens? 7Barbera and Brignone- .**.8. The title of garden when applied to a citr$s orchard is probably linked to the phenomenon of re.owering that characteriBes the trees 7lemon abo%e all8. >robably referring to this- Ass$nto in )0!/ wrote4 @the perfection of the landscape is sim$ltaneity of .ower and fr$it- the .ower for which e%ery landscape appears a garden b$t also the fr$it for which appears $sef$l land?. The systems and the landscapes of the traditional Italian citr$s fr$it area 7s$b$rban lowlands and 3icilian terraces- 3orrento coast- Hargano penins$la- =ig$rian coast- Limonaie of Harda8 ha%e been left to progressi%e decay for years. In areas s$itable for intensi%e systems- which are not damaged by $rbaniBation- we can see the diff$sion of monoc$lt$re with banal and homologo$s landscapes. On the contrary- in $ns$itable areas s$ch as terraces- is %eri.ed a decay which in%ol%es crop- en%ironment and landscape. Accordingly- the systems and the landscapes of citr$s tradition dis appear- in their ecologicalagronomic and historical comple'ity- e%en if depositories of biodi%ersity- ancient knowledge- prod$cti%een%ironmental and c$lt$ral %al$es still remain today 7Barbera- .**/8. On the other hand- awareness of the
< CAB International .**9. T%e #onservation of #ultural Landsca5es 7ed. #. Agnoletti8

H. Barbera et al.

importance of protecting the landscapes of traditional agric$lt$re is increased- and the m$lti: p$rpose character- s$ch as en%ironmental- c$lt$ralethical and aesthetic f$nctions- is recogniBed for possible protection. The protection and the e'ploitation of c$lt$ral landscapes will be possible if the yield is matched by G$ality and typicality and s$pported by linked acti%ities to en%iron: mental and c$lt$ral ser%ices. Here- we present the case of a citr$s orchard set in an area of archaeological interest- the probable site of the Hreek 2olymbetra in the Temple Nalley in Agrigento 73icily8- which is today a regional park that preser%es the imposing remains of the Hreek ci%iliBation and a traditional landscape- in a co$ntry that has been the destination- for cent$ries- of trips and meditations that ha%e contrib$ted to forming the ,$ropean landscape c$lt$re 7Cometa- )000F Barbera and +i Aosa- .***8. 3ince )00! the Temple Nalley has been on the 1N,3CO list of World Heritage 3ites. In )000- the Harden of the 2olymbetra- in a deep %alley which di%ides the Temple of the +iosc$ri from the Temple of N$lcan- was granted in tr$st by the Aegion of 3icily to the &AI 7&$nd for the Italian ,n%ironment8. The following yearafter an inter%ention for reco%ery- it opened to the p$blic. The inter%entions of reco%ery and m$lti: p$rpose e'ploitation are related to other recent e'periences of the systems and landscapes of traditional 3icilian citr$s fr$it:growing 71, =ife >roDect for the s$b$rban agric$lt$re of >alermo)00!F #aster >lan for the &a%orita >ark#$nicipality of >alermo- .**.8.

The 4ro?ect
The awareness of the high c$lt$ral %al$e of the area- its characteristics of agric$lt$ral landscape and historical garden in the same place- the preser%ation of the traditional prod$cti%e f$nction and the impro%ement of the c$lt$ral f$nction for %isitors were the basis of the proDect. It was initially fo$nded on research abo$t the history of the place 7soil $tiliBation- historical and literary doc$ments- iconography- maps- oral so$rces8- the en%ironmental character 7hydrogeology- climatesoils- .ora- fa$na- %egetation8- c$lt$ral techniG$es-

