1

Index Terms--Commercial Losses, Load factor, Loss factor,

Monophase Systems with Return by Earth MSRE, Technical
Losses.
I. INTRODUCTION
The studies and research were accomplished involving the
power distribution electric system that supplies the rural areas
of the Companhia Energtica de Pernambuco - CELPE,
constituted of small rural producers, with properties of up to
10 ha, and that represent more than 76% of the rural properties
of the state of Pernambuco in the northeast of Brazil.
CELPE has an infrastructure of more than 30.000 km of
rural distribution line, using predominantly (95%) the
Monophase Systems with Return by Earth - MSRE, and
supplying energy for a rural population of about 1.800.000
inhabitants.
Fig. 1. Conceptual model for development of MDEPL

Ccero M. P. dos Santos is with the Departamento de Engenharia Eltrica e
Ssistemas de Potncia, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife,
Pernambuco, Brasil CEP: 50730-540 (e-mail: cmar@elogica.com.br).
The technical losses are part of the electric losses of the
system, resulting in: losses in the drivers, losses by corona
effect, losses in the iron of the transformers, losses by eddy
currents, losses in connectors, dielectric losses ... these losses
can still be grouped according to the segment of the electric
system where it happens, being subdivided in losses in the
transmission system, in the power transformers (substations),
in the primary system of distribution, in the secondary system
of distribution, in the connection extensions and in the
measurement systems.
The commercial losses are caused by clandestine
connections, frauds in energy meters, diversity of readings and
deficiencies (or losses) in the processes of energy
measurement.
By virtue of the great incidence of MSRE in the rural
electrification of CELPE and the absence of studies
(bibliography) for the evaluation of the technical losses in
such systems, the development of a model that considers and
makes possible the due treatment of both portions
(commercial and technical) of the global losses of electric
power is necessary.
The MSRE represents about 2,4% of total load of CELPEs
customers. It represents, however, about 75% of the total
length of the transmission lines in 13,8 kV.
II. MODEL OF DETERMINATION OF ELECTRIC POWER LOSSES
MDEPL
The undertaking for the evaluation of the losses in the rural
electrical distribution system was developed based on the
conceptual model presented in Fig. 1 [1] and [2].
The activities accomplished in the formulation stages and
approval of the studies considered the following details of the
blocks 1 and 2 of Fig. 1.
Determination of Electric Power Losses in
Distribution Systems
Ccero M. P. dos Santos, Senior Member, IEEE
To define the requirements
of MDEPL (2)
To evaluate available information in conformity
with the requirements and objectives (4)
Considerations about possible
configurations of MDEPL (3)
Understanding of
the objectives (1)
Choose of the best configuration for
MDEPL (6)
Characteristics (5)
a
d
b
c
Physical system
(7)
Control, accompaniment
and evaluation (8)
The adopted
model (9)
Accompaniment and integration
of the model to the physical
system (10)
b
a
Eventual settings, function of
project data (11)
Acceptable
results?
c
d
Final model (12)
Needs
identified
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1-4244-0288-3/06/$20.00 2006 IEEE
2006 IEEE PES Transmission and Distribution Conference and Exposition Latin America, Venezuela
2
A. Identified needs (Definition of the objectives)
The following needs were identified for the development of
MDEPL:
- Detailed Knowledge of the components of the
technical and commercial losses, associated to the
system;
- Grouping of the losses in conformity with the system
/ physical component associated;
- Estimate of the commercial losses as being a result of
the subtraction of the representative portion of the
global technical losses from the global losses of
energy.
B. Requirements of MDEPL
It was considered that the model should assist the following
requirements:
- Represent all the present physical components
appropriately in the system of rural electrification;
- Adopt methodology that makes an evaluation of the
electric power losses by sections previously selected
possible;
- Provide a study platform and information that will
help in controlling and reducing the electric power
losses.
C. Structuring of MDEPL
The model is composed of two sub models, according to
show Fig. 2, and detail to proceed:
Fig. 2. - Flow of relationship of the sub models I and II
1) Sub Model I:
That sub model was developed seeking the calculation of
the technical losses in the condition of maximum load, in all
elements of the rural distribution system to be studied, through
programs of load flow. This guaranteed conservative results
for the commercial losses, in other words, expecting lower
results than the real value. The entrance data is of the elements
of the system, i.e., transmission lines, transformers, maximum
load.
2) Sub Model II:
That sub model was developed based on the calculation of
the average annual technical losses in several elements of the
system to be studied, using the technical losses in the
condition of maximum load. For that, it is necessary the
knowledge of the load curves, associated with the system in
analysis. The entrance data is derived from calculations, based
on the load curves associated with the system being studied,
for every typical working day, Saturday, Sunday and holiday;
and the seasonal characteristics. The result is the mean
technical losses measured in all the elements of the system, for
the considered period.
