A geographic information system (GIS), geographical information system, or geospatial information system is a system that captures, stores, analyzes,

manages and presents data with reference to geographic location data. In the simplest terms, GIS is the merging of cartography, statistical analysis and database technology. GIS may be used in archaeology, geography, cartography, remote sensing, land surveying, public utility management, natural resource management, precision agriculture, photogrammetry, urban planning, emergency management, landscape architecture, navigation, aerial video and localized search engines. A GIS can be thought of as a system - it digitally creates and "manipulates" spatial areas that may be urisdictional, purpose or application-oriented for which a specific GIS is developed. !ence, a GIS developed for an application, urisdiction, enterprise or purpose may not be necessarily interoperable or compatible with a GIS that has been developed for some other application, urisdiction, enterprise, or purpose. "hat goes beyond a GIS is a spatial data infrastructure #S$I%, a concept that has no such restrictive boundaries. &herefore, in a general sense, the term describes any information system that integrates, stores, edits, analyzes, shares and displays geographic information for informing decision ma'ing. GIS applications are tools that allow users to create interactive (ueries #user-created searches%, analyze spatial information, edit data, maps, and present the results of all these operations.)*+ Geographic information science is the science underlying the geographic concepts, applications and systems.),+

Applications
GIS technology can be used for

earth surface-based scientific investigations. resource management reference and pro ections of a geospatial nature, both man-made and natural. asset management and location planning archaeology. environmental impact-assessment. infrastructure assessment and development. urban planning. cartography, for a thematic and/or time-based purpose. criminology. geospatial intelligence. GIS data development. geographic history. mar'eting. logistics. population and demographic studies. prospectivity mapping. statistical analysis. military planning. and other purposes.

01amples of use are

GIS may allow emergency planners to easily calculate emergency response times and the movement of response resources #for logistics% in the case of a natural disaster. GIS might be used to find wetlands that need protection strategies regarding pollution. and GIS can be used by a company to site a new business location to ta'e advantage of GIS data identified trends to respond to a previously underserved mar'et. 2ost city and transportation systems planning offices have GIS sections.

[edit] History of development

In *345, 6ohn Snow depicted a cholera outbrea' in 7ondon using points to represent the locations of some individual cases, possibly the earliest use of the geographic method.)8+ !is study of the distribution of cholera led to the source of the disease, a contaminated water pump #the 9road Street :ump, whose handle he had disconnected, thus terminating the outbrea'% within the heart of the cholera outbrea'.

0. ". Gilbert;s version #*<43% of 6ohn Snow;s *344 map of the Soho cholera outbrea' showing the clusters of cholera cases in the 7ondon epidemic of *345 "hile the basic elements of topography and theme e1isted previously in cartography, the 6ohn Snow map was uni(ue, using cartographic methods not only to depict but also to analyze clusters of geographically-dependent phenomena for the first time. &he early ,=th century saw the development of photozincography, which allowed maps to be split into layers, for e1ample one layer for vegetation and another for water. &his was particularly used for printing contours - drawing these was a labour intensive tas' but having them on a separate layer meant they could be wor'ed on without the other layers to confuse the draughtsman. &his wor' was originally drawn on glass plates but later, plastic film was introduced, being lighter, using less storage

space and being less brittle were several of its advantages over glass plates. "hen all the layers were finished, they were combined into one image using a large process camera. >nce colour printing came in, the layers idea was also used for creating separate printing plates for each colour. "hile the use of layers much later became one of the main typical features of a contemporary GIS, the photographic process ust described is not considered to be a GIS in itself - as the maps were ust images with no database to lin' them to. ?omputer hardware development spurred by nuclear weapon research led to generalpurpose computer ;mapping; applications by the early *<@=s.)5+ &he year *<@= saw the development of the world;s first true operational GIS in >ttawa, >ntario, ?anada by the federal $epartment of Aorestry and Bural $evelopment. $eveloped by $r. Boger &omlinson, it was called the ?anada Geographic Information System #?GIS% and was used to store, analyze, and manipulate data collected for the ?anada 7and Inventory #?7I% C an effort to determine the land capability for rural ?anada by mapping information about soils, agriculture, recreation, wildlife, waterfowl, forestry and land use at a scale of *-4=,===. A rating classification factor was also added to permit analysis. ?GIS was an improvement over ;computer mapping; applications as it provided capabilities for overlay, measurement and digitizing/scanning. It supported a national coordinate system that spanned the continent, coded lines as arcs having a true embedded topology and it stored the attribute and locational information in separate files. As a result of this, &omlinson has become 'nown as the ;father of GIS;, particularly for his use of overlays in promoting the spatial analysis of convergent geographic data.)4+ ?GIS lasted into the *<<=s and built a large digital land resource database in ?anada. It was developed as a mainframe-based system in support of federal and provincial resource planning and management. Its strength was continent-wide analysis of comple1 datasets. &he ?GIS was never available in a commercial form. In *<@5, !oward &. Aisher formed the 7aboratory for ?omputer Graphics and Spatial Analysis at the !arvard Graduate School of $esign #7?GSA *<@4-*<<*%, where a number of important theoretical concepts in spatial data handling were developed, and which by the *<D=s had distributed seminal software code and systems, such as ;SE2A:;, ;GBI$; and ;>$ESS0E; - that served as sources for subse(uent commercial development F to universities, research centers and corporations worldwide.)@+ 9y the early *<3=s, 2GS ?omputing #later Intergraph%, 0nvironmental Systems Besearch Institute #0SBI%, ?ABIS #?omputer Aided Besource Information System% and 0B$AS emerged as commercial vendors of GIS software, successfully incorporating many of the ?GIS features, combining the first generation approach to separation of spatial and attribute information with a second generation approach to organizing attribute data into database structures. In parallel, the development of two public domain systems began in the late *<D=s and early *<3=s.)D+

