Environment, Development and Society

e-Waste Management

Awadhesh Ranjan 2009CH70129

Contents
1. E-WASTE MANAGEMENT ................................................................................................................... 1 1. ECONOMIC PERSPECTIVE: ....................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 DEFINITION ......................................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 INTENSITY OF THE PROBLEM .............................................................................................................. 1 1.3 MAIN ISSUES ....................................................................................................................................... 2 1.4 CONCEPT OF EXTERNALITY ................................................................................................................. 3 1.5 SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEMS .......................................................................................................... 4 2. POPULATION PERSPECTIVE: ..................................................................................................................... 5 2.1 CURRENT AND PROJECTED CONTRIBUTION BY POPULATION:-.......................................................... 5 2.2 THE IPAT EFFECT:- ............................................................................................................................ 5 3. POLITICAL ECONOMY PERSPECTIVE: ....................................................................................................... 6 3.1 THE BASEL CONVENTION:- .................................................................................................................. 6 3.2 THE ROTTERDAM CONVENTION:- ....................................................................................................... 6 3.3 THE STOCKHOLM CONVENTION:- ....................................................................................................... 7 3.4 THE REGIONAL LEGISLATION:- ............................................................................................................ 7 2. References ........................................................................................................................................ 8

E-WASTE MANAGEMENT
1. ECONOMIC PERSPECTIVE:
1.1 DEFINITION
Electronic waste or e-waste also known as e-scrap, or waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) , a term for discarded electronic products near the end or at the end of their useful life, contains hazardous materials like mercury, arsenic, and cadmium among other toxic substances. Ewaste has been categorized into three main categories: Large Household Appliances IT and Telecom Consumer Equipment Refrigerator and washing machine represent large household appliances; PC, monitor and laptop represent IT and Telecom, while TV represents Consumer Equipment. Each of these e-waste items has been classified with respect to 26 common components found in them. These components are metal, motor/ compressor, cooling, plastic, insulation, glass, LCD, rubber, wiring/electrical, concrete, transformer, magnetron, textile, circuit board, fluorescent lamp, incandescent lamp, heating element, thermostat, brominated flamed retardant (BFR)-containing plastic, batteries, CFC/HCFC/HFC/HC, external electric cables, refractory ceramic fibers, radioactive substances and electrolyte capacitors. The composition of WEEE/e-waste is very diverse and differs in products across different categories. It contains more than 1000 different substances, which fall under hazardous and non-hazardous categories. Broadly, it consists of ferrous and non-ferrous metals, plastics, glass, wood and plywood, printed circuit boards, concrete and ceramics, rubber and other items. Iron and steel constitutes about 50% of the WEEE followed by plastics, non-ferrous metals and other constituents. Non-ferrous metals consist of metals like copper, aluminium and precious metals, e.g. silver, gold, platinum, palladium, etc. The presence of elements like lead, mercury, arsenic, cadmium, selenium and hexavalent chromium and flame retardants beyond threshold quantities in e-waste classifies them as hazardous waste. The electronic and electrical goods are largely classified under three major heads, as: white goods, comprising of household appliances like air conditioners, dishwashers, refrigerators and washing machines; brown goods, comprising of TVs, camcorders, cameras, etc.; grey goods, like computers, printers, fax machines, scanners, etc. The grey goods are comparatively more complex to recycle due to their toxic composition.

1.2 INTENSITY OF THE PROBLEM

Some of the major stakeholders in the life cycle of e-waste (see fig. 1) include producers/manufacturers, retailers (businesses/government/others), consumers (individual households/businesses/government/

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others), traders, exporters and importers, scrap dealers, disassemblers/dismantlers, smelters and recyclers.
Key:EEE: Electrical and Electronic Equipment WEEE: Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment

Raw Material Input

EEE Production

EEE Sales

EEE Consumption

WEEE Generation

WEEE Treatment

WEEE Disposal

Reuse Fig1: Life Cycle of e-Waste

New Product/WEEE Residues

Landfill

In developing countries, traders resell for reuse or, if equipment is unfit for reuse, often sell it to recyclers in the informal economy. Intermediaries collect functional items and sell them to repair shops. The recyclers are often specialized in recovering specific materials. The European countries have the highest rates of e-waste recycling, followed by Japan. It is estimated that between 50% and 80% of e-waste collected for recycling in developed countries each year is being exported. Much e-waste, however, is unaccounted for is either discarded into the general waste stream or, perhaps, illegally exported to crude e-waste recycling hotspots which have been identified in Asian countries, such as China, India, and Pakistan, and in some African countries, such as Ghana and Nigeria. It has been estimated that the total e-waste generation in India is approximately 1.5 lakh tonnes to 3.3 lakh tonnes per year and is expected to touch 4.7 lakh tonnes by 2011. The projected growth for e-waste generation for India is about 34% year on year. Of the total e-waste generated in the country, western India accounts for the largest population at 35%, while the southern, northern and eastern regions account for 30, 21 and 14%, respectively. The top states in order of highest contribution to WEEE include Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Delhi, Karnataka, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Punjab. The city-wise ranking of the largest WEEE generators is Mumbai, Delhi, Bangalore, Chennai, Kolkata, Ahmedabad, Hyderabad, Pune, Surat and Nagpur. Besides the domestic e-waste generated, an additional 50,000 MT a year is illegally imported into the country. In a single month, there is a reported case of import of 30 MT of e-waste at the Ahmedabad port.