D. Development of Sub Model I
Considering any system to be studied starting from a bus of
reference 1, as detailed in Fig. 3a. For reasons of simplicity
Fig. 3a shows the system already in the radial form. Fig. 3b
shows the transformer in the bus n and a representation of the
linked load to the same.
a) Radial MSRE
b) Current in the bus n and associated transformer
Fig. 3. - Elements of MSRE under study
The basic premises for the considered system are:
- Numbering of the busses crescent starting from the
bus 1;
- Unitary power factor, measured in the reference bus,
for all the loads of the system;
- The earth resistance associated to each load bus (bus
with transformers), the resistance pattern will be
considered for each power transformer, according to
data of CELPE's project;
- Systems exclusively radial.
S
n
being the apparent power of the total load in the bus n,
in the condition of maximum load and | is the angle of the
power factor. S
n
is calculated starting from the data of billing
of the load, where the monthly consumption (in kWh)
associated to the bus n is obtained.
Through the load curves, for the working days, saturdays,
sundays and holidays, it is determined the average load factor
regarding the bus n, i.e., f
Cn
. It is determined, then, P
n
, the
active power associated to S
n
.
Where:
Characteristic
data of the
system
Sub model
I
Sub model
II
Derived
factors of the
load curves
Mean
Technical
Losses
3
(1)
Knowing that V
n
is the tension in the bus n.
With that, it is determined all the i
n
for n load busses. For
any branch pq of the system is had:
_
=
n pq
i i
(2)
For every n starting from the reference bus 1.
As all the i
n
depend on the voltages in the load bus, taking
an initial application of the method, all the voltages 1 pu are
considered and starting from this condition the new bus
voltage is calculated, and so on until a desired convergence.
Afterwards all the i
pq
can be obtained.
For the calculation of all the i
pq
, it can be considered that all
the currents are in phase. This in the sense of emphasizing the
conservation criterion to be accomplished when on the
occasion of the final evaluation of the commercial loss.
Besides causing economy in the processing.
The calculation of the Total Technical Losses - TTL is
accomplished starting from the following expression:
( ) _ _ +
(

+ + + = (3)
BT
P
FEn
P
n
i
TRn
R
Tn
R
pq
i
pq
R TTL
2 2
Where:
- R
pq
= Resistance of the branch pq;
- i
pq
= Current in the branch pq;
- R
Tn
= Earth resistance associated to the bus n;
- R
TRn
= Resistance of the linked transformer to the bus n;
- i
n
= Load current in the bus n;
- P
FEn
= Loss in the core of the linked transformer to the
bus n;
- P
BT
= Loss in the circuits of low voltage.
To arrive at the total technical losses the value of the loss in
the low voltage must be added. Not forgetting the great
diversity in the arrangement of the structures of the circuits of
low voltage, this loss can be considered as a constant
percentage value of the total load, which was defined, in this
case, based on criteria of area of project of the company, but,
also, it could be obtained by measurements in the field. It tried
to keep the conservation criterion, for the calculation of the
commercial losses, as already mentioned above.
E. Development of the Sub Model II
Considering the availability of data of measurements and
billing, the total losses of energy can be calculated for any
group of consuming units.
Being like this, so that the Commercial Losses - CL can be
appraised, the mean technical losses should be calculated, in
the evaluation period, for the considered group. Knowing that:
CL = GLOBAL LOSSES TECHNICAL LOSSES (4)
1) Evaluation of mean technical losses:
Considering that the technical losses are directly linked to
the arrangements of the electric circuits and the behavior of
the loads, the period of inclusion of the calculations should
consider the seasonal variations of the load of the considered
area.
At first, it is recommended that the period of one year be
examined for the evaluation of the mean technical losses.
Through studies of power flow and of measurements in
specific points of the system, the technical losses can be
calculated and confronted in the condition of maximum load.
In this way, three typical days were considered; these are work
days (U), Saturdays (S), Sundays and holidays (D). So over
the period of one year, taking holidays into account, we can
conclude that there are: 248 days U, 50 days S and 67 days D.
Therefore taking into account the technical losses in the
conditions of maximum load for work days (U), Saturdays (S)
and Sundays and holidays (D).