&he 2ap >verlay and Statistical System #2>SS% pro ect started in *<DD in Aort ?ollins, ?olorado under the auspices of the "estern 0nergy and 7and Hse &eam #"07H&% and the HS Aish and "ildlife Service. GBASS GIS was introduced in *<3, by the HS Army ?orps of 0ngineering Besearch 7aboratory #HSA-?0B7% in ?hampaign, Illinois, a branch of the HS Army ?orps of 0ngineers to meet the need of the HS military for software for land management and environmental planning. In the later *<3=s and *<<=s, industry growth was spurred on by the growing use of GIS on Hni1 wor'stations and the personal computer. 9y the end of the ,=th century, the rapid growth in various systems had been consolidated and standardized on relatively few platforms and users were beginning to e1plore the concept of viewing GIS data over the Internet, re(uiring data format and transfer standards. 2ore recently, a growing number of free, open-source GIS pac'ages run on a range of operating systems and can be customized to perform specific tas's. Increasingly geospatial data and mapping applications are being made available via the world wide web.)3+ Several authoritative boo's on the history of GIS have been published.)<+)*=+

[edit] GIS techniques and technology

2odern GIS technologies use digital information, for which various digitized data creation methods are used. &he most common method of data creation is digitization, where a hard copy map or survey plan is transferred into a digital medium through the use of a computer-aided design #?A$% program, and geo-referencing capabilities. "ith the wide availability of ortho-rectified imagery #both from satellite and aerial sources%, heads-up digitizing is becoming the main avenue through which geographic data is e1tracted. !eads-up digitizing involves the tracing of geographic data directly on top of the aerial imagery instead of by the traditional method of tracing the geographic form on a separate digitizing tablet #heads-down digitizing%.

[edit] Relating information from different sources

GIS uses spatio-temporal #space-time% location as the 'ey inde1 variable for all other information. 6ust as a relational database containing te1t or numbers can relate many different tables using common 'ey inde1 variables, GIS can relate otherwise unrelated information by using location as the 'ey inde1 variable. &he 'ey is the location and/or e1tent in space-time. Any variable that can be located spatially, and increasingly also temporally, can be referenced using a GIS. 7ocations or e1tents in 0arth space-time may be recorded as dates/times of occurrence, and 1, y, and z coordinates representing, longitude, latitude, and elevation, respectively. &hese GIS coordinates may represent other (uantified systems of temporo-spatial reference #for e1ample, film frame number, stream gage station, highway mile mar'er, surveyor benchmar', building address, street intersection, entrance gate, water depth sounding, :>S or ?A$ drawing origin/units%. Hnits applied to recorded temporal-spatial data can vary widely #even when using e1actly the same data, see map pro ections%, but all 0arth-based spatial-

temporal location and e1tent references should, ideally, be relatable to one another and ultimately to a "real" physical location or e1tent in space-time. Belated by accurate spatial information, an incredible variety of real-world and pro ected past or future data can be analyzed, interpreted and represented to facilitate education and decision ma'ing.)**+ &his 'ey characteristic of GIS has begun to open new avenues of scientific in(uiry into behaviors and patterns of previously considered unrelated real-world information.

[edit] GIS ncertainties

GIS accuracy depends upon source data, and how it is encoded to be data referenced. 7and Surveyors have been able to provide a high level of positional accuracy utilizing the G:S derived positions.)*,+ )Betrieved from Aederal Geographic $ata ?ommittee+ the high-resolution digital terrain and aerial imagery,)*8+ )Betrieved I6GII+ the powerful computers, "eb technology, are changing the (uality, utility, and e1pectations of GIS to serve society on a grand scale, but nevertheless there are other source data that has an impact on the overall GIS accuracy li'e- paper maps that are not found to be very suitable to achieve the desired accuracy since the aging of maps affects their dimensional stability. In developing a $igital &opographic $ata 9ase for a GIS, topographical maps are the main source of data. Aerial photography and satellite images are e1tra sources for collecting data and identifying attributes which can be mapped in layers over a location facsimile of scale. &he scale of a map and geographical rendering area representation type are very important aspects since the information content depends mainly on the scale set and resulting locatability of the map;s representations. In order to digitize a map, the map has to be chec'ed within theoretical dimensions, then scanned into a raster format, and resulting raster data has to be given a theoretical dimension by a rubber sheeting/warping technology process. Hncertainty is a significant problem in designing a GIS because spatial data tend to be used for purposes for which they were never intended. Some maps were made many decades ago, where at that time the computer industry was not even in its perspective establishments. &his has led to historical reference maps without common norms. 2ap accuracy is a relative issue of minor importance in cartography. All maps are established for communication ends. 2aps use a historically constrained technology of pen and paper to communicate a view of the world to their users. ?artographers feel little need to communicate information based on accuracy, for when the same map is digitized and input into a GIS, the mode of use often changes. &he new uses e1tend well beyond a determined domain for which the original map was intended and designed. A (uantitative analysis of maps brings accuracy issues into focus. &he electronic and other e(uipment used to ma'e measurements for GIS is far more precise than the machines of conventional map analysis.)*5+ )Betrieved HSGS+. &he truth is that all geographical data are inherently inaccurate, and these inaccuracies will propagate through GIS operations in ways that are difficult to predict, yet have goals of conveyance in mind for original design. Accuracy Standards for *-,5=== Scales 2ap*-,5,=== J 5=.== feet

&his means that when we see a point or attribute on a map, its "probable" location is within a K/- 5= foot area of its rendered reference, according to area representations and scale. A GIS can also convert e1isting digital information, which may not yet be in map form, into forms it can recognize, employ for its data analysis processes, and use in forming mapping output. Aor e1ample, digital satellite images generated through remote sensing can be analyzed to produce a map-li'e layer of digital information about vegetative covers on land locations. Another fairly recently developed resource for naming GIS location ob ects is the Getty &hesaurus of Geographic Iames #G&GI%, which is a structured vocabulary containing about *,===,=== names and other information about places.)*4+ 7i'ewise, researched census or hydrological tabular data can be displayed in map-li'e form, serving as layers of thematic information for forming a GIS map.

