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Course Code : MCS-043

Course Title : Advanced Database Management Systems
Assignment Number : MCA (4)/043/Assign/13
Maximum Marks : 100
Weightage : 25%
Last Dates for Submission : 15th October, 2013 (For July 2013 Session)
15th April, 2014 (For January 2014 Session)
This assignment has eight questions, which carries 80 marks. Answer all the questions. Rest 20 marks are for
viva-voce. You may use illustrations and diagrams to enhance explanations. Please go through the
guidelines regarding assignments given in the Programme Guide for the format of presentation. Answer to
each part of the question should be confined to about 300 words.
Q.2(ii) How are assertions different from views? Explain assertions and (5 marks)
views with the help of examples.
Assertions
In computer programming, an assertion is a predicate (a truefalse statement) placed in a program to indicate
that the developer thinks that the predicate is always true at that place. If an assertion evaluates to false at
run-time, an assertion failure results, which typically causes execution to abort.
n languages such as Eiffel, assertions form part of the design process; other languages, such as C and Java, use
them only to check assumptions at runtime. In both cases, they can be checked for validity at runtime but can
usually also be suppressed.
Assertions in design by contract
Assertions can function as a form of documentation: they can describe the state the code expects to find
before it runs (its preconditions), and the state the code expects to result in when it is finished running
(postconditions); they can also specify invariants of a class. Eiffel integrates such assertions into the language
and automatically extracts them to document the class. This forms an important part of the method of design
by contract.
This approach is also useful in languages that do not explicitly support it: the advantage of using assertion
statements rather than assertions in comments is that the program can check the assertions every time it
runs; if the assertion no longer holds, an error can be reported. This prevents the code from getting out of
sync with the assertions.
Assertions for run-time checking
An assertion may be used to verify that an assumption made by the programmer during the implementation
of the program remains valid when the program is executed. For example, consider the following Java code:
int total = countNumberOfUsers();
if (total % 2 == 0) {
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Page 1
PLEASE I HAVE REQUESTED TO EVERYONE TO CHECK BEFORE WRITING ASSIGNMENT ...I AM NOT RESPONSIBLE FOR
// total is even
} else {
// total is odd and non-negative
assert(total % 2 == 1);
}
Views
A view is a virtual table that is derivedfrom other tables
Allows for limited update operations(since the table may not physically bestored)
Allows full query operations
A convenience for expressing certainoperations Specification of Views
SQL command:
CREATE VIEW
a table (view) name a possible list of attribute names (for example, when arithmetic operations
arespecified or when we want the names to bedifferent from the attributes in the baserelations) a query to
specify the table contents
SQL Views: An Example
Specify a different WORKS_ON table
CREATE TABLE WORKS_ON_NEW ASSELECT FNAME, LNAME, PNAME, HOURSFROM EMPLOYEE, PROJECT,
WORKS_ONWHERE SSN=ESSN AND PNO=PNUMBERGROUP BY PNAME;
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Q.3 (i) What are semantic database? Explain the process of searching (5 marks)
the knowledge in any semantic database with the help of a
block diagram.
The semantic data model is a software engineering model based on relationships between
stored symbols and the real world.
The data is organized in such a way that it can be interpreted meaningfully without human
intervention. Semantic data has a history dating back to the 1970's and is currently used in a wide
variety of data management systems and applications.
How Does Semantic Data Work?
Data is organized based on binary models of objects, usually in groups of three parts: two objects and
their relationship. For example, if one wanted to represent a cup sitting on a table, the data
organization might look like this: CUP TABLE. The objects (cup and table) are interpreted with regard
to their relationship (sitting on). The data is organized linearly, telling the software that since CUP
comes first in the line, it is the object that acts. In other words, the position of the word tells the
software that the cup is on the table and not that the table is sitting on the cup. Databases designed
around this concept have greater applicability and are more easily integrated into other databases.
History of Semantic Data
In the 1970's, the US Air Force implemented the Integrated Computer-Aided Manufacturing Program
for the purpose of applying technology to increase manufacturing productivity. Out of this program
grew an interest in semantic data. Methods of data organization were developed, including functional,
informational and dynamic. Functional models focus on how the data represents objects or activities
within the environment. Informational models are concerned with the organization and semantics of
the environmental information. The dynamics model deals with how time affects the conditions within
the environment.
Goals of Semantic Data
Semantic data systems are designed to represent the real world as accurately as possible within the
data set. Data symbols are organized linearly and hierarchically to give certain meanings like the one
described above. By representing the real world within data sets, semantic data allow machines to
interact with worldly information without human interpretation.
Applications of Semantic Data
Semantic data is very promising for the enterprise world. Database Management Systems can be
integrated with one another and compared. For example, since a company's entire infrastructure is
represented within the data model, the model can be compared to those of the company's vendors to
identify areas of inconsistency and possible improvement. This would help streamline the relationship
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between company and vendors, making database sharing and integration much simpler. Environments
and systems can also be organized graphically within a database to give a more visually-based
representation of that system or environment. Recently, a semantic language called Gellish was
developed as a formal language to represent data models. Gellish can be interpreted solely by
computers and needs no human interaction.
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(ii) With the help of an example, explain the implementation of (5 marks)