e%idence of archaeological r$ins and r$ral b$ildings. In order to ha%e a comp$teriBed cartography that picks $p $sef$l elements for the %isitors and enables a maintenance programme to be created- a HI3 has been prepared. The Temple Nalley of Agrigento is an ample tableland- consisting of yellowish calcareo$s of inferior G$aternary interposed from sandy claysne't to the so$thern coast of 3icily. Towards the so$th it is bo$nded by a hilly Bone 7the so:called @hill of the Temples?- d$e to the presence of n$mero$s Hreek r$ins dating back to the "th cent$ry BC8- and to the north by the high gro$nd of A$pe Atenea and by the hill occ$pied by the contemporary city. In the east and west there are two ri%ers- called the Akragas and the Hypsas- that de.ne a fascinating c$lt$ral landscape in which the r$ins of the Hreek ci%iliBation cohabit with the mi'ed traditional .eld of almond and oli%e trees. >indar- in the "th cent$ry BC sang of Akragas- the ancient city- @the most bea$tif$l city which belongs to the mortals?. A stream called Baida Bassa- which forms part of the hydrographical grid of the %alley- .ows into the Hypsas. It .ows partly in a deep %alley that was once occ$pied by the Hreek 2olymbetra- which gets wider toward the con.$ence with the Hypsas and becomes c$lti%able d$e to the presence of all$%ial soils and terracesF the total area is 9..0 ha 7&ig. ) .)8. At the base of the calcareo$s walls that bo$nd it on the northern side are o$tlets of n$mero$s hypogeals 7today there are ).- altho$gh there were ) in the past8- draining t$nnels d$g in the rock that allow- today as in the past- the irrigation of crops 7&ig. ) ..8. Thanks to a microclimate that mitigates the dry #editerranean climate- %egetables and orchards 7citr$s fr$it- abo%e all8 can be c$lti%ated- and beca$se of the high calcareo$s walls- there is shadow eno$gh to protect the crops and the e%apotranspiration le%el is low. It is protected from cold winds in winter too. The opening of the %alley

Aeco%ery and NaloriBation of a Historical &r$it Orchard

H. Barbera et al.

Fig# %*#+# Carrying water from the 2olymbetra 7circa )0.*8.

towards the so$th:west g$arantees the entry of moderate winds of libeccio and sea breeBes. The mild climate has been changed by intense rainy phenomena- s$ch as that in )0!) which has pro%oked intense erosion. Climatic conditions show that the original clima' %egetation consisted of referable shr$b comm$nities referred to order &istacio/ %amnetalia Alaterni and Lleo/#eratonion alliance. It deals with thermophile and basophile association characteriBed by Llea euro5aea %ar. sylvestris and Eu5%orbia dendroides- still today widely diff$sed on the scarps and in the semi:rocky habitats- which gi%e place to discontin$o$s formation. Henerally- the site is identi.ed- despite some contrary opinions- with the @s$mpt$o$s basin? of which +iodor$s 3ic$l$s writes when describing the works @that embellished the city and the territory? completed by the sla%es taken after the battle of Himera 76 * BC8 against the Carthaginians4
these c$t stones with which not only the greatest temples of gods were b$ilt- b$t also were b$ilt the aG$ed$cts for leading of water in the city. These aG$ed$cts were called as their b$ilder &eace. >eople from Agrigento also b$ilt a s$mpt$o$s basin that had the circ$mference of se%en stadi$ms and the depth of twenty c$bits in which were cond$cted water of the lakes and so$rces- becoming so a hatchery- that f$rnished many .sh for feeding and for tasteF and beca$se of many swans .ew down toward it- its sight was delightf$l. B$t s$bseG$ently neglected- it was obstr$cted- and .nally- destroyed and the inhabitants transformed the whole region- that was fertile- into planted lands of grape%ines- and other kind of trees- in order to draw incomes of it.

In the )st cent$ry- when +iodor$s writes- the site of the basin already had the agric$lt$ral $tiliBation that wo$ld be maintained in the f$t$re and the presence of a reed thicket C mentioned in ).." in a parchment which writes of some concession to the Bishop abo$t a @land in which there was a reed thicket near to the ca%es of the giants? 7the old name of the Temple of K$piter8- which con.rms the presence of a landscape not dissimilar to the act$al one.

Aeco%ery and NaloriBation of a Historical &r$it Orchard

The ancient possession of the area by the ch$rch is the origin of the denomination @Badia Bassa? or @horti Abbatie?- as the )9thcent$ry historian- &aBello- writes. We ha%e more recent information from tra%ellers on the Hrand To$r who had chosen Agrigento for disco%ering classical antiG$ities 7+e #iro- )0068. 3winb$rnein )!!!- 7cited in +e #iro- )0068- obser%ed that the basin @now is dry and $sed as a garden?F 3aint:Non- in )! "- 7cited in +e #iro- )0068obser%ed that
water still .ows in this canal and irrigates some l$'$riant gardens that occ$py the bottom of the basin E r$ns in a small %alley today that for its amaBing fertility- it resembles to the %alley of the ,den- or to a part of the >romised =and.