[edit] !ata representation

GIS data represents real ob ects #such as roads, land use, elevation, trees, waterways, etc.% with digital data determining the mi1. Beal ob ects can be divided into two abstractions- discrete ob ects #e.g., a house% and continuous fields #such as rainfall amount, or elevations%. &raditionally, there are two broad methods used to store data in a GIS for both 'inds of abstractions mapping references- raster images and vector. :oints, lines, and polygons are the stuff of mapped location attribute references. A new hybrid method of storing data is that of identifying point clouds, which combine three-dimensional points with BG9 information at each point, returning a "8$ color image". GIS &hematic maps then are becoming more and more realistically visually descriptive of what they set out to show or determine. [edit] Raster A raster data type is, in essence, any type of digital image represented by reducible and enlargeable grids. Anyone who is familiar with digital photography will recognize the Baster graphics pi1el as the smallest individual grid unit building bloc' of an image, usually not readily identified as an artifact shape until an image is produced on a very large scale. A combination of the pi1els ma'ing up an image color formation scheme will compose details of an image, as is distinct from the commonly used points, lines, and polygon area location symbols of scalable vector graphics as the basis of the vector model of area attribute rendering. "hile a digital image is concerned with its output blending together its grid based details as an identifiable representation of reality, in a photograph or art image transferred into a computer, the raster data type will reflect a digitized abstraction of reality dealt with by grid populating tones or ob ects, (uantities, co oined or open boundaries, and map relief schemas. Aerial photos are one commonly used form of raster data, with one primary purpose in mind- to display a detailed image on a map area, or for the purposes of rendering its identifiable ob ects by digitization. Additional raster data sets used by a GIS will contain information regarding elevation, a digital elevation model, or reflectance of a particular wavelength of light, 7andsat, or other electromagnetic spectrum indicators.

$igital elevation model, map #image%, and vector data Baster data type consists of rows and columns of cells, with each cell storing a single value. Baster data can be images #raster images% with each pi1el #or cell% containing a color value. Additional values recorded for each cell may be a discrete value, such as land use, a continuous value, such as temperature, or a null value if no data is available. "hile a raster cell stores a single value, it can be e1tended by using raster bands to represent BG9 #red, green, blue% colors, colormaps #a mapping between a thematic code and BG9 value%, or an e1tended attribute table with one row for each uni(ue cell value. &he resolution of the raster data set is its cell width in ground units. Baster data is stored in various formats. from a standard file-based structure of &IA, 6:0G, etc. to binary large ob ect #97>9% data stored directly in a relational database management system #B$92S% similar to other vector-based feature classes. $atabase storage, when properly inde1ed, typically allows for (uic'er retrieval of the raster data but can re(uire storage of millions of significantly sized records. [edit] "ector In a GIS, geographical features are often e1pressed as vectors, by considering those features as geometrical shapes. $ifferent geographical features are e1pressed by different types of geometry

:oints

A simple vector map, using each of the vector elements- points for wells, lines for rivers, and a polygon for the la'e. Lero-dimensional points are used for geographical features that can best be e1pressed by a single point reference F in other words, by simple location. 01amples include wells, pea's, features of interest, and trailheads. :oints convey the least amount of information of these file types. :oints can also be used to represent areas when displayed at a small scale. Aor e1ample, cities on a map of the world might be represented by points rather than polygons. Io measurements are possible with point features. 7ines or polylines >ne-dimensional lines or polylines are used for linear features such as rivers, roads, railroads, trails, and topographic lines. Again, as with point features, linear features displayed at a small scale will be represented as linear features rather than as a polygon. 7ine features can measure distance. :olygons &wo-dimensional polygons are used for geographical features that cover a particular area of the earth;s surface. Such features may include la'es, par' boundaries, buildings, city boundaries, or land uses. :olygons convey the most amount of information of the file types. :olygon features can measure perimeter and area. 0ach of these geometries are lin'ed to a row in a database that describes their attributes. Aor e1ample, a database that describes la'es may contain a la'e;s depth, water (uality, pollution level. &his information can be used to ma'e a map to describe a particular attribute of the dataset. Aor e1ample, la'es could be coloured depending on level of pollution. $ifferent geometries can also be compared. Aor e1ample, the GIS could be used to identify all wells #point geometry% that are within one 'ilometre of a la'e #polygon geometry% that has a high level of pollution. Mector features can be made to respect spatial integrity through the application of topology rules such as ;polygons must not overlap;. Mector data can also be used to represent continuously varying phenomena. ?ontour lines and triangulated irregular networ's #&II% are used to represent elevation or other continuously changing values. &IIs record values at point locations, which are connected by lines to form an irregular mesh of triangles. &he face of the triangles represent the terrain surface. [edit] Advantages and disadvantages &here are some important advantages and disadvantages to using a raster or vector data model to represent reality

