Cell structure and function

Last revised: Tuesday, October 8, 2002 Copyright 2002. Thomas M. Terry

Reading: Ch. 7 in text
Note: These notes are provided as a guide to topics the instructor hopes to cover during lecture. Actual coverage will always differ
somewhat from what is printed here. These notes are not a substitute for the actual lecture!

Cells have evolved two basic architectural plans

1. Cells without a nucleus = Prokaryotes (can also be spelled procaryotes)
o includes the Bacteria and Archaea
o generally very small, unicellular
o the earliest and still most abundant life forms; evolved ~ 4 billion
years ago
o some species highly evolved pathogens: e.g. Borrelia burgdorferi,
the cause of Lyme disease.

Image drawn by Thomas M. Terry for The Biology Place. Used with permission.

2. Cells with a nucleus = Eukaryotes (eucaryotes)

o include the Animals, Plants, Fungi, and Protists
o some unicellular, some multicellular forms
o evolved ~ 1 billion years ago
o size ranges from tiny yeasts to giant sequoias, dinosaurs

Eucaryotic Cell Structure and Cell Components

 Diagram of a Eucaryotic cell -- see text for identification

Eucaryotic cells are organized into different compartments

• Compartments bounded by membranes (to be discussed in Ch. 8)

• Cytoplasm = central metabolic compartment, bounded by cell membrane.
Other compartments inside cytoplasm are called organelles
• Compartmentation allows specialized functions to be carried out in different
locations

The cytoplasm: site of protein synthesis and many metabolic events

 • Contains many ribosomes = particles on which proteins are synthesized
o View figures of ribosomes
o Ribosome size measured in Svedberg (S) units; derived from
sedimentation in ultracentrifuge (used before electron microscopes
were available)
o Prokaryotes: ribosomes made of 30S and 50S subunits, assemble
into 70S ribosome
o Eukaryotes: ribosomes made of 40S and 60S subunits, assemble into
80S ribosome
o In bacteria, ribosomes occupy 25% of cell volume, use 90% of cell
energy. Less in many specialized eukaryotic cells, but still the
dominant activity of almost all cells.
• Contains many enzymes for general metabolism
• Compartment in which foodstuffs enter and from which wastes leave cell
• Contains fiber of the cytoskeletal system, which organize cytoplasmic
structure
• Contains many different organelles
• View cartoon of the interior of a eukaryotic cell

The Nucleus: locus of DNA & RNA synthesis and protein assembly

• Contains chromatin = DNA-protein complexes. Chromatin can condense

into chromosomes during cell division
• Site of RNA synthesis. 80% of RNA = ribosomal RNA. Remaining 20%
leaves nucleus as t-RNA & m-RNA, directs protein synthesis (to be
discussed Ch. 17)
• Review the role of the nucleus and ribosomes in protein synthesis
(Campbell website activity)
• View diagram of cell nucleus
• Contains nucleolus = assembly plant for ribosomes. Ribosomal proteins
are made in cytoplasm, must be transported back into nucleus. Ribosomal
RNA is made in nucleus. These two elements are integrated inside
nucleolus to create ribosomal subunits. These are then exported out of
nucleus through nuclear pores.
• View diagram of Nucleolus
• Bounded by nuclear membrane = double layered structure. Contains
many nuclear pores, allow material to move in and out of nucleus
• View nuclear pores
• Nuclear Pores have octagonal "doors" made of protein; open and close on
either side depending on specific signals. Pore has diameter of about 10
nanometers (10 x 10-9 m), smaller than diameter of a complete ribosome.
Pore can open up to as much as 26 nm in response to certain signals. Some
signals allow motion in but not out, other signals control reverse transport.
• View diagram of nuclear pore structure
The Endomembrane system: moving materials into different
compartments
Endomembrane system = set of interconnected compartments: endoplasmic
reticulum (ER), Golgi body, lysosomes, cell membrane