general- e%ery kind is represented by ancient %arieties that are no longer c$lti%ated in modern fr$it orchards. Besides the proper %al$es of a c$lt$ral landscape- the presence of archaeological feat$res increases the interest of the place4 along the walls- in fact- there are different ca%es 7one is hypothesiBed to be a r$ral ch$rch8- edges of a prison and places car%ed into the rock that ha%e shown the presence of Hreek:age materials. The basic idea of the proDect has been to consider the 2olymbetra as part of a historical r$ral landscape4 not only a citr$s orchard- b$t also a garden. The inter%ention

In ) .)- de &oresta 7cited in +e #iro- )0068fo$nd it @destined to the %egetable c$lti%ation?. In ) 09- N$illier obser%ed that
the sight from the edges of the basin is s$perb. The ancient temples show their col$mns thro$gh the orange trees and beyond there is the endless sea. I ha%e remained there for a long time- weak for hot weather- with the lost look among the trembling lea%es that sparkle in the irreg$lar p$ffs of the sea breeBe and my wandering tho$ght went back to past.

The historical iconography has also been important to the disco%ery of the history of the place 7&igs ) ./ and ) .68. ,%en tho$gh the orchard has not been c$lti%ated for abo$t .* years- the 2olymbetra shows the e%ident characteristics of a s$itable area for fr$it c$lti%ation cond$cted by dry farming where water is not a%ailable- and citr$s orchards and other kinds of fr$its and %egetables where irrigation is possible. Concerning fr$it trees- the most represented gro$p is citr$s 760. sweet orange- 6! bitter orange trees- 9. lemons- "0 mandarins and tangerines8. Among the other tree species- in the dry area there are oli%e 7 9 trees8 and almond trees 7)668. N$mero$s other species of fr$it trees are present and testify to an ele%ated specific biodi%ersity4 aBarole- banana- loc$st- G$ince- .gprickly pear- white m$lberry- black m$lberrykaki- apple- pomegranate- Kapanese medlar- winter medlar- pear- peach- pistachio and sorb. In

H. Barber a et al.

Fig# %*#-# The temple of the +iosc$ri from the 2olymbetra in the past 7end of )0th cent$ry8.

had the aim of preser%ing- conser%ing traditional species and c$lti%ars and c$lt$ral techniG$es- the landscape of traditional agric$lt$re- and s$pported by small inter%entions 7pathways- rest places8 enhancing the %isitor?s e'perience and acG$aintance with the place. In s$mmer .***- the .rst inter%ention of reco%ery consisted of the elimination of in%ading .ora 7&ig. ) ."8. Only then was it possible to st$dy the garden in all of its constit$ti%e elements4 the original order of citr$s fr$it- the traces of the traditional irrigation system and the plan of dry:stone walls. Inter%entions concerned the restoration of the citr$s and fr$it orchard- the care of the nat$ral spaces- as well as the restoration of dry:stone walls and of the archaeological r$insthe reco%ery of the traditional irrigation systemthe cleaning and the

Aeco%ery and NaloriBation of a Historical &r$it Orchard

retraining of the stream- the reco%ery of paths with the restoration of an old staircase car%ed in the t$ff:made wall and the creation of a do$ble crossing of the ri%er to facilitate %isitors. &or the restoration of the citr$s orchardtraditional rootstocks were planted and grafted $sing c$lti%ars of the traditional 3icilian citr$s ind$stry. C$lt$ral techniG$es were those of the traditional 3icilian citr$s ind$stry 7=a #antia)00!a- b8. The reco%ery of the citr$s orchard had made an e'traordinary pr$ning necessary4 for this operation specialist pr$ners were needed who were able to reco%er the old plants safe:g$arding as m$ch as possible their original shapes. ,'traordinary pr$nings ha%e also been carried o$t on other trees $sing tree climbing techniG$es. The reco%ery has also in%ol%ed the terraces b$ilt along slopes- partly occ$pied by citr$s- oli%e and almond trees- many of which had collapsed. The irrigation system has also been mostly reco%ered and today the traditional basin irrigation is possible $sing the water deri%ed from hypogeals and preser%ed in old ponds 7&ig. ) .98. >artic$lar attention has also been paid to reco%ering the original paths. In order to aid enDoyment- some new paths to bring the %isitors to panoramic or c$lt$rally meaningf$l places 7hypogeals- mon$mental plants- archaeological r$ins8 ha%e been constr$cted4 for e'ample- the 2olymbetra can be crossed %ia a path that brings the %isitor from the Temple of the +iosc$ri to the Temple of N$lcan. Along the paths- simple benches made of nat$ral materials 7blocks of t$ff and boards8 ha%e been b$ilt in panoramic or shaded places. There are two bridges made of wood and iron crossing o%er the stream 7&igs ) .! and ) . 8. The de.niti%e reco%ery of the garden foresees some inter%entions on the ri%er to red$ce the risk of o%er.owing in case of se%ere rain- the creation of aids for c$lt$ral to$rism and ecoto$rism- and the restoration of an old r$ral b$ilding that will become a centre of ser%ices for the enDoyment of the garden 7reception- restoration and c$lt$ral acti%ities8.

