) Phonetic expressive means and stylistic devices - onomatopoeia, alliteration, rhyme, rhythm; 2) Lexical expressive means and stylistic

devices - metaphor, metonymy, polysemy, zeugma and pun, epithet, oxymoron, antonomasia, simile, periphrasis, euphemism, hyperbole, clichs, proverb and saying, quotation, allusion; 3) Syntactical expressive means and stylistic devices - inversion, detached constructions, parallel constructions, chiasmus, repetition, enumeration, suspense, climax, antithesis, asyndenton, polysyndeton, gap-sentence, ellipses, aposiopesis, question on the narrative, represented speech, rhetorical questions, litotes. Devices built on the principle of juxtaposition. Inversion Emphatic inversion is an intentional change of the standard (Subject-VerbObject) word order in an English sentence serves to intensif! the meanings of words or phrases which occup! an unusual position within a sentence (usuall! at the beginning or at the end of it) "nversion is most fre#uentl! used with the following parts of the sentence$ % e& $ Strange is the heart of a woman 'ame frightful da!s of snow and rain Detachment (etachment consists in placing a secondar! part of a sentence into an isolated position) usuall! at some distance from the word it logicall! refers to) for the sa*e of emphasis +he isolated part) although structurall! independent , either thrust into the main sentence and set off b! dashes or commas) or made into a separate short sentence , remains in fact a secondar! part of the sentence +he st!listic effect is produced b! the clash of the structural and semantic aspects of the detached construction E g $ " have to beg !ou for mone! (ail!- (S .ewis) Parenthesis. /arenthesis should be distinguished from detachment "t is a word or phrase that is inserted abruptl! into the sentence) so as to attract the reader0s attention to one of the aspects of the subject matter of the utterance "t is usuall! set off b! commas) dashes or brac*ets to introduce an illustration) e&planation) definition) or an! other sort of additional information into a sentence that is logicall! and grammaticall! complete without it E g $ " have been accused of bad taste +his has distrubed me) not so much for m! own sa*e (since " am used to the slights and arrows of outrageous fortune) as for the sa*e of criticism in general (S 1augham) Parallel constructions. +he st!listic devise of parallelism or parallel constructions depends on the use of identical or similiar s!ntactic structures or phrases in two or more sentences or part e of one sentence +he structures ma! be e#uivalent) complementar! or opposite in meaning /arallelism ma! be partial or complete "n cases of partial parallelism) parallel constructions are to be found within a single sentence as its clauses E g $ "t was 1r S#ueers0s custom to ma*e a sort of report regarding the relations and friends he had seen) the news he had heard) the letters he had brought down) the bills which had been paid) the accounts which had unpaid) and so forth ((ic*ens) Chiasmus 'hiasmus) or reversed parallelism) is based on the repetition of s!ntactic pattern) but it also has a cross order of words and phrases 'hiasmus ma! be regarded as a combination of inversion and parallelism or as inverted parallelism E g $ (own dropped the bree2e +he sails dropped down ('oleridge) +he cross arrangement of words ma! be combined with direct word order) e g $ 3" *now the world and the world *nows me4 ((ic*ens) +his is classified as le&ical chiasmus Repetition One and the same word or phrase or e&pression of the same idea ma! appear two or more times within one sentence or one paragraph +he function of this device is to intensif! the emotional impact or logical emphasis 5epetition ma! be le&ical and s!ntactical .e&ical repetition E g $ 6e loved to do things upon a grand scale) to preside to dominate S!ntactical repetition is classified according to its composition +he most fre#uentl! used classes are anaphora, epiphora, anadiplosis and framin . !naphora consists in placing the same word or words at the beginning of two or more successive clauses) sentences or lines