• Endoplasmic Reticulum
o Rough ER: synthesizes proteins for export or movement to
different cell compartments (but not to cytoplasm). View quicktime
movie of rER [353 KB, 00:59 min, from Cells.De Online service for
cell biology] .
o Signal hypothesis: certain mRNAs encode proteins designated for
export. These carry a peptide signal at growing end, causes growing
protein to move to ER ("docking"), insert peptide into membrane,
translocate growing polypeptide chain across ER membrane. When
protein synthesis is complete, polypeptide folds up inside ER, not in
cytoplasm.
o View diagram showing ribosomes attaching to ER
o Smooth ER (sER): synthesizes lipids, detoxifies drugs and poisons
(in liver).
View smooth ER -- structure labeled "1".
• Golgi body
o functions as intracellular "post office" for sorting new proteins made
on rER.
o Vesicles containing protein pinch off from ER, fuse with cis face of
Golgi. Inside Golgi, oligosaccharide chains on proteins are
modified. Vesicles pinch off from trans face of Golgi, carry proteins
to several possible destinations: export (out of cell), lysosomes,
peroxisomes, cell membrane, etc.
o View diagrams showing how substance move through Golgi body
o View animation of secretion from rER to Golgi to cell exterior
(Campbell website activity)
• Lysosomes
o compartments to break down old proteins, foreign materials, many
wastes.
o Contain ~40 hydrolytic enzymes: lipases, proteases, nucleases, etc.
Break down organic polymers of all types.
o "Suicide bags" if opened up on cell itself = apoptosis.
o Lysosomes are used in phagocytosis, a process in which foreign
materials are brought into the cell and "chewed up".
o View animation showing phagocytosis. (Flash animation by Tom
Terry, 2001)
o View diagrams of lysosomes
o View
o animation of secretion from rER to Golgi to lysosome (Campbell
website activity)
• Cell membrane (aka plasma membrane) - see Ch. 8
 • Vacuoles
o large membrane compartments (contrasted with small membrane
bags called vesicles).
o Plant cells have especially large vacuole called the central vacuole,
can occupy most of the volume of a plant cell. Stores pigments,
wastes, water, poisons, and more

Organelles involved in energy transformations are separate from the

endomembrane system

• "Energy organelles" have unique properties:

1. are enclosed by double membrane system
2. contain DNA and ribosomes (70S, not 80S like cytoplasmic
ribosomes)
3. make some of their own proteins
4. from their own genes
5. divide by binary fission (but not autonomous, cannot
6. grow or sustain life outside of cell)
• Mitochondria = centers for respiratory catabolism. Oxygen combined
with chemicals to break down foods, generate cell energy. Contain outer
and inner compartments, with many membranous cristae that "criss-cross"
the internal space. Found in virtually every eukaryotic cell. Small structures
similar to bacteria in some size.
View mitochondria (protected)
• Chloroplasts = centers for photosynthetic anabolism. Belong to group of
plant organelles called plastids. Include chloroplasts (photosynthesis),
amyloplasts (store starch), chromoplasts (store pigments). Trap light,
convert energy to sugars (+ CO2, water). Contain stacks of thylakoids,
where green pigmented chlorophyll is embedded in membrane to trap light.
View chloroplasts

Endosymbiont theory: All organelles seem to share many properties with bacteria:
contain 70S ribosomes (whereas rest of eukaryote cells contain 80S ribosomes),
divide by binary fission, contain circular DNA without nucleus, etc. Lynn Margulis
proposed endosymbiont hypothesis: that organelles derived from ancient
colonization of large bacteria (became the eucaryotic cell) by smaller bacteria
(became the mitochondria, chloroplast, etc.) Symbiosis = "living together".
Eventually, organelles lost ability to exist as separate organisms, cannot be
separated from cell. Recent evolutionary taxonomy by comparing ribosomal RNA
shows that this idea has lots of merit. Mitochondrial and plastid ribosomes are very
similar to current bacteria, very different from eukaryotes.
Build a cell (Campbell website activity)

Cytoskeletal system provides internal fibrous structure to cells

Cell is not "just a bag in a bubble". Lots of internal fibers = internal "skeleton". Not
rigid like bone; capable of being assembled, broken down in minutes. Allows cell
movement, cell division, internal motion of compartments.