Fig# %*#7# Traditional hortic$lt$re.

H. Barber a et al.

Fig# %*#9# The 2olymbetra- today.

Fig# %*#*# The garden.

"eferences
Ass$nto- A. 7)0!/8 Il &aesaggio e lFEstetica. Hiannini- Napoli- Italy. Barbera- H. 7.***8 LFLrto di &omona. *istemi tradi4ionali dellFarboricoltura da frutto in *icilia. =?,pos>alermo- Italy. Barbera- H. 7.**/8 I sistemi fr$tticoli tradiBionali nella %aloriBBaBione del paesaggio. Italus +ortus )*7"8- 6*C6". 73pecial iss$e on the "*th anni%ersary of 3OI.8

Aeco%ery and NaloriBation of a Historical &r$it Orchard

Barbera- H. and Brignone- &. 7.**.8 Il giardino di agr$mi di >antelleria. Frutticoltura )- /0C66. Barbera- H. and +i Aosa- #. 7.***8 Il paesaggio agrario della Nalle dei Templi. Meridiana /!- /C0 . Cometa- #. 7)0008 Il oman4o dellFArc%itettura. La *icilia e il !rand Tour nellFet= di !oet%e . ,ditori =aterBa- Aoma:Bari. +e #iro- ,. 7)0068 La )alle dei Tem5li. 3ellerio- >alermo- Italy. Kenger- ,. 7)00/8 )iaggi in *icilia. 3ellerio- >alermo- Italy. =a #antia- T. 7)00!a8 =?e%ol$Bione delle tecniche nell?agr$micolt$ra. In4 Il &rogetto LIFE 5er il &arco Agricolo di &alermo, 1nione ,$ropea +H (II- CittU di >alermo- ConfederaBione Italiana Agricoltori- >alermoItaly. pp4 "/C" . =a #antia- T. 7)00!b8 Tecniche colt$rali nella fr$tticolt$ra peri$rbana della Conca d?Oro di >alermo. Atti delle III giornate Tecnic%e *.L.I.- Cesena )/C)6 no%embre )00!, pp. 6!C"/. Trischitta- +. 7)0 /8 To5onimi e &aesaggio nella *icilia Lrientale. ,diBioni 3cienti.che Italiane- Napoli- Italy. N$illier- H. 7) 0!8 =a 3icilia- impressioni del presente e del passato. &ratelli Tre%es 7ed.8 #ilan.

Inde$

acorns )* afforestation in the ,1 Common Agric$lt$ral >olicy )0! lack of response to #editerranean conditions )0 C)00 historical- in T$scany )6- .)C..- !0C * 3pain see 3pain animals4 role in boreal ecosystems )*)C)*. archaeology 3ami settlements /6C/" 3hef.eld area woodlands ...C../ A$stria see forests and woodlands- Wienerwald

bark4 $se by 3ami people /9 7.g8- / C/0 BialowieBa &orest- >oland ).9- )/ BiecBsBady National >ark- >oland ). Billings- &rederick )6!C)6 - ..0 biodi%ersity dead wood as indicator )/ effects of afforestation .*!C.* loss associated with decrease in land $ses .6 loss in wood past$res )*6- )*" 7.g8 management of nat$ral and c$lt$ral biodi%ersity basis and prereG$isites ). C)/) performance targets )/6C)/9 policies and strategies )/.C)/" >an ,$ropean Biological and =andscape +i%ersity 3trategy )0) promotion thro$gh wilderness areas .60C."* reference areas )/!C)/0 Bl$e #o$ntains- Oregon13A degeneration of forest landscape )9"C)9! remo%ing old growth )9!C)90 restoration )90C)!. bocage ))"C ))9- ).)