Where:
- f
C
Mean annual load factor;
- f
P
Mean annual losses factor;
- D
mxU
and f
CU
- Maximum demands and load factor for a
typical work day (U);
- D
mxS
and f
CS
- Maximum Demands and load factor for a
typical saturday (S);
- D
mxD
and f
CD
- Maximum Demands and load factor for one
sunday and typical holiday (D);
- f
PU
, f
PS
and f
PD
- Loss factor for work day (U), saturday (S)
and sunday and typical holiday (D).
be obtained:
365
67 50 248
mxU
mxD
CD
mxU
mxS
CS CU
C
D
D
f
D
D
f f
f
+ +
= (5)
365
67 50 248
2
2
2
2
mxU
mxD
PD
mxU
mxS
PS PU
P
D
D
f
D
D
f f
f
+ +
= (6)
Being P
Tmx
Maximum Technical Loss (percentage) and P
T
,
the Mean Technical Loss Percentile, is:
C
P
Tmx T
f
f
P P = (7)
2) Determination of the commercial losses:
Considering as known the Mean Technical Losses (P
Tw
- in
watts), from sub model II, we can calculate the Loss of Energy
(P
TE
) for a period considered T:
T P P
TW TE
= (8)
Through the data of billing, we can calculate P
GE
(Global
Loss of Energy) for the same period T, starting from the
Measured Energy - EM and of the Billed Energy - EF.
EF EM P
GE
= (9)
Being P
CE
(Commercial Loss of Energy)
TE GE CE
P P P = (10)
III. APPLICATION OF THE MODEL - APRACTICAL CASE
The case was based on the measurement installed in a rural
area of Paudalho municipality, in the state of Pernambuco, in
| cos
n
n
n
V
P
i =
4
the derivation of the feeder Paudalho 04, involving 01 (one)
general measurement in high voltage (7.967,43 V
phase-neutral
)
and 22 (twenty two) measurements in low voltage (220 V
p-n
),
corresponding to the monophase transformers that feed the
consuming units.
By virtue of the unavailability of the measurement
equipments, on the part of CELPE, the measurements were
not accomplished during eight months, as was initially
foreseen, but for only twenty-nine days.
The area under study contained 112 consumers of energy,
of which 97 had electric energy meters and 15 didnt have any
meters. The measurement period was made up in the
following way: 21 work days, 04 saturdays and 04 sundays.
A. Criteria Used for Determining the Mean Technical Losses
The mean technical losses are function of the mean factors
of loss and load and of the maximum technical loss. This last
variable is calculated through the sub model I, as detailed in
Section II, and whose entrance data considered, according to
premises, facts and accomplished calculations are presented
below, relative to the area of the rural feeder Paudalho 04 (sub
system chosen to confront results of the MDEPL with field
data):
- Total number of bus = 36
- Reference bus =1
- Number of load bus = 35
- Number of transmission lines = 35
- Losses in earth resistance = 0,58 kW
- Fixed losses (magnetic core of all transformers) = 3,06 kW
- Loss of active power = 1,24 kW
- Maximum technical loss = 4,89 kW
To the value of the maximum technical losses calculated
were added the losses referring to the circuit in low voltage,
which represented 1,56 kW in the case, according to project
values from CELPE.
1) Criterion 1:
Typical load curves with base in the maximum demand. In
this criterion a typical day was chosen that presented a larger
demand than similar days. In accordance with this criterion
the results obtained are presented in the Tables I, II and III [3],
below.
The results obtained indicate an estimate for the
commercial losses in 43,47%.
TABLE I
DATA OF THE TYPICAL DAYS BASED ON THE MAXIMUM DEMAND
Day D
Maximum demands 32,16 kW
Loss factor 0,30
Load factor 0,53
Day S
Maximum demands 34,18 kW
Loss factor 0,34
Load factor 0,56
Day
Maximum demands 35,10 kW
Loss factor 0,28
Load factor 0,52
TABLE II
MEAN FACTORS BASED ON THE MAXIMUM DEMAND
MEAN FACTORS
Mean loss factor 0,28
Mean load factor 0,52
TABLE III
LOSSES BASED ON THE MAXIMUM DEMAND
LOSSES
P
Tmx
6,45 kW
P
T
3,556 kW
P
TE
2.475 kWh
EM 12.960,12 kWh
EF 4.852,00 kWh
P
GE
= EM EF 8.108,12 kWh
P
CE
= P
GE
- P
TE
5.633,12 kWh
[(P
CE
-P
TE
)/EM]x100% 43,47 %
2) Criterion 2:
Typical load curves based on the period of overlap. The
selection criterion for the typical days, in this case, was based
on the load curve of the day that presents the largest overlap
frequency with one of the other similar days. An example of
this applied criterion in the choice of a typical sunday (sunday
3), it is presented below in the Fig. 4.
Based on this criterion the technical losses (P
TE
) the result
was 2.482,62 kWh and the commercial losses (P
CE
) 5.625,51
kWh, i.e., 43,41%.