Cursors and Triggers.
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Triggers are special kind of stored procedures that get executed automatically when an INSERT, UPDATE or DELETE operation takes place on a
table.
Triggers can't be invoked on demand. They get triggered only when an associated action (INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE) happens on the table on
which they are defined.
Triggers are generally used to implement business rules, auditing. Triggers can also be used to extend the referential integrity checks, but wherever
possible, use constraints for this purpose, instead of triggers, as constraints are much faster
Cursors allow row-by-row prcessing of the resultsets.
Types of cursors: Static, Dynamic, Forward-only, Keyset-driven. See books online for more information.
Disadvantages of cursors: Each time you fetch a row from the cursor, it results in a network roundtrip, where as a normal SELECT query makes only
one rowundtrip, however large the resultset is. Cursors are also costly because they require more resources and temporary storage (results in more
IO operations). Furthere, there are restrictions on the SELECT statements that can be used with some types of cursors.
Cursor Implementations
Transact-SQL cursors.
Are based on the DECLARE CURSOR syntax and are used mainly in Transact-SQL scripts, stored procedures, and triggers. Transact-SQL cursors are
implemented on the server and are managed by Transact-SQL statements sent from the client to the server. They are also contained in batches, stored
procedures, or triggers.
Application programming interface (API) server cursors
Support the API cursor functions in OLE DB, ODBC and DB-Library. API server cursors are implemented on the server. Each time a client application calls an API
cursor function, the SQL Server OLE DB provider, ODBC driver, or DB-Library dynamic-link library (DLL) transmits the request to the server for action against
the API server cursor.
Client cursors
Are implemented internally by the SQL Server ODBC driver, the DB-Library DLL, and by the DLL that implements the ADO API. Client cursors are implemented
by caching all the result set rows on the client. Each time a client application calls an API cursor function, the SQL Server ODBC driver, the DB-Library DLL, or
the ADO DLL performs the cursor operation on the result set rows cached on the client.
Because Transact-SQL cursors and API server cursors are implemented on the server, they are referred to collectively as server cursors.
Do not mix the use of these various types of cursors. If you execute a DECLARE CURSOR and OPEN statement from an application, first set the API cursor
attributes to their defaults. If you set API cursor attributes to something other than their defaults and then execute a DECLARE CURSOR and OPEN statement,
you are asking SQL Server to map an API cursor over a Transact-SQL cursor. For example, do not set the ODBC attributes that call for mapping a keyset-driven
cursor over a result set, and then use that statement handle to execute a DECLARE CURSOR and OPEN calling for an INSENSITIVE cursor.
A potential drawback of server cursors is that they currently do not support all Transact-SQL statements. Server cursors do not support Transact-SQL
statements that generate multiple result sets; therefore, they cannot be used when the application executes a stored procedure or a batch that contain more
than one SELECT statement. Server cursors also do not support SQL statements containing the keywords COMPUTE, COMPUTE BY, FOR BROWSE, or INTO.
Triggers Implementation
Introduction to MySQL triggers
In MySQL, a trigger is a set of SQL statements that is invoked automatically when a change is made to the data on the associated table. A
trigger can be defined to be invoked either before or after the data is changed by INSERT, UPDATE or DELETE statements. MySQL
allows you to define maximum six triggers for each table.
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BEFORE INSERT activated before data is inserted into the table.