&orest Initiati%e )! C) * charcoal !"- 0 - 00 7.g8 chestn$ts )*C))- )/C)6- ) - !" har%esting lea%es in T$scany- )0./ 0 7.g8 restoration of chestn$t typologies 0C0* social and economic perceptions 9 classi.cation4 of remotely sensed images 9/9"C99 collecti%iBation ).! Common Agric$lt$ral >olicy,1 'i%C'%i- )/. farmland afforestation )0! lack of response to #editerranean conditions )0 C)00 Con%ention on Biological +i%ersity )/. coppicing )6- ) - ./. Co$ncil of ,$rope ,$ropean =andscape Con%ention 'iii- ) " 7tab8) C) 0 =andscape Award and ,$ropean +iploma ) " 7tab8- ) 0C)0* Croce- Benedetto 'i crops4 energy %al$es 6 C60 cross: tab$lation matrices 99C9! c$lti%ationmi'ed ))C).- ." 7.g8 decline .*

Cardoso .* 7photo8 Carpathian #o$ntains ).!C)/) certi.cation4 of forest management )!"C)!9./ C./0 &orest 3tewardship Co$ncil )!9C)! >an ,$ropean &orest Certi.cation ) *C) . 3$stainable

Inde' .9/

degradationism / dendrochronology /"/9 7photo8 +enmark deforestation )*/C)*6 role of storms in forest ecosystems )*.C)*/ de%elopmenteconomic4 changing role of c$lt$ral landscapes ).0 7tab8 +iodoro 3ic$lo ."9 dist$rbances4 in maintenance of biodi%ersity ).0C)/*

ecology as dri%ing philosophical concept / ecological footprints 6/ ecological restoration )96C)9"- )90C )!. ecosystem approach to landscape management )/. effects of energy so$rces ". limitations of ecological approach /C6 ed$cation )"6 energy ann$al energy .ows of agrarian systems "* 7.g8 crop energy %al$es 6 C60 ecological effects of energy so$rces ". o$tp$t per hectare 6!C6 ,$rope ,$ropean +iploma- Co$ncil of ,$rope ) 0C)0* ,$ropean =andscape Con%ention 7,=C8- Co$ncil of ,$rope .**6 'iii- ) " 7tab8- ) C) 0 forest strategies '%iC'%iii instit$tions and their approaches ) "C) 9 landscape de.nition and e%al$ation ) /C) 6 landscape typology ) 9C) >an ,$ropean Biological and =andscape +i%ersity 3trategy )0) >an ,$ropean &orest Certi.cation ) *C) . patterns and impacts of landscape change )."C).9 World Heritage sites )0. ,$ropean 1nion Common Agric$lt$ral >olicy 'i%C'%i- )/) farmland afforestation )0! lack of response to #editerranean conditions )0 C)00 ,1 &orest Action >lan '%iiC'%iii ,$ropean 3patial +e%elopment >erspecti%e 7,3+>8 )0*C)0) Habitat +irecti%e '%iii historical policies on r$ral regions 'i% impact of policies on landscape di%ersity

." nat$re conser%ation policies '%iiiC'i' .elds- T$scany4 changes in $se ))C).- )"- ) - .*C.) .re .re practices in &rench >yrenees )))C))6 decline of practice and knowledge ))!C)) rationale ))! sol$tions of local administrations )) C).) and forest health )90C)!* as problem in Bl$e #o$ntains- 13A )96 role in boreal ecosystems )**C)*) &orest 3tewardship Co$ncil )!9C)! forestry- scienti.c )6!C)6 - )99C)9! forests and woodlands archaeology /6C/"- ...C../ base:line conditions concept )** role of browsing animals )*)C)*. role of .re )**C)*) role of storms )*.C)*/ certi.cation protocols )!"C)!9- ./ C./0 &orest 3tewardship Co$ncil )!9C)! >an ,$ropean &orest Certi.cation ) *C) . 3$stainable &orest Initiati%e )! C) * conser%ation targets )/" @c$lt$ral islands? /!C/ dead wood as biodi%ersity indicator )/ deforestation see deforestation energy o$tp$t per hectare 6!C6 e%al$ation of biodi%ersity )/6 health )90C)!* hierarchical planning )/6 international strategies '%iC'%iii legacy trees )"*C)")- ../ limitations of management )!)C)!. reference landscapes ).9 sal%age logging )90 social and economic perceptions 6C ! s$b:arctic regions archaeology /6C/" effects of settlements on landscape / C/0 geography and ecology /)C/. history of land $se /*C/)- /. impact of modern forestry /0 management strategies )/*C)/. T$scany4 changes in $se )*C))- )6C)"- )!C ) - .)C..- !"- !9C * 13A crisis of national forests )9/ &orest =egacy >rogram )"!C)" restoration and history )96C)9" working forest proDects )" C)9. see also Bl$e #o$ntains- Oregon13AF #o$nt Tom &orest