1.3 MAIN ISSUES

The main issues posed by e-waste are as follows: High volumes High volumes are generated due to the rapid obsolescence of gadgets combined with the high demand for new technology.

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Toxic design E-waste is classified as hazardous waste having adverse health and environmental implications. Approximately 40 per cent of the heavy metals found in landfills comes from electronic waste. Poor design and complexity E-waste imposes many challenges on the recycling industry as it contains many different materials that are mixed, bolted, screwed, snapped, glued or soldered together. Toxic materials are attached to non-toxic materials, which makes separation of materials for reclamation difficult. Hence, responsible recycling requires intensive labour and/or sophisticated and costly technologies that safely separate materials. Labour issues These include occupational exposures, informal sector domination causing health and environmental problems, lack of labour standards and rights. Financial incentives In general, there is not enough value in most e-waste to cover the costs of managing it in a responsible way. However, in line with EPR policies, new opportunities can be realized with the rise in the price of many of the materials in electronics, such as gold and copper. Furthermore, with rising e-waste quantities, formal recyclers are increasingly entering the ewaste recycling sector. Lack of regulation Many nations either lack adequate regulations applying to this relatively new waste stream, or lack effective enforcement of new e-waste regulations.

1.4 CONCEPT OF EXTERNALITY

Since, e-waste is considered mainly as a source of pollution, it very well qualifies as an externality. As stated earlier, e-waste incorporates several economic incentives with it hence e-waste trade is observed towards disadvantaged and historically marginalized areas, in general. Some nations are happy to take in e-waste to use in order to extract some of the precious materials and metals that go into making modern consumer electronics. In an average year global production of mobile phones and computers uses 3% of the silver and gold mined, 13% of the palladium and 15% of the cobalt. Konrad Osterwalder, rector of the UN University, very rightly quoted about the e-wastes: "One person's waste can be another's raw material

Fig 2: Export of e-waste

1.5 SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEMS

SOLUTION BASED ON COASE THEOREM:As e-waste trade follows a very vast network so it can be observed that Coase Theorem is already in practice for tackling the problem of e-waste management. But, this practice is not so well developed yet as the trade of e-wastes is currently from developed to developing countries only. For instance, ewaste treatment in China typically involved back yard incinerators which were a wasteful and polluting way to recover precious materials. In some places efforts to extract precious metals out off e-wastes are inefficient and do not do enough to handle the hazardous materials recovery produces. Coase Theorem fails mainly because neither the rights to own and manage e-waste are exclusive nor the transfer and protection of contracted rights are free. MARKET BASED SOLUTIONS: Technical Solutions: The solution for the e-waste crisis lies in precautionary principle. This can be done by employing waste minimization techniques and by a sustainable product design. Waste minimization in industries involves adopting: Inventory management Production process modification Volume reduction Recovery and reuse Sustainable product design involves: Rethinking on procedures of designing the product (flat computers) Use of renewable material and energy Creating electronic components and peripherals of biodegradable material Looking at a green packaging option Utilizing a minimum packaging material Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) is considered one of the most appropriate frameworks that incorporates all the enlisted principles on environmental justice. This shifts the responsibility of safe disposal onto the producers. It promotes sound environmental technology and also aims at better raw material, cleaner production technology and designing for longevity. International Treaties: A range of legislation tries to control the trans-boundary movements of hazardous substances. The international conventions seeking to control the shipping of waste are the Basel Convention on the Control of Trans-boundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal (1989), Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade (1998) and Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (2001).

Cap and Trade: Cap and trade scheme treats any pollution the same, whether it's an air pollutant or a computer headed to a landfill. The government sets a limit on the amount of pollutant that may be emitted by a company or plant. That cap is allocated to firms in the form of a permit, which essentially allows that firm to emit up to the limit. For whatever reason, some firms may need to pollute or emit at a higher level than the permit allows. These firms may buy permits from other firms, those that may not need the allotted amount.