AFTER INSERT- activated after data is inserted into the table.
BEFORE UPDATE activated before data in the table is updated.
AFTER UPDATE - activated after data in the table is updated.
BEFORE DELETE activated before data is removed from the table.
AFTER DELETE activated after data is removed from the table.
When you use a statement that makes change to the table but does not use INSERT, DELETE orUPDATE statement, the trigger is not
invoked. For example, the TRUNCATE statement removes the whole data of a table but does not invoke the trigger associated with that
table.
There are some statements that use the INSERT statement behind the scenes such as REPLACEstatement and LOAD
DATA statement. If you use these statements, the corresponding triggers associated with the tables if available will be invoked.
Triggers defined for a table must have a unique name. You can have the same trigger name that defines for different tables but it is not
recommended. In practice, the names of triggers follow the following naming convention:
MySQL Triggers Storage

MySQL stores triggers in a data directory e.g., /data/classicmodels/ with the files
namedtablename.TRG and triggername.TRN:
The tablename.TRG file maps the trigger to the corresponding table.

the triggername.TRN file contains the trigger definition.
You can back up the MySQL triggers by copying the trigger files to the backup folder. You can also backup the triggers using
the mysqldump tool.
MySQL Trigger Limitations

MySQL triggers have all features in standard SQL however there are some limitations that you should know before using them in your
applications.
MySQL triggers cannot:
Use SHOW, LOAD DATA, LOAD TABLE, BACKUP DATABASE, RESTORE, FLUSH and RETURNstatements.
Use statements that commit or rollback implicitly or explicitly such as COMMIT, ROLLBACK, START
TRANSACTION, LOCK/UNLOCK TABLES, ALTER, CREATE, DROP, RENAME, etc.
Use prepared statements such as PREPARE, EXECUTE, etc.
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Use dynamic SQL statements.

Call a stored procedure or stored function.
In this tutorial, we have shown you how triggers are implemented in MySQL. We also discussed about triggers storage as well as triggers
limitations in MySQL.
Q.4 (i) What is multivalued dependency? Explain through an example (5 marks)

how is 4NF related to multivalued dependency.
In database theory, multivalued dependency is a full constraint between two sets of attributes in a relation.
In contrast to the functional dependency, the multivalued dependency requires that certain tuples be present in a relation. Therefore, a multivalued
dependency is a special case of tuple-generating dependency. The multivalued dependency plays a role in the 4NF database normalization.
A multivalued dependency is a special case of a join dependency, with only two sets of values involved, i.e. it is a 2-ary join dependency.
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(ii) Differentiate between clustering and classification approach to (5 marks)