forests and woodlands D continued Wienerwald administration and legislation .6/C.66 campaigns and protests .6!C.6 creation of woodland and meadow belt .6 C.60 c$lti%ated land )! C)0./ .6" 7.g8 economic press$res .66C.6".69C.6! f$elwood har%esting ) ."C)0/. .60 7.g8 historical timber so$rce .6/- .66 7.g8 recreational $se .6"- ."* %iew ) .6/ 7.g8 wilderness areas .60C."* wood past$res see past$res see also afforestation &rance see >yrenees&rench &roido$r- =o$is de ))" fr$it see 2olymbetra orchard- 3icily f$sion4 of satellite data 9/C9"

kNN 7k nearest neighbo$r8 method 9" 2olymbetra orchard- 3icily history ."9C."! Italian citr$s orchard tradition ."/C."6 location and microclimate ."6C."9 restoration ."!C.9*

=andscape Award- Co$ncil of ,$rope )0* =apparentHenri de ))9 limbing )!* logging- sal%age )9

gap analysis )/" geographic information systems see methodology geography- historical4 concept )06C)0" georeferencing 9. Hermany concept of historical geography )06C)0" mon$ment conser%ation )0/ nat$re protection )0.C)0/ regional planning )0/ globaliBation ".C"/ Hoebel- =eo )!*C)!) @go%ernmental landscape? .)

Habitat +irecti%e- ,1 '%iii health- forest )90C)!* hearths /6 heathland4 restoration .)!C.)0 historical inde' /C 6" 7.g8

before and after restoration 7tab8 history- landscape concept of historical geography )06C )0" critical to methodology 6 c$lt$ral and ecological perspecti%es )6!C)60 de.nition )!" historical and c$lt$ral e%al$ation approach 7HC,A8 see methodology %al$e of )!6C)!"

macrofossils- plant 0 - 00 7.g8 Man and 2ature 7H> #arsh8 )6! management agri:en%ironmental schemes )/. certi.cation protocols )!"C)!9- ./ C./0 &orest 3tewardship Co$ncil )!9C)! >an ,$ropean &orest Certi.cation ) *C) . 3$stainable &orest Initiati%e )! C) * de.ning a philosophy )69C)6! ecological restoration )90C )!. ecosystem approach )/. of .re practices )) C ).) limitations )!)C)!. of nat$ral and c$lt$ral biodi%ersity basis and prereG$isites ). C)/) performance targets )/6C)/9 policies and strategies )/.C)/6 o%er%iew "!C" transdisciplinary approach )/9C )/! trends and challenges in landscape conser%ation )6"C)69 mapping see methodology #arsh- Heorge >erkins )69- .. - ..0 #arshCBillingsC Aockefeller National Historical >ark- 13A .. C./* #o$nt Tom &orest forest architect$re and legacy trees )"*C)")

identity- c$lt$ral // I&& 7Instit$te for Interdisciplinary 3t$dies1ni%ersity of Nienna8 6/ images- remotely sensed see methodology indicators4 of signi.cance and endangering )0) indices- landscape 90- !* 7.g8- *C ) historical inde' /C 6- " 7.g87tab8 ind$strialiBation ).9 Italy see 2olymbetra orchard- 3icilyF T$scany

Kackson- Bob )!*C)!) K$ddC.3. )99C)9!

