Contents

List of Contributors............................................................................................xvii
1 Introduction....................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Structure and Fundamental Problems of Electrical Power
Systems ...................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Power Flow Control, Distributed Generation and Energy Storage
Benefits to Grids ........................................................................................ 4
1.3 Smart Electrical Energy Networks Concept .............................................. 8
References........................................................................................................... 9
2 Principles of Electrical Power Control.......................................................... 13
2.1 Power Theory........................................................................................... 13
2.1.1 Critical Review of Classical Power Theory.................................. 13
2.1.2 Instantaneous Power Theory ........................................................ 27
2.2 General Problems and Solutions of Control in Smart Power
Systems .................................................................................................... 31
2.2.1 Control in Smart Power Systems.................................................. 31
2.2.2 Damping of the System Oscillations ............................................ 33
2.2.3 Power Quality Control.................................................................. 37
References......................................................................................................... 46
3 Overview of Power Electronics Converters and Controls........................... 55
3.1 Power Electronics Background................................................................ 55
3.1.1 Historical Perspective ................................................................... 57
3.1.2 Generic Power Electronics Arrangements.................................... 59
3.1.3 Switching and Continuous Models of Converters ........................ 62
3.2 High Technology of Converters............................................................... 66
3.2.1 State-of-the-Art of Power Semiconductors Switches ................... 67
3.2.2 Soft-switching vs Hard-switching Techniques ............................. 69
3.2.3 Construction Arrangement and Cooling Systems......................... 73
3.3 Multi-level Converters............................................................................. 77
3.3.1 Multi-level Converter Concepts ................................................... 77

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3.3.2 Basic Comparison of Multi-level Inverter Topology.................... 81

3.3.3 Space Vector PWM Algorithm of a Multi-level VSI ................... 82
3.4 Z-source Converters................................................................................. 88
3.4.1 Operation Principle of the Voltage Z-inverter .............................. 90
3.4.2 Three-level and Four-wire Inverters with Z-source...................... 93
3.5 Summary.................................................................................................. 97
References......................................................................................................... 98
4 Quality Problems in Smart Networks ......................................................... 107
4.1 Power Quality and EMC........................................................................ 107
4.2 Power Quality Issues ............................................................................. 110
4.2.1 Magnitude of the Supply Voltage............................................... 111
4.2.2 Voltage Fluctuation .................................................................... 112
4.2.3 Voltage Dips and Short Supply Interruptions............................. 114
4.2.4 Voltage and Current Distortion .................................................. 116
4.2.5 Classification of Electromagnetic Disturbances ......................... 119
4.3 Power Quality Monitoring ..................................................................... 120
4.3.1 Measuring Procedures ................................................................ 120
4.3.2 Measurement Aggregation Over Time Intervals ........................ 120
4.3.3 Flagging Concept........................................................................ 121
4.3.4 Assessment Procedures............................................................... 121
4.4 Legal and Organizational Regulations................................................... 123
4.5 Mitigation Methods................................................................................ 124
4.6 EMC Related Phenomena in Smart Electrical Power Systems.............. 125
4.6.1 Origin and Effects of Electromagnetic Disturbances
and EMC Terminology............................................................... 126
4.6.2 EMC Standardisation.................................................................. 132
4.6.3 Conducted EMI Spreading Over Distributed Electrical
Power Systems............................................................................ 135
4.6.4 Improving EMC of Distributed Power Systems ......................... 139
References....................................................................................................... 144
5 EMC Cases in Distributed Electrical Power System ................................. 147
5.1 Four-quadrant Frequency Converter...................................................... 147
5.2 Adjustable Speed Drives........................................................................ 158
5.3 Multi-level Inverters .............................................................................. 163
References....................................................................................................... 172
6 High Frequency AC Power Distribution Platforms................................... 175
6.1 Introduction............................................................................................ 175
6.2 High Frequency in Space Applications.................................................. 176
6.3 High Frequency in Telecommunications ............................................... 181
6.4 High Frequency in Computer and Commercial Electronics
Systems .................................................................................................. 186
6.5 High Frequency in Automotive and Motor Drives ................................ 190
6.5.1 Automotive ................................................................................. 190
6.5.2 Motor Drives .............................................................................. 192