data-mining.
CLUSTERING AND CLASSIFICATION: DATA MINING APPROACHES

Two common data mining techniques for finding hidden patterns in data are clustering and
classification analyses. Although classification and clustering are often mentioned in the same
breath, they are different analytical approaches. In this column, I describe similarities and
differences between these related, but distinct approaches.
Imaging a database of customer records, where each record represents a customer's attributes.
These can include identifiers such as name and address, demographic information such as
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gender and age, and financial attributes such as income and revenue spent. Clustering is an
automated process to group related records together. Related records are grouped together on the
basis of having similar values for attributes. This approach of segmenting the database via
clustering analysis is often used as an exploratory technique because it is not necessary for the
end-user/analyst to specify ahead of time how records should be related together. In fact, the
objective of the analysis is often to discover segments or clusters, and then examine the
attributes and values that define the clusters or segments. As such, interesting and surprising
ways of grouping customers together can become apparent, and this in turn can be used to drive
marketing and promotion strategies to target specific types of customers.
There are a variety of algorithms used for clustering, but they all share the property of iteratively
assigning records to a cluster, calculating a measure (usually similarity, and/or distinctiveness),
and re-assigning records to clusters until the calculated measures don't change much indicating
that the process has converged to stable segments. Records within a cluster are more similar to
each other, and more different from records that are in other clusters. Depending on the
particular implementation, there are a variety of measures of similarity that are used (e.g. based
on spatial distance, based on statistical variability, or even adaptations of Condorcet values used
in voting schemes), but the overall goal is for the approach to converge to groups of related
records.
Classification is a different technique than clustering. Classification is similar to clustering in
that it also segments customer records into distinct segments called classes. But unlike
clustering, a classification analysis requires that the end-user/analyst know ahead of time how
classes are defined. For example, classes can be defined to represent the likelihood that a
customer defaults on a loan (Yes/No). It is necessary that each record in the dataset used to build
the classifier already have a value for the attribute used to define classes. Because each record
has a value for the attribute used to define the classes, and because the end-user decides on the
attribute to use, classification is much less exploratory than clustering. The objective of a
classifier is not to explore the data to discover interesting segments, but rather to decide how
new records should be classified -- i.e. is this new customer likely to default on the loan?
Classification routines in data mining also use a variety of algorithms -- and the particular
algorithm used can affect the way records are classified. A common approach for classifiers is to
use decision trees to partition and segment records. New records can be classified by traversing
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the tree from the root through branches and nodes, to a leaf representing a class. The path a
record takes through a decision tree can then be represented as a rule. For example,
"Income<$30,000 and age<25, and debt=High, then Default Class=Yes). But due to the
sequential nature of the way a decision tree splits records (i.e. the most discriminative attributevalues [e.g. Income] appear early in the tree) can result in a decision tree being overly sensitive
to initial splits. Therefore, in evaluating the goodness of fit of a tree, it is important to examine
the error rate for each leaf node (proportion of records incorrectly classified). A nice property of
decision tree classifiers is that because paths can be expressed as rules, then it becomes possible
to use measures for evaluating the usefulness of rules such as Support, Confidence and Lift to
also evaluate the usefulness of the tree.
To conclude, although clustering and classification are often used for purposes of segmenting
data records, they have different objectives and achieve their segmentations through different
ways. Knowing which approach to use is important for decision-making.
Q.5 (i) What is semi structured data? Explain with an example. What is (5 marks)
the difference between a well formed XML document and a valid
XML document?
Semi-structured data[1] is a form of structured data that does not conform with the formal structure of data models associated with relational databases or
other forms of data tables, but nonetheless contains tags or other markers to separate semantic elements and enforce hierarchies of records and fields within
the data. Therefore, it is also known as schemaless or self-describing structure.
In the semi-structured data, the entities belonging to the same class may have different attributes even though they are grouped together, and the attributes'
order is not important.
Semi-structured data is increasingly occurring since the advent of the Internet where full-text documents and databases are not the only forms of data any
more and different applications need a medium for exchanging information. In object-oriented databases, one often finds semi-structured data.
Types of Semi-structured data