B. Considerations on the Obtained Results
Within the verified criteria the above had prominence and
practically presented the same results. Registering, however,
that was great variations were not seen in the results when
using different criteria.
It is important to register that in the composition of the 6,45
kW of maximum technical loss, 4,89 kW were obtained
through calculations accomplished by the sub model I, relative
to the transformers and LT's of the net of high tension, and
1,56 relative kW to the circuit in low tension, by estimates
supplied by CELPE, as already previously mentioned.
It is worth pointing out, still, that the model makes possible
the use of the movable average, according to (11),
incorporating the possible existent lapse time between the
measurement and the billing, and in the sense of lessening
these effects on the losses. These calculations, however, were
not seen as necessary, by virtue of the time lapse being
considered despicable, for the practical case here presented.
Where:
- EMi - Energy measured in month i;
- EFi - Energy invoiced in month i;
- P
GEm
- Global Loss of Energy in month m.
(11) % x
EM
EFi EMi
P
m
m- i
i
m
m i
m
m i
GEm 100
1
1
2 1
1
_
_ _
+
=
+
=
+
=

=
5
Where:
Days: Sunday 1 Sunday 2
Sunday 3 Sunday 4
Fig. 4- Comparison between the load curves of sundays and holidays (D)
IV. PROCESS OF ADOPTION OF MDEPL IN THE SEARCH OF
REDUCTION OF LOSSES OF ENERGY
In Fig.5 is presented a sequence of procedures by which
the MDEPL developed can be incorporate, as an auxiliary
instrument in an action plan looking for the reduction of the
electric power losses.
V. CONCLUSION
The objectives of the work were fully reached, once a
mathematical model was developed that allows the adoption
of procedures assisting the needs and requirements initially
established. MDEPL directs actions in the sense of a
necessary evaluation of the electric power losses (technical
and commercial) in the rural system, in a regional way, and
consequently it aids the process of decision making, with
views to implementing actions that try to reduce such losses.
The model even goes further than the purposes of the project,
because, it can be adopted, through small fittings, in types of
different systems from what is presented here (MSRE).
Also the field missions produced results evidencing the
robustness of the developed model and providing ways and
means that aim at the reduction of energy losses.
Action plan for reduction of the global losses, with
base in the indications and recommendations of
MDEPL.
Execution in agreement with the action plan.
Verification and accompaniment of the action
effectiveness, through MDEPL and of the updating
of the load curves and technical losses.
Effective?
Updating of the load curves, and reflection, with base
in analyses of cost benefit, concerning new actions
and future planning.
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Fig. 5. Flow of the managerial actions with aid of MDEPL
VI. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author would like to thank every member of the team
for the development of the relative works of this Project of
Research and Development - R&D, Agncia Nacional de
Energia Eletrica - ANEEL for accompanying us and for
helping us in spite of the difficulties that appeared during the
development of the project. CELPE, through its coordinating
teams of projects of R&D, project, laboratory (GMML-
Unidade de Planejamento e Controle de Medio) and field
(TSCA-Unidade Territorial de Servios de Rede do Cabo;
TSCP-Unidade Territorial de Servios de Rede de Carpina),
for the effort in trying to look for alternative solutions, due to
the difficulties that appeared during the research of the
project.
VII. REFERENCES
[1] Stuart Pugh, Creating innovative products Using total design.
Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., 1996, pp. 449-459.
[2] Benjamin S. Blanchard and Wolter J. Fabrycky, System Engineering and
Analysis. Prentice Hall International Series in Industrial and Systems
Engineering, 2
nd
Edition, 1990, pp. 34-54.
[3] Companhia Energtica de Pernambuco CELPE, Universidade Federal
de Pernambuco - UFPE, Fundao Nacional para o Desenvolvimento da
Educao Tecnolgica FUNTEC, Desenvolvimento de Modelo de
Sistema de Distribuio Voltado para Determinao de Perdas de
Energia Eltrica. Final report of the Project of R&D, May 2004.
VIII. BIOGRAPHY
Ccero Mariano P. dos Santos was born in Paraba, Brazil, on April 24,
1951. He graduated in electrical engineering from the Escola de Engenharia,
Universidade Federal de Pernambuco (UFPE) in 1974 and subsequently
worked for the Companhia Hidroeltrica do So Francisco (CHESF) on the
planning, project, operation and maintenance of equipments and electric
power systems until 1995. He received the M.Sc. degree in 1976 from Escola
Federal de Engenharia de Itajub (EFEI) and the Ph.D. degree in 1999 from
the Escola de Engenharia, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina (UFSC).
Currently is professor at UFPE and studies in areas as planning, project and
performance of equipments and electric systems.