Baster datasets record a value for all points in the area covered which may re(uire more storage space than representing data in a vector format that can store data only where needed. Baster data allows easy implementation of overlay operations, which are more difficult with vector data. Mector data can be displayed as vector graphics used on traditional maps, whereas raster data will appear as an image that may have a bloc'y

appearance for ob ect boundaries. #depending on the resolution of the raster file% Mector data can be easier to register, scale, and re-pro ect, which can simplify combining vector layers from different sources. Mector data is more compatible with relational database environments, where they can be part of a relational table as a normal column and processed using a multitude of operators. Mector file sizes are usually smaller than raster data, which can be *= to *== times larger than vector data #depending on resolution%. Mector data is simpler to update and maintain, whereas a raster image will have to be completely reproduced. #01ample- a new road is added%. Mector data allows much more analysis capability, especially for "networ's" such as roads, power, rail, telecommunications, etc. #01amples- 9est route, largest port, airfields connected to two-lane highways%. Baster data will not have all the characteristics of the features it displays.

[edit] #on$spatial data Additional non-spatial data can also be stored along with the spatial data represented by the coordinates of a vector geometry or the position of a raster cell. In vector data, the additional data contains attributes of the feature. Aor e1ample, a forest inventory polygon may also have an identifier value and information about tree species. In raster data the cell value can store attribute information, but it can also be used as an identifier that can relate to records in another table. Software is currently being developed to support spatial and non-spatial decisionma'ing, with the solutions to spatial problems being integrated with solutions to nonspatial problems. &he end result with these Ale1ible Spatial $ecision-2a'ing Support Systems #AS$SS%)*@+ is e1pected to be that non-e1perts will be able to use GIS, along with spatial criteria, and simply integrate their non-spatial criteria to view solutions to multi-criteria problems. &his system is intended to assist decision-ma'ing.

[edit] !ata capture

01ample of hardware for mapping #G:S and laser rangefinder% and data collection #rugged computer%. Aield GIS are current trend, accurate mapping and data analysis

are done directly in the field. :resented hardware #Aield-2ap technology% is used mainly for forest inventories, monitoring and mapping. $ata captureFentering information into the systemFconsumes much of the time of GIS practitioners. &here are a variety of methods used to enter data into a GIS where it is stored in a digital format. 01isting data printed on paper or :0& film maps can be digitized or scanned to produce digital data. A digitizer produces vector data as an operator traces points, lines, and polygon boundaries from a map. Scanning a map results in raster data that could be further processed to produce vector data. Survey data can be directly entered into a GIS from digital data collection systems on survey instruments using a techni(ue called ?oordinate Geometry #?>G>%. :ositions from a Global Iavigation Satellite System #GISS% li'e Global :ositioning System #G:S%, another survey tool, can also be directly entered into a GIS. ?urrent trend is data collection and field mapping carried out directly with field computers #position from G:S and/or laser rangefinder%. Iew technologies allow to create maps as well as analysis directly in the field, pro ects are more efficient and mapping is more accurate. Bemotely sensed data also plays an important role in data collection and consist of sensors attached to a platform. Sensors include cameras, digital scanners and 7I$AB, while platforms usually consist of aircraft and satellites. &he ma ority of digital data currently comes from photo interpretation of aerial photographs. Soft copy wor'stations are used to digitize features directly from stereo pairs of digital photographs. &hese systems allow data to be captured in two and three dimensions, with elevations measured directly from a stereo pair using principles of photogrammetry. ?urrently, analog aerial photos are scanned before being entered into a soft copy system, but as high (uality digital cameras become cheaper this step will be s'ipped. Satellite remote sensing provides another important source of spatial data. !ere satellites use different sensor pac'ages to passively measure the reflectance from parts of the electromagnetic spectrum or radio waves that were sent out from an active sensor such as radar. Bemote sensing collects raster data that can be further processed using different bands to identify ob ects and classes of interest, such as land cover. "hen data is captured, the user should consider if the data should be captured with either a relative accuracy or absolute accuracy, since this could not only influence how information will be interpreted but also the cost of data capture. In addition to collecting and entering spatial data, attribute data is also entered into a GIS. Aor vector data, this includes additional information about the ob ects represented in the system. After entering data into a GIS, the data usually re(uires editing, to remove errors, or further processing. Aor vector data it must be made "topologically correct" before it can be used for some advanced analysis. Aor e1ample, in a road networ', lines must

connect with nodes at an intersection. 0rrors such as undershoots and overshoots must also be removed. Aor scanned maps, blemishes on the source map may need to be removed from the resulting raster. Aor e1ample, a flec' of dirt might connect two lines that should not be connected.

[edit] Raster$to$vector translation

$ata restructuring can be performed by a GIS to convert data into different formats. Aor e1ample, a GIS may be used to convert a satellite image map to a vector structure by generating lines around all cells with the same classification, while determining the cell spatial relationships, such as ad acency or inclusion. 2ore advanced data processing can occur with image processing, a techni(ue developed in the late *<@=s by IASA and the private sector to provide contrast enhancement, false colour rendering and a variety of other techni(ues including use of two dimensional Aourier transforms. Since digital data is collected and stored in various ways, the two data sources may not be entirely compatible. So a GIS must be able to convert geographic data from one structure to another.