XML,[2] other markup languages, email, and EDI are all forms of semi-structured data. OEM (Object Exchange Model) [3] was created prior to XML as a
means of self-describing a data structure.
Some types of data described here as "semi-structured", especially XML, suffer from the impression that they are incapable of structural rigor at the same
functional level as Relational Tables and Rows. Indeed, the view of XML as inherently semi-structured (previously, it was referred to as "unstructured") has
handicapped its use for a widening range of data-centric applications. Even documents, normally thought of as the epitome of semi-structure, can be
designed with virtually the same rigor as database schema, enforced by the XML schema and processed by both commercial and custom software programs
without reducing their usability by human readers.
In view of this fact, XML might be referred to as having "flexible structure" capable of human-centric flow and hierarchy as well as highly rigorous element
structure and data typing.
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well-formed XML Documents
A well-formed XML Document has to follow several generic rules, such as:
The XML Document may only have one root element (<book>...</book>).
All tags have an ending tag or are themselves self-ending (<author>...</author> or <author/>).
Tags never overlap, so this arrangement would produce an error: <author><name>...</author></name>.
It is important to make an XML Document well-formed. In fact, W3C doesn't consider an XML Document to be XML unless it is well-formed. If the XML
Document contains a reference to a schema (e.g., a DTD, Relax NG Schema, Schematron Schema or an XML Schema), it's better to validate the XML
Document
how to check the well-formedness of an XML Document

XMLBlueprint can check the well-formedness of any DTD, Relax NG Schema, Schematron Schema, XML Schema or XML Document:
Open your XML Document in the XML Editor.
Click XML > Check Well-formedness.
valid XML Document?

A valid XML Document, in addition to being well-formed, conforms to all the constraints imposed by a schema (e.g., a DTD, Relax NG Schema, Schematron
Schema or an XML Schema). In other words, it does not contain any tags that are not permitted by the schema, and the order of the tags conforms to the
schema's specifications.
How to validate an XML Document