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6.6
6.7

High Frequency in Microgrids............................................................... 195

Future Prospects..................................................................................... 197
6.7.1 Future Drivers and Funding Issues ............................................. 197
6.7.2 Future Trends and Challenges .................................................... 198
Acknowledgement .......................................................................................... 199
References....................................................................................................... 200
7 Integration of Distributed Generation with Electrical Power
System ............................................................................................................ 203
7.1 Distributed Generation Past and Future ................................................. 203
7.1.1 DG Conversion Energy Systems ................................................ 204
7.1.2 DG Opportunities ....................................................................... 205
7.1.3 DG Classifications, Location and Sizes...................................... 206
7.2 Interconnection with a Hosting Grid Parallel Operation..................... 207
7.2.1 Interconnection of DG Fueled by Fossil Fuel............................. 207
7.2.2 Interconnection of DG Fueled by Non-fossil Fuel ..................... 208
7.2.3 Interconnection of DG Fueled by Mix of Fossil
and Non-fossil Sources............................................................... 209
7.3 Integration and Interconnection Concerns ............................................. 211
7.4 Power Injection Principle....................................................................... 214
7.5 Power Injection Using Static Compensators.......................................... 216
7.5.1 Fixed VAR Compensation.......................................................... 216
7.5.2 Controllable Dynamic VAR Compensators ............................... 217
7.6 Power Injection Using Advanced Static Devices................................... 220
7.6.1 Static Synchronous Compensator ............................................... 221
7.6.2 Unified Power Flow Controller .................................................. 222
7.7 Distributed Generation Contribution to Power Quality
Problems ................................................................................................ 222
7.8 DG Current Challenges.......................................................................... 224
References....................................................................................................... 226
8 Active Power Quality Controllers ............................................................... 229
8.1 Dynamic Static Synchronous Compensator........................................... 229
8.1.1 Topology .................................................................................... 229
8.1.2 Principle of Operation ................................................................ 231
8.1.3 Load Compensation.................................................................... 233
8.1.4 Voltage Regulation ..................................................................... 236
8.2 Other Shunt Controllers Based on D-STATCOM ................................. 238
8.2.1 Hybrid Arrangements ................................................................. 238
8.2.2 Controllers with Energy-storage Systems................................... 241
8.3 Dynamic Static Synchronous Series Compensators .............................. 243
8.3.1 Identification of Separate Components of the
Supply-terminal Voltage............................................................. 245
8.3.2 Harmonic Filtration and Balancing of the Voltage
in Three-wire Systems ................................................................ 247
8.4 Dynamic Voltage Restorer..................................................................... 250
8.4.1 What is a DVR............................................................................ 250

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8.4.2 Control Strategies of the DVR Arrangements ............................ 251

AC/AC Voltage Regulators ................................................................... 258
8.5.1 Electromechanical Voltage Regulators....................................... 259
8.5.2 Step Voltage Regulators ............................................................. 260
8.5.3 Continuous-voltage Regulators .................................................. 261
References....................................................................................................... 263
8.5