[edit] %ro&ections' coordinate systems and registration

A property ownership map and a soils map might show data at different scales. 2ap information in a GIS must be manipulated so that it registers, or fits, with information gathered from other maps. 9efore the digital data can be analyzed, they may have to undergo other manipulationsFpro ection and coordinate conversions, for e1ampleF that integrate them into a GIS. &he earth can be represented by various models, each of which may provide a different set of coordinates #e.g., latitude, longitude, elevation% for any given point on the 0arth;s surface. &he simplest model is to assume the earth is a perfect sphere. As more measurements of the earth have accumulated, the models of the earth have become more sophisticated and more accurate. In fact, there are models that apply to different areas of the earth to provide increased accuracy #e.g., Iorth American $atum, *<,D - IA$,D - wor's well in Iorth America, but not in 0urope%. See datum #geodesy% for more information. Projection is a fundamental component of map ma'ing. A pro ection is a mathematical means of transferring information from a model of the 0arth, which represents a three-dimensional curved surface, to a two-dimensional mediumFpaper or a computer screen. $ifferent pro ections are used for different types of maps because each pro ection particularly suits specific uses. Aor e1ample, a pro ection that accurately represents the shapes of the continents will distort their relative sizes. See 2ap pro ection for more information. Since much of the information in a GIS comes from e1isting maps, a GIS uses the processing power of the computer to transform digital information, gathered from sources with different pro ections and/or different coordinate systems, to a common pro ection and coordinate system. Aor images, this process is called rectification.

[edit] Spatial analysis (ith GIS

Given the vast range of spatial analysis techni(ues that have been developed over the past half century, any summary or review can only cover the sub ect to a limited depth. &his is a rapidly changing field, and GIS pac'ages are increasingly including analytical tools as standard built-in facilities or as optional toolsets, add-ins or ;analysts;. In many instances such facilities are provided by the original software suppliers #commercial vendors or collaborative non commercial development teams%, whilst in other cases facilities have been developed and are provided by third parties. Aurthermore, many products offer software development 'its #S$Ns%, programming languages and language support, scripting facilities and/or special interfaces for developing oneOs own analytical tools or variants. &he website Geospatial Analysis and associated boo'/eboo' attempt to provide a reasonably comprehensive guide to the sub ect.)*D+ &he impact of these myriad paths to perform spatial analysis create a new dimension to business intelligence termed "spatial intelligence" which, when delivered via intranet, democratizes access to operational sorts not usually privy to this type of information. [edit] Slope and Aspect Slope, aspect and surface curvature in terrain analysis are all derived from neighbourhood operations using elevation values of a cellOs ad acent neighbours.)*3+ Authors such as S'idmore,)*<+ 6ones),=+ and Lhou and 7iu),*+ have compared techni(ues for calculating slope and aspect. Slope is a function of resolution, and the spatial resolution used to calculate slope and aspect should always be specified ),,+ &he elevation at a point will have perpendicular tangents #slope% passing through the point, in an east-west and north-south direction. &hese two tangents give two components, Pz/P1 and Pz/Py, which then be used to determine the overall direction of slope, and the aspect of the slope. &he gradient is defined as a vector (uantity with components e(ual to the partial derivatives of the surface in the 1 and y directions.),8+ &he calculation of the overall 818 grid slope and aspect for methods that determine east-west and north-south component use the following formulas respectively-

Lhou and 7iu),*+ describe another algorithm for calculating aspect, as follows-

[edit] !ata modeling It is difficult to relate wetlands maps to rainfall amounts recorded at different points such as airports, television stations, and high schools. A GIS, however, can be used to depict two- and three-dimensional characteristics of the 0arth;s surface, subsurface, and atmosphere from information points. Aor e1ample, a GIS can (uic'ly generate a map with isopleth or contour lines that indicate differing amounts of rainfall. Such a map can be thought of as a rainfall contour map. 2any sophisticated methods can estimate the characteristics of surfaces from a limited number of point measurements. A two-dimensional contour map created from the surface modeling of rainfall point measurements may be overlaid and analyzed with any other map in a GIS covering the same area. Additionally, from a series of three-dimensional points, or digital elevation model, isopleth lines representing elevation contours can be generated, along with slope analysis, shaded relief, and other elevation products. "atersheds can be easily defined for any given reach, by computing all of the areas contiguous and uphill from any given point of interest. Similarly, an e1pected thalweg of where surface water would want to travel in intermittent and permanent streams can be computed from elevation data in the GIS. [edit] )opological modeling A GIS can recognize and analyze the spatial relationships that e1ist within digitally stored spatial data. &hese topological relationships allow comple1 spatial modelling and analysis to be performed. &opological relationships between geometric entities traditionally include ad acency #what ad oins what%, containment #what encloses what%, and pro1imity #how close something is to something else%. [edit] #et(or*s If all the factories near a wetland were accidentally to release chemicals into the river at the same time, how long would it ta'e for a damaging amount of pollutant to enter the wetland reserveQ A GIS can simulate the routing of materials along a linear networ'. Malues such as slope, speed limit, or pipe diameter can be incorporated into networ' modeling to represent the flow of the phenomenon more accurately. Ietwor' modelling is commonly employed in transportation planning, hydrology modeling, and infrastructure modeling. [edit] Hydrological +odeling GIS hydrological models can provide a spatial element that other hydrological models lac', with the analysis of variables such as slope, aspect and watershed or catchment area.),5+ &errain analysis is fundamental to hydrology, since water always flows down

a slope.),5+ As basic terrain analysis of a $02 involves calculation of slope and aspect, $02s are very useful for hydrological analysis. Slope and aspect can then be used to determine direction of surface runoff, and hence flow accumulation for the formation of streams, rivers and la'es. Areas of divergent flow can also give a clear indication of the boundaries of a catchment. >nce a flow direction and accumulation matri1 has been created, (ueries can be performed that show contributing or dispersal areas at a certain point.),5+ 2ore detail can be added to the model, such as terrain roughness, vegetation types and soil types, which can influence infiltration and evapotranspiration rates, and hence influencing surface flow. &hese e1tra layers of detail ensures a more accurate model. [edit] ,artographic modeling