XMLBlueprint can validate any XML Document against a DTD, Relax NG Schema, Schematron Schema or XML Schema:
Open your XML Document in the XML Editor.
Click XML > Validate.
(ii) Define multimedia databases and challenges in designing them. (5 marks)
Multimedia Database
Multimedia data typically means digital images, audio, video, animation and graphics together with text data.
The acquisition, generation, storage and processing of multimedia data in computers and transmission over networks
have grown tremendously in the recent past.
This astonishing growth is made possible by three factors. Firstly, personal computers usage becomes
widespread and their computational power gets increased. Also technological advancements resulted in highresolution devices, which can capture and display multimedia data (digital cameras, scanners, monitors, and printers).
Also there came high-density storage devices. Secondly high-speed data communication networks are available
nowadays. The Web has wildly proliferated and software for manipulating multimedia data is now available. Lastly,
some specific applications (existing) and future applications need to live with multimedia data. This trend is expected
to go up in the days to come.
Multimedia data are blessed with a number of exciting features. They can provide more effective
dissemination of information in science, engineering , medicine, modern biology, and social sciences. It also facilitates
the development of new paradigms in distance learning, and interactive personal and group entertainment.
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The huge amount of data in different multimedia-related applications warranted to have databases as
databases provide consistency, concurrency, integrity, security and availability of data. From an user perspective,
databases provide functionalities for the easy manipulation, query and retrieval of highly relevant information from
huge collections of stored data.
MultiMedia Databases (MMDBs) have to cope up with the increased usage of a large volume of multimedia
data being used in various software applications. The applications include digital libraries, manufacturing and retailing,
art and entertainment, journalism and so on. Some inherent qualities of multimedia data have both direct and indirect
influence on the design and development of a multimedia database. MMDBs are supposed to provide almost all the
functionalities, a traditional database provides. Apart from those, a MMDB has to provide some new and enhanced
functionalities and features. MMDBs are required to provide unified frameworks for storing, processing, retrieving,
transmitting and presenting a variety of media data types in a wide variety of formats. At the same time, they must
adhere to numerical constraints that are normally not found in traditional databases.
Contents of MMDB
An MMDB needs to manage several different types of information pertaining to the actual multimedia data.
They are:
Media data - This is the actual data representing images, audio, video that are captured, digitized, processes,
compressed and stored.
Media format data - This contains information pertaining to the format of the media data after it goes through
the acquisition, processing, and encoding phases. For instance, this consists of information such as the
sampling rate, resolution, frame rate, encoding scheme etc.
Media keyword data - This contains the keyword descriptions, usually relating to the generation of the media
data. For example, for a video, this might include the date, time, and place of recording , the person who
recorded, the scene that is recorded, etc This is also called as content descriptive data.
Media feature data - This contains the features derived from the media data. A feature characterizes the
media contents. For example, this could contain information about the distribution of colors, the kinds of
textures and the different shapes present in an image. This is also referred to as content dependent data.
The last three types are called meta data as they describe several different aspects of the media data. The
media keyword data and media feature data are used as indices for searching purpose. The media format
data is used to present the retrieved information.
Designing MMDBs
Many inherent characteristics of multimedia data have direct and indirect impacts on the
design of MMDBs. These include : the huge size of MMDBs, temporal nature, richness of content,
complexity of representation and subjective interpretation. The major challenges in designing
multimedia databases arise from several requirements they need to satisfy such as the following:
Page 15
1. Manage different types of input, output, and storage devices. Data input can be from a
variety of devices such as scanners, digital camera for images, microphone, MIDI devices
for audio, video cameras. Typical output devices are high-resolution monitors for images
and video, and speakers for audio.
2. Handle a variety of data compression and storage formats. The data encoding has a variety
of formats even within a single application. For instance, in medical applications, the MRI
images of brain has lossless or very stringent quality of lossy coding technique, while the Xray images of bones can be less stringent. Also, the radiological image data, the ECG data,
other patient data, etc. have widely varying formats.
3. Support different computing platforms and operating systems. Different users operate
computers and devices suited to their needs and tastes. But they need the same kind of
user-level view of the database.
4. Integrate different data models. Some data such as numeric and textual data are best
handled using a relational database model, while some others such as video documents
are better handled using an object-oriented database model. So these two models should
coexist together in MMDBs.
5. Offer a variety of user-friendly query systems suited to different kinds of media. From a user
point of view, easy-to-use queries and fast and accurate retrieval of information is highly
desirable. The query for the same item can be in different forms. For example, a portion of
interest in a video can be queried by using either
1) a few sample video frames as an example,