9 Energy Storage Systems ............................................................................... 269

9.1 Introduction............................................................................................ 269
9.2 The Structure of Power Storage Devices ............................................... 271
9.3 Pumped-storage Hydroelectricity .......................................................... 272
9.4 Compressed Air Energy Storage System ............................................... 278
9.5 Flywheels............................................................................................... 282
9.6 Battery Storage ...................................................................................... 287
9.7 Hydrogen Storage .................................................................................. 291
9.8 Superconducting Magnet Energy Storage.............................................. 295
9.9 Supercapacitors...................................................................................... 297
9.10 Application of Energy Storage Devices................................................. 299
References....................................................................................................... 301
10 Variable and Adjustable Speed Generation Systems................................. 303
10.1 Introduction............................................................................................ 303
10.1.1 Conventional Generation Systems ........................................... 303
10.1.2 Variable and Adjustable Speed Decoupled
Generation Systems.................................................................. 306
10.2 Electrical Power Systems....................................................................... 311
10.2.1 Introduction .............................................................................. 311
10.2.2 Autonomous Generation Systems with Permanent
Magnet Generators ................................................................... 312
10.2.3 Non-autonomous Generation Systems with
Permanent Magnet Generators ................................................. 316
10.2.4 Hybrid Generation Systems...................................................... 318
10.2.5 Engine Starting in Power Electronic Generation
Systems .................................................................................... 319
10.3 Prime Movers and the Control System .................................................. 321
10.3.1 Prime Movers ........................................................................... 321
10.3.2 Speed Control Strategies .......................................................... 322
References....................................................................................................... 324
11 Grid Integration of Wind Energy Systems ................................................. 327
11.1 Introduction............................................................................................ 327
11.2 System Overview................................................................................... 327
11.3 Wind Energy Converters ....................................................................... 330
11.3.1 Energy Conversion................................................................... 330
11.3.2 Tip Speed Ratio and Power Curve ........................................... 331
11.3.3 Operation Modes ...................................................................... 333
11.3.4 Power Limitation...................................................................... 334

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11.3.5 Speed Control........................................................................... 336

11.3.6 Power Curves of WECs............................................................ 337
11.4 Grid Integration ..................................................................................... 339
11.4.1 Generator Types ....................................................................... 339
11.4.2 Types of Common Grid Coupling............................................ 343
11.4.3 Wind Park Design and Energy Management ........................... 344
11.4.4 Reactive Power Management in Wind Parks ........................... 345
11.5 Power Quality on WECs........................................................................ 352
11.5.1 Power Fluctuations and Flicker ................................................ 352
11.5.2 Harmonics ................................................................................ 358
11.6 Offshore Wind Energy........................................................................... 367
11.6.1 Installation Numbers and Conditions ....................................... 367
11.6.2 Wind Park Design .................................................................... 367
11.6.3 Transmission Types.................................................................. 368
11.7 Future Requirements and Developments ............................................... 369
11.7.1 WEC Types .............................................................................. 369
11.7.2 Energy Management, Storage and Communication ................. 370
11.8 Economics and Reimbursement............................................................. 371
References....................................................................................................... 372
12 Grid Integration of Photovoltaics and Fuel Cells....................................... 375
12.1 Introduction............................................................................................ 375
12.2 Photovoltaics Power Plants.................................................................... 375
12.2.1 System Overview ..................................................................... 375
12.2.2 Energy Conversion................................................................... 376
12.2.3 Cell Types ................................................................................ 377
12.2.4 Modeling of PV Cells............................................................... 378
12.2.5 Modeling of PV Modules ......................................................... 380
12.2.6 Operation Behaviour ................................................................ 381
12.2.7 Inverter Types .......................................................................... 381
12.2.8 Plant Design ............................................................................. 382
12.2.9 Grid Interfacing and Islanding Detection ................................. 383
12.2.10 Power Quality........................................................................... 387
12.2.11 Future Development................................................................. 391
12.2.12 Economics ................................................................................ 391
12.3 Fuel Cell Power Plants........................................................................... 392
12.3.1 Fuel Cell Types ........................................................................ 392
12.3.2 Energy Conversion................................................................... 396
12.3.3 Grid-connected Applications.................................................... 397
12.3.4 Plant Design ............................................................................. 400
12.3.5 Grid Interfacing ........................................................................ 402
12.3.6 Economics ................................................................................ 403
12.3.7 Future Development................................................................. 405
References....................................................................................................... 406
Index .................................................................................................................... 409

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