An e1ample of use of layers in a GIS application. In this e1ample, the forest cover layer #light green% is at the bottom, with the topographic layer over it. Ie1t up is the stream layer, then the boundary layer, then the road layer. &he order is very important in order to properly display the final result. Iote that the pond layer was located ust below the stream layer, so that a stream line can be seen overlying one of the ponds. &he term "cartographic modeling" was #probably% coined by $ana &omlin in his :h$ dissertation and later in his boo' which has the term in the title. ?artographic modeling refers to a process where several thematic layers of the same area are produced, processed, and analyzed. &omlin used raster layers, but the overlay method #see below% can be used more generally. >perations on map layers can be combined into algorithms, and eventually into simulation or optimization models. [edit] +ap overlay &he combination of several spatial datasets #points, lines or polygons% creates a new output vector dataset, visually similar to stac'ing several maps of the same region. &hese overlays are similar to mathematical Menn diagram overlays. A union overlay combines the geographic features and attribute tables of both inputs into a single new output. An intersect overlay defines the area where both inputs overlap and retains a set of attribute fields for each. A symmetric difference overlay defines an output area that includes the total area of both inputs e1cept for the overlapping area. $ata e1traction is a GIS process similar to vector overlay, though it can be used in either vector or raster data analysis. Bather than combining the properties and features

of both datasets, data e1traction involves using a "clip" or "mas'" to e1tract the features of one data set that fall within the spatial e1tent of another dataset. In raster data analysis, the overlay of datasets is accomplished through a process 'nown as "local operation on multiple rasters" or "map algebra," through a function that combines the values of each raster;s matri1. &his function may weigh some inputs more than others through use of an "inde1 model" that reflects the influence of various factors upon a geographic phenomenon. [edit] Automated cartography $igital cartography and GIS both encode spatial relationships in structured formal representations. GIS is used in digital cartography modeling as a #semi%automated process of ma'ing maps, so called Automated ?artography. In practice, it can be a subset of a GIS, within which it is e(uivalent to the stage of visualization, since in most cases not all of the GIS functionality is used. ?artographic products can be either in a digital or in a hardcopy format. :owerful analysis techni(ues with different data representation can produce high-(uality maps within a short time period. &he main problem in Automated ?artography is to use a single set of data to produce multiple products at a variety of scales, a techni(ue 'nown as cartographic generalization. [edit] Geostatistics 2ain article- Geostatistics Geostatistics is a point-pattern analysis that produces field predictions from data points. It is a way of loo'ing at the statistical properties of those special data. It is different from general applications of statistics because it employs the use of graph theory and matri1 algebra to reduce the number of parameters in the data. >nly the second-order properties of the GIS data are analyzed. "hen phenomena are measured, the observation methods dictate the accuracy of any subse(uent analysis. $ue to the nature of the data #e.g. traffic patterns in an urban environment. weather patterns over the :acific >cean%, a constant or dynamic degree of precision is always lost in the measurement. &his loss of precision is determined from the scale and distribution of the data collection. &o determine the statistical relevance of the analysis, an average is determined so that points #gradients% outside of any immediate measurement can be included to determine their predicted behavior. &his is due to the limitations of the applied statistic and data collection methods, and interpolation is re(uired to predict the behavior of particles, points, and locations that are not directly measurable.

!illshade model derived from a $igital 0levation 2odel #$02% of the Malestra area in the northern Apennines #Italy% Interpolation is the process by which a surface is created, usually a raster dataset, through the input of data collected at a number of sample points. &here are several forms of interpolation, each which treats the data differently, depending on the properties of the data set. In comparing interpolation methods, the first consideration should be whether or not the source data will change #e1act or appro1imate%. Ie1t is whether the method is sub ective, a human interpretation, or ob ective. &hen there is the nature of transitions between points- are they abrupt or gradual. Ainally, there is whether a method is global #it uses the entire data set to form the model%, or local where an algorithm is repeated for a small section of terrain. Interpolation is a ustified measurement because of a spatial autocorrelation principle that recognizes that data collected at any position will have a great similarity to, or influence of those locations within its immediate vicinity. $igital elevation models #$02%, triangulated irregular networ's #&II%, edge finding algorithms, &hiessen polygons, Aourier analysis, #weighted% moving averages, inverse distance weighting, 'riging, spline, and trend surface analysis are all mathematical methods to produce interpolative data. [edit] Address geocoding 2ain article- Geocoding Geocoding is interpolating spatial locations #R,E coordinates% from street addresses or any other spatially referenced data such as LI: ?odes, parcel lots and address locations. A reference theme is re(uired to geocode individual addresses, such as a road centerline file with address ranges. &he individual address locations have historically been interpolated, or estimated, by e1amining address ranges along a road segment. &hese are usually provided in the form of a table or database. &he GIS will then place a dot appro1imately where that address belongs along the segment of centerline. Aor e1ample, an address point of 4== will be at the midpoint of a line segment that starts with address * and ends with address *===. Geocoding can also be applied against actual parcel data, typically from municipal ta1 maps. In this case, the result of the geocoding will be an actually positioned space as opposed to an

interpolated point. &his approach is being increasingly used to provide more precise location information. &here are several potentially dangerous caveats that are often overloo'ed when using interpolation. See the full entry for Geocoding for more information. Marious algorithms are used to help with address matching when the spellings of addresses differ. Address information that a particular entity or organization has data on, such as the post office, may not entirely match the reference theme. &here could be variations in street name spelling, community name, etc. ?onse(uently, the user generally has the ability to ma'e matching criteria more stringent, or to rela1 those parameters so that more addresses will be mapped. ?are must be ta'en to review the results so as not to map addresses incorrectly due to overzealous matching parameters. [edit] Reverse geocoding Beverse geocoding is the process of returning an estimated street address number as it relates to a given coordinate. Aor e1ample, a user can clic' on a road centerline theme #thus providing a coordinate% and have information returned that reflects the estimated house number. &his house number is interpolated from a range assigned to that road segment. If the user clic's at the midpoint of a segment that starts with address * and ends with *==, the returned value will be somewhere near 4=. Iote that reverse geocoding does not return actual addresses, only estimates of what should be there based on the predetermined range.