2) a clip of the corresponding audio track or
3) a textual description using keywords.
6. Handle different kinds of indices. The inexact and subjective nature of multimedia data has
rendered keyword-based indices and exact and range searches used in traditional
databases ineffective. For example, the retrieval of records of persons based on social
security number is precisely defined, but the retrieval of records of persons having certain
facial features from a database of facial images requires, content-based queries and
similarity-based retrievals. This requires indices that are content dependent, in addition to
key-word indices.
7. Develop measures of data similarity that correspond well with perceptual similarity.
Measures of similarity for different media types need to be quantified to correspond well
Page 16
with the perceptual similarity of objects of those data types. These need to be incorporated
into the search process
8. Provide transparent view of geographically distributed data. MMDBs are likely to be a
distributed nature. The media data resides in many different storage units possibly spread
out geographically. This is partly due to the changing nature of computation and computing
resources from centralized to networked and distributed.
9. Adhere to real-time constraints for the transmission of media data. Video and audio are
inherently temporal in nature. For example, the frames of a video need to be presented at
the rate of at least 30 frames/sec. for the eye to perceive continuity in the video.
10. Synchronize different media types while presenting to user. It is likely that different media
types corresponding to a single multimedia object are stored in different formats, on
different devices, and have different rates of transfer. Thus they need to be periodically
synchronized for presentation.
The recent growth in using multimedia data in applications has been phenomenal.
Multimedia databases are essential for efficient management and effective use of huge amounts
of data. The diversity of applications using multimedia data, the rapidly changing technology, and
the inherent complexities in the semantic representation, interpretation and comparison for
similarity pose many challenges. MMDBs are still in their infancy. Today's MMDBs are closely
bound to narrow application areas. The experiences acquired from developing and using novel
multimedia applications will help advance the multimedia database technology.
Q.8 (i) What are the different types of index implementation available in (5 marks)
POSTgre SQL? Explain each one of them.
Indexes
PostgreSQL includes built-in support for regular B-tree and hash indexes, and two types of inverted indexes: generalized search trees (GiST) and generalized
inverted indexes (GIN). Hash indexes are implemented, but discouraged because they cannot be recovered after a crash or power loss. In addition, userdefined index methods can be created, although this is quite an involved process. Indexes in PostgreSQL also support the following features:
Expression indexes can be created with an index of the result of an expression or function, instead of simply the value of a column.
Partial indexes, which only index part of a table, can be created by adding a WHERE clause to the end of the CREATE
INDEX statement. This
allows a smaller index to be created.
The planner is capable of using multiple indexes together to satisfy complex queries, using temporary in-memory bitmap index operations.
As of PostgreSQL 9.1, k-nearest neighbor (also referred to KNN-GiST) indexing provides efficient searching of "closest values" to that specified, useful
to finding similar words, or close objects or locations with geospatial data. This is achieved without exhaustive matching of values.
In PostgreSQL 9.2 and above, index-only scans often allow the system to fetch data from indexes without ever having to access the main table.
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Index Types
PostgreSQL provides several index types: B-tree, Hash, GiST and GIN. Each index type uses a different algorithm that is best suited to different
types of queries. By default, the
CREATE INDEX command creates B-tree indexes, which fit the most common situations.
B-trees can handle equality and range queries on data that can be sorted into some ordering. In particular, the PostgreSQL query planner will
consider using a B-tree index whenever an indexed column is involved in a comparison using one of these operators:
<
<=
=
>=
>
Constructs equivalent to combinations of these operators, such as BETWEEN and IN, can also be implemented with a B-tree index search. Also,
an IS NULL or IS NOT NULL condition on an index column can be used with a B-tree index.
The optimizer can also use a B-tree index for queries involving the pattern matching operators
anchored to the beginning of the string for example,
LIKE and ~ if the pattern is a constant and is
col LIKE 'foo%' or col ~ '^foo', but not col LIKE '%bar'. However, if your
database does not use the C locale you will need to create the index with a special operator class to support indexing of pattern-matching queries;
see Section 11.9 below. It is also possible to use B-tree indexes for
ILIKE and ~*, but only if the pattern starts with non-alphabetic characters,
i.e., characters that are not affected by upper/lower case conversion.
Hash indexes can only handle simple equality comparisons. The query planner will consider using a hash index whenever an inde xed column is
involved in a comparison using the
= operator. The following command is used to create a hash index:
CREATE INDEX name ON table USING hash (column);
Caution
Hash index operations are not presently WAL-logged, so hash indexes might need to be rebuilt
Page 18
with REINDEX after a database crash if there were unwritten changes. Also, changes to hash indexes are
not replicated over streaming or file-based replication after the initial base backup, so they give wrong
answers to queries that subsequently use them. For these reasons, hash index use is presently discouraged.
GiST indexes are not a single kind of index, but rather an infrastructure within which many different indexing strategies can be implemented.
Accordingly, the particular operators with which a GiST index can be used vary depending on the indexing strategy (the operator class). As an
example, the standard distribution of PostgreSQL includes GiST operator classes for several two-dimensional geometric data types, which support
indexed queries using these operators:
<<
&<
&>
>>
<<|
&<|
|&>
|>>
@>
<@
~=
&&
(See Section 9.11 for the meaning of these operators.) Many other GiST operator classes are available in the contrib collection or as separate
projects. For more information see Chapter 52.
GIN indexes are inverted indexes which can handle values that contain more than one key, arrays for example. Like GiST, GIN can support many
different user-defined indexing strategies and the particular operators with which a GIN index can be used vary depending on the indexing
strategy. As an example, the standard distribution of PostgreSQL includes GIN operator classes for one-dimensional arrays, which support indexed
queries using these operators:
<@
@>
=
&&
(ii) What is a Join Dependency? Explain with an example. (5 marks)
Page 19
In dependency theory, a join dependency is a constraint on the set of legal relations over a database scheme. A table T is subject to a join dependency if T
can always be recreated by joining multiple tables each having a subset of the attributes of T. If one of the tables in the join has all the attributes of the table
T, the join dependency is called trivial.
The join dependency plays an important role in the Fifth normal form, also known as project-join normal form, because it can be proven that if you decompose
a scheme
on
in tables
to
, the decomposition will be a lossless-join decomposition if you restrict the legal relations on
called
to a join dependency
Another way to describe a join dependency is to say that the set of relationships in the join dependency is independent of each other.
Unlike in the case of functional dependencies, there is no sound and complete axiomatization for join dependencies,[1] though axiomatization exist for more
expressive dependency languages such as full typed dependencies.[2] However, implication of join dependencies is decidable.[3]
Formal definition[edit source | editbeta]