• Microtubules
o Largest diameter fiber. Found in cytoplasm of all eukaryotes.
o Involved in many structures: cilia, flagella (9+2 arrangement);
spindle fibers that polymerize from centrioles during
mitosis/meiosis.
o Made of tubulin protein; polymerizes into hollow tubules 25 nm
diameter.
o View cell treated with anti-tubulin fluourescent antibody
o Cilia and flagella: organelles of locomotion. Contain 9 double rings
of microtubules, 2 central microtubules.
o View micrographs showing structure of cilia
o View SEM of cilia on surface of epithelial tissue
o Two motor proteins allow motion along microtubules
1. Motor protein 1 -- Dynein
 side arms allow one tubule to "walk up" along
neighboring tubule, cause bending (powered by
ATP).
 animation of microtubule motion (Campbell website
activity)
 Causes motion from positive (+) end of the
microtubule (where new tubulin is added to the
microtubule) toward the minus (-) end of the
microtubule.
 When coordinated, this causes rotating or whip-like
motion of entire cilium or flagellum --->motion.
 View animation of dynein pulling vesicle along a
microtubule
2. Motor protein 2 -- Kinesin
 Also powered by ATP, also allows protein to move
along microtubule
 Causes motion from negative (-) end of the
microtubule toward the positive (+) end of the
microtubule (where new tubulin is added to the
microtubule).
 pulls things toward outer reaches of cell
 Example: in nerve cells, kinesin pulls vesicles away
from center towards nerve endings.
 View animation of kinesin pulling vesicle along a
microtubule
 View more sophisticated animation of kinesin
moving along a microtubule. (Select either the
Quicktime or MPEG movie titled "Structural
Analysis of the Kinesin Motor Protein" ) )
• Microfilaments (= actin)
 o another kind of fiber. Found in cytoplasm of most eukaryotes.
o nvolved in muscle contraction, cell support, pinching off of daughter
cells after mitosis (in animals), cytoplasmic streaming (in plants).
o View TEM of microvilli (protected) of the striated border of
epithelial tissue. Microfilaments within them can be seen extending
down into the terminal web, an aggregate of fine filaments lying in
the cell cytoplasm.
o View animation showing "treadmilling" of actin -- subunits are
added at one end, removed at the other, producing net migration of
the filament in one direction.
o View movie showing cell movement (left panel) and assembly of
actin (right panel) (2.8 Meg file)
• Intermediate filaments
o a third kind of fiber.
o Made from keratin subunits. Not so quickly assembled and
disassembled as microtubules or microfilaments.
o May be involved in resisting tension, reinforcing cell shape, fixing
location of nucleus.

Cell walls provide rigid structure around cells

• Found in plants, fungi, bacteria -- not in animal cells

• Allow cells to survive in plain water, rigid structure (tree towering 150 feet
high!)
• Thicker than cell membrane. Made from cellulose (plants and fungi), other
polysaccharides (bacteria).
• View plant cell walls (protected)
• Cells maintain contact by plasmodesmata -- thin cytoplasmic connections,
lined by membrane, that pass across cell wall junctions.

Cells don't end at their outer membrane; they possess an

extracellular matrix (ECM)

• Animal cells don't have walls, but do have ECM = meshwork of

macromolecules outside plasma membrane. Consists mainly of
glycoproteins (proteins with oligosaccharide chains), especially collagen.
• Some cells attached directly to ECM by bonding to collagen or fibronectin.
• View diagram of ECM (protected)

Cells are joined by a variety of intracellular junctions

• In multicellular organisms, adajcent cells are held together by several types

of specialized junctions.
1. Tight junctions (found in animals): specialized "belts" that bind
two cells tightly to each other, prevent fluid from leaking into
 intracellular space. View animation of tight junctions (Campbell
website activity)
2. Desmosomes (found in animals): intercellular "rivets" that create
tight bonds between cells, but allow fluids to pass through
intracellular spaces.
View animation of desmosomes (aka anchoring junctions)
(Campbell website activity)
3. Gap junctions (found in animals): formed by two connecting
protein rings embedded in cell membrane of adjacent cells. Allows
passage of water, small solutes, but not macromolecules (proteins,
nucleic acids).
View animation of gap junctions (aka communicating junctions)
(Campbell website activity)
4. Plasmodesmata (found in plants): channels connecting cells; allow
free passage of water and small solutes, but not macromolecules
(proteins, nucleic acids).
View figure showing plasmodesmata (Campbell website activity)

Other useful sources of information:

• Cell-Tissue-Body Explorer - An interactive animated atlas of cells and

functions of the human body. Note: 3-D renderings are very slow to load
unless you have a very fast computer and connection.

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