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Heneral #anagement >lan- )00 )69C)6! history4 c$lt$ral perspecti%e )6!C)6 history4 ecological perspecti%e )6 C)60 landscape patchwork )"* management4 challenges and strategies )")C)"6 #ar'- 2arl 6. matrices- cross: tab$lation 99C9! #editerranean landscape characteristics )00C.*) problems with ,1 afforestation policy )0 C)00 #ee$s landscape typology ) 9C) metabolism- social 6.C6/ methodology biological /"C/9 ecological vs. c$lt$ral approaches /C6 geographic information systems )/9 change detection on classi.ed maps 9"C99 cross:tab$lation matrices 99C9! geographic vs. geometric windows 9!C9 landscape indices 9!- 9 7.g8 reconstr$ction of cadastral map ") 7.g8 historical and c$lt$ral e%al$ation approach 7HC,A8 geographical areas and time scale st$died "C9 le%els of analysis !C main foc$s " schematic diagram " 7.g8 importance of history 6 interdisciplinary approach // mapping " change:detection methods 9)- 9. 7.g8- 9"C99 pre:processing techniG$es 9* G$anti.cation of
landscape str$ct$re4 o%er%iew

also Bl$e #o$ntains- Oregon- 13AF >yrenees- &rench

oli%es )"- ./ mi'ed c$lti%ation with %ines ))C). opencast mines4 ecological restoration of site .)"C.)! orchards see 2olymbetra orchard- 3icily orthoimages 9)

"!C"
remotely sensed images digital sensors $sed 9* 7tab8 f$sion techniG$es 9)C9/ image types a%ailable " C"0 kNN and spectral $nmi'ing 96C9" obDect oriented classi.cation 9/C96 segmentation 9/

social metabolism approach 6/C66 s$itability of reforesting methods .*"C.*! mining /. restoration of opencast mining site .)"C.)! #oscheta see T$scany #o$nt Tom &orest see #arshC BillingsC Aockefeller National Historical >ark- 13A mo$ntains Carpathian #o$ntains ).!C). see

>an ,$ropean Biological and =andscape +i%ersity 3trategy )0) >an ,$ropean &orest Certi.cation ) *C) . pastoralism4 3ami people /.- / past$res energy o$tp$t per hectare 6 7tab8 mo$ntain past$res see >yrenees- &rench restoration 0* 3wedish wood past$res 06C0" loss of biodi%ersity )*6- )*" 7.g8 origins and history 0"C00 plant macrofossils 0 - 00 7.g8 pollen data 0"C0! T$scan wood past$res and their decline )))6- !"- !9 restoration C 0 social and economic perceptions 9 photography- aerial "0- 9* 7tab8- 9) phyllo'era ". pigs )*- ))6C))" planning- hierarchical )/6 >oland BialowieBa &orest ).9- )/ BiecBsBady National >ark ). de%elopment paths of Carpathian %illages ). C).0 pollarding ))" pollen- analysis of /"C/9 3wedish forest meadows 0"C0! protocols- certi.cation )!"C)!9 &orest 3tewardship Co$ncil )!9C)! >an ,$ropean &orest Certi.cation ) *C) . 3$stainable &orest Initiati%e )! C) * >yrenees- &rench bocage ))"C))!- )..C)./ c$rrent pastoral e'ploitation ))* demographic crisis) *s:)0!*s )* C)*0 e%al$ation of changes ))*C ))) .re practices decline of practice and knowledge ))!C)) historical de%elopment )))C))6 rationale ))!

>yrenees- &rench C continued .re practices C continued sol$tions of local administrations )) C).) laws and policies )*0C))* pig breeding ))6C))" sites in%estigated )*0 7.g8

)*/C)*6 origins and history 0"C00 plant macrofossils 0 - 00 7.g8 pollen data 0"C0!

reference landscapes ).9- )/"- )/!C)/0 Aeg$lation 7,C8 No. )."!I00 )0!- )0 Aeg$lation 7,C8 No. )!"*I00 )0 C)00 Aeg$lation 7,C8 No. .* *I0. )0!- .*) reindeer /.- /

3ami people bark peeling /9 7.g8 c$lt$ral identity linked to landscape // settlements /6C/"- / types of land $se /. $se of bark / C/0