E g $ 3"t were better that he *new nothing 7etter for common sense) better for him) better for me4 ((ic*ens) "piphora is the repetition of words or phrases at the end of relativel! complete fragments of speech E g $ 3" wa*e up and "0m alone) and " wal* through the streets and "0m alone) and " tal* with people and "0m alone 4 (8 7raine) !nadiplosis or 3catch repetition4) is a repetition of a significant word or phrase from a preceding clause in a new clause) usuall! at its beginning "n this wa! the most important part of the utterance is singled out and given special stress E g $ 31r 9in*le is gone 6e must be found) Sam , found and brought bac* to me4 ((ic*ens) #ramin ) as is clear from the name itself) is a repetition of the opening word or phrase of a sentence at the end) of a sentence or a sense-group E g 6e couldn0t sp! on her "f she wanted to *eep things from him , she must: he could not sp! on her (;alsworth!) $radation means such an arrangement of ideas (notions) in which what precedes is inferior to what follows +he first element is the wea*est: the subse#uent elements graduall! rise in strength E g $ 3" am sorr! " am so ver! sorr! " am so e&tremel! sorr!4 ('hesterton) !ntithesis +his st!listic device builds an emotional effect on bringing together strongl! contrasted words or ideas Ver! often the contrasting pair is a pair of anton!ms) e g $ She was sour) but she li*ed ma*ing sweet things !syndeton consists in the deliberate avoidance of conjunctions "ts aim is to ma*e parts of a sentence or logicall! connected separate sentences more emphatic owing to their s!ntactic independence E g $ +he s*!) the flowers) the songs of birds- (;alsworth!) Polysyndeton, as opposed to as!ndeton is based on intentional use of numerous conjunctions the repetition of conjunctions ma*es an utterance more rh!thmical and lends intensit! to narration) e g $ <nd the coach) and the coachman) and the horses) rattled) end jangled and whipped) and cursed) and swore) and tumbled on together) till the! came to ;olden S#uare ((ic*ens) Ellipsis$ =othing so difficult as a beginning: how soft the chin which bears his touch (7!ron) !posiopesis or 3brea*-in the narrative4) is a st!listic device based on sudden brea*ing off in speech without completing a thought as if the spea*er was unable or unwilling to state what was in his mind 3>ou just go home or "0ll?4 <posiopesis should not be confused with incomplete sentences) fre#uent in the conversational st!le Onomatopoeia is a combination of speech sounds which alms at imitating sounds produced in nature (wind, sea, thunder, etc.) by things (machines or tools, etc.) by people (singing, laughter) and animals. There are two varieties of onomatopoeia: direct and indirect. Direct onomatopoeia is contained in words that imitate natural sounds, as ding-dong, burr, bang, cuckoo. ndirect onomatopoeia demands some mention of what makes the sound, as rustling of curtains in the following line !n e"ample is: !nd the silken, sad, uncertain rustling of each purple curtain# ($. !. %oe), where the repetition of the sound &s' actually produces the sound of the rustling of the curtain. Alliteration recurrence of an initial consonant in two or more words which either follow one another or appear close enough to be noticeable. (e find it in poetry and in prose ) more often than in other languages ) very often in titles of books, in slogans, and in set phrases: *%osthumous %apers of the %ickwick +lub, (Dickens), *-ense and -ensibility,, *%ride and %re.udice, (/ane !ustine), *The 0ast 0eaf,, *1etrieved 1eformation, (2.3.)4 set e"pressions: last but not least, now or never, forgive and forget. 3ouse and home, good as gold, safe and sound5 Assonance is a phonetic stylistic device, signifying recurrence of stressed vowels. $.g. Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary(%oe). 1hyme: repetition of identical or similar terminal sounds or sound combinations in words. One, two, three, four, five. I caught a fish alive. !ssonance of vowel &ai'. 1hythm: comple" unit defined as a regular recurrence of stressed and unstressed syllables (strong and weak elements) which determine the meter in poetry or the measured flow of words in prose. 2ne, two, three, four. 6ary at the cottage door.

Lexical Stylistic Devices %etaphor 1etaphor is reali2ing two le&ical meanings simultaneousl! (ue to this power metaphor is one of the most potent means of creating images 1etaphors which are absolutel! une&pected) i e #uite unpredictable) are called genuine metaphors$ @ A+he leaves fell sorrowfull! 0 2 < puppet government 3 6e is a mule B A+he +ooth of +ime) which has alread! dried man! a tear) will let the grass grow over this painful wound 0 +he e&pression tooth of time implies that time) li*e a greed! tooth devours ever!thing) ma*es ever!thing disappear or be forgotten C 6e is not a man) he is just a machineD a treacherous calm ;enuine metaphors are mostl! to be found in poetr! and emotive prose 1etaphors) commonl! used in speech are called trite Edead EFGHIJKJLMJE (stereot!ped) hac*ne!ed)) the! are fi&ed in dictionaries$ < ra! of hope) a flight of fanc!) seeds of evil) roots of evil) to fish for compliments) to bar* up the wrong tree) to apple one0s e!e) to burn with desire +rite metaphors are generall! used in newspaper articles or scientific language (cliches) 1eton!m! %etonymy is the substitution of one word for another with which it is associated$ A+he 9hite 6ouse said?0 (the <merican government) : the press (newspapers and maga2ines): the cradle(infanc!) place of origin):the grave(death): +he hall applauded: +he marble spo*e: +he *ettle is boiling: " am fond of <gatha 'hristie: 9e didn0t spea* because there were ears all around us: 6e was about a sentence awa! from needing plastic surger! S!necdoche Synecdoche is a form of meton!m!$ using the name of a part to denote a whole or vice versa$ A6ands wanted0:0NOPKMJ QLHRH?STUFIVKHW-XIVPHW)Y the police (for a handful of officers): bread (for food) Simile Simile is a figure of speech in which the subject is compared to another subject 7! means of the comparison the objects are characteri2ed +he formal elements of a simile are li*e) as) as if) as though) such as) seem) etc @ A< woman without a man is li*e a fish without a bic!cle0 2 She seemed nothing more than a doll 3 1aidens) li*e moths are ever caught b! glare Cliches are stereot!ped unoriginal (trite) word-combinations that do not surprise: the! are predictable and easil! anticipated$