[edit] !ata output and cartography

?artography is the design and production of maps, or visual representations of spatial data. &he vast ma ority of modern cartography is done with the help of computers, usually using a GIS but production (uality cartography is also achieved by importing layers into a design program to refine it. 2ost GIS software gives the user substantial control over the appearance of the data. ?artographic wor' serves two ma or functionsAirst, it produces graphics on the screen or on paper that convey the results of analysis to the people who ma'e decisions about resources. "all maps and other graphics can be generated, allowing the viewer to visualize and thereby understand the results of analyses or simulations of potential events. "eb 2ap Servers facilitate distribution of generated maps through web browsers using various implementations of web-based application programming interfaces #A6AR, 6ava, Alash, etc.%. Second, other database information can be generated for further analysis or use. An e1ample would be a list of all addresses within one mile #*.@ 'm% of a to1ic spill.

[edit] Graphic display techniques

&raditional maps are abstractions of the real world, a sampling of important elements portrayed on a sheet of paper with symbols to represent physical ob ects. :eople who

use maps must interpret these symbols. &opographic maps show the shape of land surface with contour lines or with shaded relief. &oday, graphic display techni(ues such as shading based on altitude in a GIS can ma'e relationships among map elements visible, heightening one;s ability to e1tract and analyze information. Aor e1ample, two types of data were combined in a GIS to produce a perspective view of a portion of San 2ateo ?ounty, ?alifornia.

&he digital elevation model, consisting of surface elevations recorded on a 8=meter horizontal grid, shows high elevations as white and low elevation as blac'. &he accompanying 7andsat &hematic 2apper image shows a false-color infrared image loo'ing down at the same area in 8=-meter pi1els, or picture elements, for the same coordinate points, pi1el by pi1el, as the elevation information.

A GIS was used to register and combine the two images to render the threedimensional perspective view loo'ing down the San Andreas Aault, using the &hematic 2apper image pi1els, but shaded using the elevation of the landforms. &he GIS display depends on the viewing point of the observer and time of day of the display, to properly render the shadows created by the sun;s rays at that latitude, longitude, and time of day. An archeochrome is a new way of displaying spatial data. It is a thematic on a 8$ map that is applied to a specific building or a part of a building. It is suited to the visual display of heat loss data.

[edit] Spatial -).

Spatial 0&7 tools provide the data processing functionality of traditional 01tract, &ransform, 7oad #0&7% software, but with a primary focus on the ability to manage spatial data. &hey provide GIS users with the ability to translate data between different standards and proprietary formats, whilst geometrically transforming the data en-route.

[edit] GIS developments

Gea9ios - tiny "2S/"AS client #Alash/$!&27% 2any disciplines can benefit from GIS technology. An active GIS mar'et has resulted in lower costs and continual improvements in the hardware and software components of GIS. &hese developments will, in turn, result in a much wider use of the technology)original research?+ throughout science, government, business, and industry, with applications including real estate, public health, crime mapping, national defense, sustainable development, natural resources, landscape architecture, archaeology, regional and community planning, transportation and logistics. GIS is also diverging into location-based services #79S%. 79S allows G:S enabled mobile devices to display their location in relation to fi1ed assets #nearest restaurant, gas station, fire hydrant%, mobile assets #friends, children, police car% or to relay their position bac' to a central server for display or other processing. &hese services continue to develop with the increased integration of G:S functionality with increasingly powerful mobile electronics #cell phones, :$As, laptops%.

[edit] /G, standards

2ain article- >pen Geospatial ?onsortium &he >pen Geospatial ?onsortium #>G?% is an international industry consortium of 835 companies, government agencies, universities and individuals ),4+ participating in a consensus process to develop publicly available geoprocessing specifications. >pen interfaces and protocols defined by >penGIS Specifications support interoperable solutions that "geo-enable" the "eb, wireless and location-based services, and mainstream I&, and empower technology developers to ma'e comple1 spatial information and services accessible and useful with all 'inds of applications. >pen Geospatial ?onsortium #>G?% protocols include "eb 2ap Service #"2S% and "eb Aeature Service #"AS%.

GIS products are bro'en down by the >G? into two categories, based on how completely and accurately the software follows the >G? specifications.

>G? standards help GIS tools communicate. Compliant Products are software products that comply to >G?;s >penGIS Specifications. "hen a product has been tested and certified as compliant through the >G? &esting :rogram, the product is automatically registered as "compliant" on this site. Implementing Products are software products that implement >penGIS Specifications but have not yet passed a compliance test. ?ompliance tests are not available for all specifications. $evelopers can register their products as implementing draft or approved specifications, though >G? reserves the right to review and verify each entry.