satellites4 remotely sensed images see under methodology segmentation4 of remotely sensed images 9/ 3hef.eld Wildlife Action >artnership .)! shr$blands- T$scany )*- ) social metabolism 6.C6/ 3pain characteristics of r$ral landscapes )00C.*) energy %al$es of agrarian prod$cts 6 C60 .re practices4 Cerdagne- Catalonia ))/ National &armland Afforestation >rogramme )00/C)000 )0!C)0 dif.c$lties of applying ,1 reg$lations )0 C)00 effects on di%ersity .*!C.* landscape transformation .*/C.*" obDecti%es and res$lts .*)C.*. s$itability of methods and species $sed .*"C.*! see also Nalls Oriental- Catalonia- 3pain spectral $nmi'ing 9"C99 stewardship- forest )!6- ./ C./0 storms4 role in boreal ecosystems )*.C)*/ s$stainability criteria and indicators .9 7tab8 and go%ernance )/)C)/6 importance in T$scany 6 3$stainable &orest Initiati%e )! C) * 3weden base:line conditions concept )** other contrib$ting factors )*.C)*/ role of browsing animals )*)C)*. role of .re )**C)*) deforestation )*/ historical records /9C/! landscape management )*6C)*" loss of biodi%ersity )*6- )*" 7.g8 patterns of @c$lt$ral islands? /!C / s$b:Arctic forest region archaeology /6C/" effects of settlements on landscape / C/0 geography and ecology /)C/. history of land $se /*C/)- /. impact of modern forestry /0 importance of trade // wood past$res 06C0" c$lt$ral impact 06-

terminology and de.nitions )!"- ) /C) 6 TDeggel%as forest reser%e /*7photo8- /.7photo8 to$rism )" T$scany Castello di 3pannocchia characteristics ./)C ./. earliest history ./) land $se ) ./Cpresent .//C./! signi.cance for broader research ./ C.6* demographic changes )/ e%ol$tion of land $se ) /.C)0"6 )/7tab8- )97tab8- )07tab8 ) /.C.**64 o%erall %iew .)C.6 geographical areas and time scale of st$dies "C9 information obtained from analyses landscape in ) /. 0C)) landscape in )0"6 ).C)" landscape in .**6 )"- )!C) - .*C.) #oscheta r$ral landscape park geographical location !/C!6 historical inde' /C 6- " 7.g87tab8 inter%ention at landscape scale !C inter%ention on each type of land $se C0* landscape ) /. !"- !9 7.g8 landscape ) /.C)0"6 !9C! landscape )0"6C.*** ! C * landscape dynamics ) /.C.*** . 7.g8 #oscheta abbey !6 problems ! social and economic perceptions 6C ! s$mmary of landscape changes *C /

Inde' .9!

p$blic perceptions of landscape .) typology- landscape ) 9C)

)0!. 'ii- 'iii- '%- ) " 7tab8- )0.

1kraine ). 1N,3CO 'ii- 'iii- '%- ) " 7tab8- )0. 12 restoration proDects Westwood Opencast mining site .)"C.)! Wharncliffe Heath and Woods .)!C.)0 Woodho$se Washlands .)0C..) 3hef.eld area woodlands importance of woodland archaeology ...C../ legacy trees and dead wood ../C..6 13A crisis of national forests )9/ federal and state conser%ation programmes )"! forest certi.cation )!9 forest restoration and history )96C)9" Healthy &orests Initiati%e )90 working forest proDect case st$dies case similarities and differences )9*C)9) concl$sions )9)C)9. forest characteristics )"0C)9* landscape conte'ts )" C)"0 see also Bl$e #o$ntains- Oregon13AF #arshCBillingsCAockefeller National Historical >ark- 13A $nmi'ing- spectral 9"C 99 Nalls Oriental- Catalonia- 3pain ann$al energy .ows of agrarian system "* 7.g8 ca$ses of non:s$stainability ".C"/ effects of globaliBation ".C"/ HI3:based reconstr$ction of ) "/ cadastral map ") 7.g8 land $ses- )0th cent$ry 6"C69- 6! energy o$tp$t per hectare 6!C6 location of %ineyards ")C". and soil G$ality 60- ")C". phyllo'era ". pop$lation- )!) C)09* 69 soil types 66C6" Nienna4 Wienerwald see forests and woodlands %ines )"- ./ crop energy %al$e 6 - 60 7tab8 mi'ed c$lti%ation with oli%es ))C). monoc$lt$re .)7.g8 %ineyard location ")C".

Westwood opencast mining site .)"C.)! wetlands4 restoration

.)0C..) Wharncliffe Heath and Woods .)!C.)0 Wienerwald see forests and woodlands wildlife 9 windows- geographic and geometric 90C!* @wine landscape? )" Woodho$se Washlands .)0C..) woodlands see forests and woodlands World Heritage
Con%ention 7WHC8- 1N,3CO

. .

. .

.. .. . . . . .

. .