ros! dreams of !outh: the whip and carrot polic!: to live to a ripe old age: to let b!gones be b!gones: the patter of rain: +he usage of cliches is a specific feature of the publicistic st!le +he! are necessar! in newspaper language helping the writer to enliven his wor* and ma*e the meaning more concrete "ron! Irony (Amoc*er! concealed) is a form of speech in which the real meaning is concealed or contradicted b! the words used 9ell done- < fine friend !ou areA9hat a noble illustration of the tender laws of this favoured countr!- - the! let the poor go to sleep-0 "ron! must not be confused with humour) although the! have ver! much in common 6umour alwa!s causes laughter 7ut the function of iron! is not to produce a humorous effect "ron! is generall! used to conve! a negative feeling$ irritation) displeasure) pit! or regret Epithet "pithet cove!s the subjective attitude of the writer as it is used to characteri2e an object and pointing out to the reader some properties or features of the object Epithet aims at evaluation of these properties or features 6eart-burning smile: wild winds: fantastic terrors: voiceless sands: unearthl! beaut!: deep feelings: sleepless ba! %i&ed epithets (stoc* images) are mostl! used in ballads and fol*-songs$ Atrue love0) Adar* forest0) Asweet Sir0) green wood0: Agood ship0) Abrave cavaliers0 O&!moron &xymoron is a combination of two words in which their meaning clash) being opposite in sense$ Sweet sorrow: pleasantl! ugl! face: deafening silence: horribl! beautiful +he following e&ample describes the author0s attitude to =ew >or*$ A" despise its vastness and power "t has the poorest millionaires) the littlest great men) the plainest beauties) the lowest s*!scrapers of an! town " ever saw (Satiric moc*ing) <llusion !llusion is reference to a famous historical) literar!) m!thological) biblical or ever!da! life character or event) commonl! *nown <s a rule no indication of the source is given "t0s his <chilles heel <ntonomasia !ntonomasia is intended to point out the leading) most characteristic features of a person or of event "t categori2es the person and simultaneousl! indicates both the general and the particular <ntonomasia can be defined as a variet! of allusion$ Vralman) 1olchalin) 1r Zero) (on 8uan 1etalepsis %etalepsis is a reference to something remotel! associated with the theme of the speech A"0ve got to go catch the worm tomorrow morning 0 said 1ar! (+he earl! bird catches the worm- a proverb) Zeugma 'eu ma (s!llepsis) is the use of a word in the same grammatical but different semantic relations "t creates a semantic incongruit! which is often humorous$ @ 6e lost his hat and his temper

2 A?and covered themselves with dust and glor! -1ar* +wain 3 [JL \F]\^ V \SH T_X\JK_H `\VK S QHLFaHb) \PXQFc , S XKVSJPTV_J_ B +he alphabet was above the blac*board and friendl! atmosphere was there C A<nd 1a!0s mother alwa!s stood on her gentilit!: and (ora0s mother never stood on an!thing but her active feet0 /un Pun (also *nown as paronomasia) is a deliberate confusion of similar , sounding words for humorous effect /uns are often used in jo*es and riddles E g @ 9hat is the difference between a schoolmaster and an engine-driverd (One trains the mind and the other minds the train ) 2 +he name 8ustin +ime sounds li*e Ajust in time0 3 " have no idea how worms reproduce but !ou often find them in pairs (pears) B Officer -9hat steps (measures) would !ou ta*e if an enem! tan* were coming towards !oud Soldier - .ong ones "nterjections and E&clamator! 9ords Interjections and "xclamatory 9ords are used to e&press our strong feelings: the! are conventional s!mbols of human emotions +he interjection is not a sentence: it is a word with strong emotive meaning "nterjections radiate the emotional element over the whole utterance 6ere are some of the meanings that can be e&pressed b! interjections$ jo!) delight) admiration) approval) disbelief) astonishment) fright) regret) dissatisfaction) boredom) sadness) blame) reproach) protest) horror) iron!) sarcasm) self-assurance) despair) disgust) surprise) sorrow) and man! others Oh- <h- /ooh- ;osh- <las- 6eavens- (ear me- ;od- 'ome on- .oo* here- 7! the .ord7less me- 6umbug- +errible- <wful- ;reat- 9onderful- %ine- 1an- 7o!- 9h!- 9ell/eriphrasis Periphrasis denotes the use of a longer phrasing in place of a possible shorter and planer form of e&pression "t is also called circumlocution due to the round-about or indirect wa! to name a familiar object +here are traditional periphrases which are not st!listic devices) the! are s!non!mic e&pressions$ +he giver of rings) the victor lord) the leader of hosts (*ing)) the pla! of swords(battle)) a shield-bearer(warrior)) the cap and gown (student)) the fair se& (women)) m! better half (m! wife) +he traditional periphrasis is an important feature of epic poetr! /eriphrasis as st!listic device is a new) genuine nomination of an object St!listic periphrasis can be divided into logical and figurative .ogical$ instruments of destruction (pistols)) the most pardonable of human wea*nesses (love) %igurative periphrasis is based either on metaphor or on meton!m! +o tie the *not (to marr!)) the punctual servant of all wor* (the sun) +here is little difference between metaphor or meton!m! and periphrasis Euphemisms "uphemism is a word or a phrase used to replace an unpleasant word or e&pression$ to dieeto pass awa!) to be no more) to depart) to join the majorit!) to be gone: to *ic* the buc*et) to give up the ghost) to go west So) euphemisms are s!non!ms which aim to produce a mild effect Euphemisms ma! be divided into several groups$