2. POPULATION PERSPECTIVE:
2.1 CURRENT AND PROJECTED CONTRIBUTION BY POPULATION:As the fastest growing component of municipal waste across the world, it is estimated that more than 50 MT of e-waste is generated globally every year. With increasing consumerism and an anticipated rise in the sales of electronic products in the countries experiencing rapid economic and industrial growth, the higher percentage of e-waste in municipal solid waste is going to be an issue of serious concern. A report of the United Nations predicted that by 2020, e-waste from old computers would jump by 400 per cent on 2007 levels in China and by 500 per cent in India. Additionally, e-waste from discarded mobile phones would be about seven times higher than 2007 levels and, in India, 18 times higher by 2020. China already produces about 2.3 million tonnes of e-waste domestically, second only to the U.S. with about three million tonnes. The EU and the U.S. would account for maximum e-waste generation during this current decade. In 2006, the International Association of Electronics Recyclers (IAER) projected that 3 billion electronic and electrical appliances would become WEEE or e-waste by 2010. That would tantamount to an average e-waste generation rate of 400 million units a year till 2010. Globally, about 20-50 MT (million tonnes) of e-wastes are disposed off each year, which accounts for 5% of all municipal solid waste. Although no definite official data exist on how much waste is generated in India or how much is disposed of, there are estimations based on independent studies conducted by the NGOs or government agencies. According to the Comptroller and Auditor- Generals (CAG) report, over 7.2 MT of industrial hazardous waste, 4 lakh tonnes of electronic waste, 1.5 MT of plastic waste, 1.7 MT of medical waste, 48 MT of municipal waste are generated in the country annually. In 2005, the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) estimated Indias e-waste at 1.47 lakh tonnes or 0.573 MT per day. A study released by the Electronics Industry Association of India (ELCINA) at the electronics industry expo Componex Nepcon 2009 had estimated the total e-waste generation in India at a whopping 4.34 lakh tonnes by end 2009. The CPCB has estimated that it will exceed the 8 lakh tonnes or 0.8 MT mark by 2012.

2.2 THE IPAT EFFECT: As observed in the last section, the concept of I = P x A x T can be very well applied to the impact of e wastes. Since, US has both the highest standard of living, thus highest affluence and latest technology, so

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it very well deserves to be have the highest impact and the expected growth is quite obvious too. Coming to India and China, the projected growth of e-waste and their impacts are mainly due to Population growth rate and Technological Advancements.

Fig 3: Approximate global contributions to e-waste

3. POLITICAL ECONOMY PERSPECTIVE:

3.1 THE BASEL CONVENTION:The Basel Convention controls the trans-boundary movement of hazardous wastes and their disposal, and is the most significant multilateral environmental agreement (MEA) in relation to tackling the issues surrounding e-waste and its management. As of September 2010, the Convention had 178 signatories (Basel Convention). However, the US, a major actor, has not ratified it.

3.2 THE ROTTERDAM CONVENTION:The Rotterdam Convention promotes shared responsibility between exporting and importing countries in protecting human health and the environment, and provides for the exchange of information about potentially hazardous chemicals that may be exported and imported. The Convention creates legally binding obligations for the implementation of the PIC procedure. The Rotterdam Convention covers pesticides and industrial chemicals that have been banned or severely controlled by Parties (Rotterdam Convention, n.d.).

3.3 THE STOCKHOLM CONVENTION:The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants was adopted in 2001 and entered into force in 2004. The Convention requires Parties to take measures to eliminate or reduce the release of POPs into the environment (Bell & McGillivray, 2006). E-waste contains many chemicals classified as POPs. The Convention aims to protect human health and the environment from chemicals that remain persistent in the environment for long periods, are distributed globally and accumulate in the fatty tissue of humans and animals.

3.4 THE REGIONAL LEGISLATION: AFRICA: a) The Bamako Convention The Bamako Convention on the Ban of the Import into Africa and the Control of Transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Wastes within Africa. b) The Durban Declaration It requires countries to follow their own process to define their responses and formulate actions in relation to the e-waste problem (Marriott, 2011). It calls for the establishment of an African regional platform and/or an e-waste forum in cooperation with established African networks and international bodies. THE EUROPEAN UNION: a) The Aarhus Convention It acknowledges that we owe an obligation to future generations and that sustainable development can only be achieved through the involvement of all stakeholders. b) The Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) Directive The aim of the legislation is the prevention of e-waste generation, and to promote the reuse, recycling and other forms of recovery of such waste so as to reduce disposal. It also seeks to improve the environmental performance of all operators involved in the life cycle of electrical and electronic equipment and, in particular, those operators directly involved in the treatment of e-waste (European Commission, n.d.(a)). It is based on the principle of producer responsibility and promotes the green design and production of electronic products. c) The RoHS Directive Its purpose is to restrict the use of hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment and contribute to the protection of human health and the environmentally sound recovery and disposal of e-waste (European Commission, n.d. (b)). Latin America

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Most countries of Latin America still lag behind in drafting a legal framework for e-waste management. However, there have been some recent developments, for example in Costa Rica, the first country in the region to develop specific, national e-waste legislation. In terms of regional agreements, the Mercosur Policy Agreement of 2006 mandates its member states, Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay and Brazil, to take national actions to ensure post-consumer responsibility by producers and importers. South Pacific a) The Waigani Convention The Waigani Convention bans the importation of hazardous and radioactive waste and controls the trans-boundary movements and management of hazardous waste within the South Pacific region.

References
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Luther, L. (2010). Managing Electronic Waste: Issues with Exporting E-Waste. DIANE Publishing. Pinto, V. N. (2008). E-waste hazard: The impending challenge. Indian J Occup Environ Med, 6570. S. Bell, D. M. (2006). Environmental Law. Oxford University Press. The plight of Chinas e-waste workers. (2011, December 8). Retrieved from China Labour Bulletin: http://www.china-labour.org.hk/en/node/16058/print