[edit] 0e1 mapping

2ain article- "eb mapping In recent years there has been an e1plosion of mapping applications on the web such as Google 2aps and 9ing 2aps. &hese websites give the public access to huge amounts of geographic data. Some of them, li'e Google 2aps and >pen7ayers, e1pose an A:I that enable users to create custom applications. &hese tool'its commonly offer street maps, aerial/satellite imagery, geocoding, searches, and routing functionality. >ther applications for publishing geographic information on the web include Geo9ase #&elogis GIS software%, Smallworld;s SIAS or GSS, 2apInfo;s 2apRtreme or :lanAcess ),@+ or Stratus ?onnect, ?adcorp;s GeognoSIS, Intergraph;s Geo2edia "eb2ap #&2%, 0SBI;s ArcI2S, ArcGIS Server, Autodes';s 2apguide, Sea&rails; AtlasAlive, >b ectAR;s "eb 2apping &ools, 0B$AS A:>77> Suite, Google 0arth, Google Ausion &ables, and the open source 2apServer or GeoServer.

In recent years web mapping services have begun to adopt features more common in GIS. Services such as Google 2aps and 9ing 2aps allow users to access and annotate maps and share the maps with others.

[edit] Glo1al change' climate history program and prediction of its impact
2aps have traditionally been used to e1plore the 0arth and to e1ploit its resources. GIS technology, as an e1pansion of cartographic science, has enhanced the efficiency and analytic power of traditional mapping. Iow, as the scientific community recognizes the environmental conse(uences of anthropogenic activities influencing climate change, GIS technology is becoming an essential tool to understand the impacts of this change over time. GIS enables the combination of various sources of data with e1isting maps and up-to-date information from earth observation satellites along with the outputs of climate change models. &his can help in understanding the effects of climate change on comple1 natural systems. >ne of the classic e1amples of this is the study of Arctic Ice 2elting. &he outputs from a GIS in the form of maps combined with satellite imagery allow researchers to view their sub ects in ways that literally never have been seen before. &he images are also invaluable for conveying the effects of climate change to nonscientists.

[edit] Adding the dimension of time

&he condition of the 0arth;s surface, atmosphere, and subsurface can be e1amined by feeding satellite data into a GIS. GIS technology gives researchers the ability to e1amine the variations in 0arth processes over days, months, and years. As an e1ample, the changes in vegetation vigor through a growing season can be animated to determine when drought was most e1tensive in a particular region. &he resulting graphic, 'nown as a normalized vegetation inde1, represents a rough measure of plant health. "or'ing with two variables over time would then allow researchers to detect regional differences in the lag between a decline in rainfall and its effect on vegetation. GIS technology and the availability of digital data on regional and global scales enable such analyses. &he satellite sensor output used to generate a vegetation graphic is produced for e1ample by the Advanced Mery !igh Besolution Badiometer #AM!BB%. &his sensor system detects the amounts of energy reflected from the 0arth;s surface across various bands of the spectrum for surface areas of about * s(uare 'ilometer. &he satellite sensor produces images of a particular location on the 0arth twice a day. AM!BB and more recently the 2oderate-Besolution Imaging Spectroradiometer #2>$IS% are only two of many sensor systems used for 0arth surface analysis. 2ore sensors will follow, generating ever greater amounts of data. GIS and related technology will help greatly in the management and analysis of these large volumes of data, allowing for better understanding of terrestrial processes and better management of human activities to maintain world economic vitality and environmental (uality.

In addition to the integration of time in environmental studies, GIS is also being e1plored for its ability to trac' and model the progress of humans throughout their daily routines. A concrete e1ample of progress in this area is the recent release of time-specific population data by the HS ?ensus. In this data set, the populations of cities are shown for daytime and evening hours highlighting the pattern of concentration and dispersion generated by Iorth American commuting patterns. &he manipulation and generation of data re(uired to produce this data would not have been possible without GIS. Hsing models to pro ect the data held by a GIS forward in time have enabled planners to test policy decisions. &hese systems are 'nown as Spatial $ecision Support Systems.

[edit] Semantics
&ools and technologies emerging from the "8?;s Semantic "eb Activity are proving useful for data integration problems in information systems. ?orrespondingly, such technologies have been proposed as a means to facilitate interoperability and data reuse among GIS applications ),D+),3+ and also to enable new analysis mechanisms.),<+ >ntologies are a 'ey component of this semantic approach as they allow a formal, machine-readable specification of the concepts and relationships in a given domain. &his in turn allows a GIS to focus on the intended meaning of data rather than its synta1 or structure. Aor e1ample, reasoning that a land cover type classified as deciduous needleleaf trees in one dataset is a specialization or subset of land cover type forest in another more roughly classified dataset can help a GIS automatically merge the two datasets under the more general land cover classification. &entative ontologies have been developed in areas related to GIS applications, for e1ample the hydrology ontology developed by the >rdnance Survey in the Hnited Ningdom and the S"00& ontologies developed by IASA;s 6et :ropulsion 7aboratory. Also, simpler ontologies and semantic metadata standards are being proposed by the "8? Geo Incubator Group to represent geospatial data on the web. Becent research results in this area can be seen in the International ?onference on Geospatial Semantics and the &erra ?ognita -- $irections to the Geospatial Semantic "eb wor'shop at the International Semantic "eb ?onference.

Society
0ith the populari2ation of GIS in decision ma*ing' scholars[who?] have 1egun to scrutini2e the social implications of GIS3 It has 1een argued[by whom?] that the production' distri1ution' utili2ation' and representation of geographic information are largely related (ith the social conte4t3[clarification needed] /ther related topics include discussion on copyright' privacy' and censorship3 A more optimistic social approach to GIS adoption is to use it as a tool for pu1lic participation3