@) religious) 2) moral) 3) medical) B) parliamentar! a woman of a certain t!pe(whore)) to glow(to sweat))mental hospital(madhouse)) the big '(cancer)) sanitation wor*er(garbage man) 1eiosisEfnderstatement 1eiosisEfnderstatement is a figure of speech which intentionall! understates something or implies that it is less in significance) si2e) than it reall! is %or e&ample) a law!er defending a schoolbo! who set fire to school) might call the fact of arson a Apran*0 (UPF\JLGH) 6!perbole (yperbole is a deliberate overstatement or e&aggeration of a phenomenon or an object 6e was so tall that " could not see his face /roverbs and Sa!ings /roverbs and sa!ings are brief statements showing in condensed form life e&perience of the communit! and serving as conventional s!mbols for abstract ideas +he! are usuall! didactic and image rearing /roverbs and sa!ings have some t!pical features$ rh!thm) sometimes rh!me and or alliteration @ AEarl! to bed and earl! to rise) 2 Out of sight) out of mind gFTLFSVhM FiLH\HW_ iXGSHL^KMI VEVLV UJPJKFTKMI TIMTLFI jV\KH U_VhH UF UFLJ_X gFQFSFPGV VIJW_ _FL^GF iXGSHL^KMc ULHK kFPl iFl_^Tl- TmHT_^l KJ SV\H_^ Epigrams Epigrams are terse) witt! statements) showing the turn of mind of the originator Epigram is a st!listic device a*in to a proverb) the onl! difference being that epigrams are coined b! people whose names we *now) while proverbs are the coinage of the people A< ;od that can be understood is not a ;od 0 nuotations nuotation is a repetition of a phrase or statement from a boo*) speech and the li*e used b! the wa! of illustration) proof or as a basis for further speculation on the matter 7! repeating the utterance in a new environment) we attach to the utterance an importance <llegor! <llegor! is a device b! which the names of objects or characters are used figurativel!) representing some more general things) good or bad #ualities < t!pe of allegor! is /ersonification /ersonification /ersonification is a form of comparison in which human characteristics) such as emotions) personalit!) behaviuor and so on) are attributed to an animal) object or idea +he proud lion surve!ed his *ingdom +he primar! function of personification is to ma*e abstract ideas clearer to the reader b! comparing them to ever!da! human e&perience 6ow soon hath +ime) the subtle thief of !outh) Stolen on his wing m! three and twentieth !ear/ersonification is often represented b! the masculine or feminine pronouns for the names of animals) objects or forces of nature 6e is used for the Sun) the 9ind ) for the names of

animals (+he 'at that wal*ed all b! himself)) for abstract notions associated with strength and fierceness-(eath) %ear) 9ar) .ove She is used for what is regarded as rather gentle (the 1oon) =ature) 7eaut!) 6ope) 1erc! "n neutral st!le there also some associations of certain nouns and gender +he names of countries) if the countr! is not considered as a mere geographical territor!) are referred to as feminine (England is proud of her poets) +he names of vessels and vehicles are also referred as feminine <nthropomorphism <nthropomorphism is the form of personification consisting of creating imager! persons of inanimate objects 'ommon e&amples include naming one0s car or begging a machine to wor* +he use of anthropomorphi2ed animals has a long tradition in literature and art +he! are used to portra! stereot!pical characters) in order to #uic*l! conve! the characteristics the author intends them to possess E&amples include <esop0s fables) famous television characters) +om and 8err!) 1ic*e! 1ouse and a lot of other funn! animals