Let
be a relation schema and let
The relation
be a decomposition of
satisfies the join dependency
A join dependency is trivial if one of the
is
if
itself.
Silberschatz, Korth. Database System Concepts, 1st Edition[4]

2-ary join dependencies are called multivalued dependency as a historical artifact of the fact that they were studied before the general case. More specifically
if U is a set of attributes and R a relation over it, then R satisfies
iff R satisfies
Example[edit source | editbeta]

Given a pizza-chain that models purchases in table Customer = { order-number, customer-name, pizza-name, courier}. It is obvious that you can derive the
following relations:
customer-name depends on order-number

pizza-name depends on order-number
courier depends on order-number
Since the relationships are independent you can say there is a join dependency as follows: *((order-number, customer-name), (order-number, pizza-name),
(order-number,courier)).
If each customer has his own courier however, you could have a join-dependency like this: *((order-number, customer-name), (order-number, courier),
(customer-name, courier), (order-number,pizza-name)), but *((order-number, customer-name, courier), (order-number,pizza-name)) would be valid as well.
This makes it obvious that just having a join dependency is not enough to normalize a database scheme.
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Course Code : MCS-043

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(ii) With the help of an example, explain the implementation of (5 marks)

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BEFORE INSERT activated before data is inserted into the table.

MySQL Triggers Storage

The tablename.TRG file maps the trigger to the corresponding table.

MySQL Trigger Limitations

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Use prepared statements such as PREPARE, EXECUTE, etc.

Use dynamic SQL statements.

Q.4 (i) What is multivalued dependency? Explain through an example (5 marks)

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(ii) Differentiate between clustering and classification approach to (5 marks)

CLUSTERING AND CLASSIFICATION: DATA MINING APPROACHES

Types of Semi-structured data

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well-formed XML Documents

Tags never overlap, so this arrangement would produce an error: <author><name>...</author></name>.

how to check the well-formedness of an XML Document

valid XML Document?

How to validate an XML Document

(ii) Define multimedia databases and challenges in designing them. (5 marks)

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1) a few sample video frames as an example,

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INDEX statement. This

allows a smaller index to be created.

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LIKE and ~ if the pattern is a constant and is

i.e., characters that are not affected by upper/lower case conversion.

= operator. The following command is used to create a hash index:

CREATE INDEX name ON table USING hash (column);

(ii) What is a Join Dependency? Explain with an example. (5 marks)

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Formal definition[edit source | editbeta]

be a relation schema and let

satisfies the join dependency

A join dependency is trivial if one of the

Silberschatz, Korth. Database System Concepts, 1st Edition[4]

Example[edit source | editbeta]

customer-name depends on order-number

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