THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM I.

THE BLOOD DESCRIPTION: It is a viscous (thick) fluid that varies in color from bright scarlet to dark red, depending on how much oxygen it is carrying. the blood is carried through a closed system of vessels pumped by the heart FUNCTIONS: 1. Transportation a. Oxygen from inhaled air diffuses into the blood through the thin lung membranes and is carried to all the tissues of the body. Carbon dioxide, a waste product of cell metabolism is carried from the tissues to the lungs, where it is breathed out. b. The blood transports nutrients and other needed substances, such as electrolytes and vitamins to the cells. These materials may enter the blood from the digestive system or may be released into the blood from body stores. c. The blood transports the waste products form the cells to the sites from which they are released. The kidney removes excess water, electrolytes and urea and maintains the acid-base balance of the blood. The liver removes bile pigments and drugs. d. The blood carries hormones from their sites of origin to the organs they affect. 2. Regulation a. Buffers in the blood help keep the pH of body fluids at about 7.4. b. The blood serves to regulate the amount of fluid in the tissues by means of substances that maintain the proper osmotic pressure. c. The blood transports heat that is generated in the muscles to other parts of the body, thus aiding in the regulation of body temperature. 3. Protection a. The blood carries the cells that are among the bodys defenders against pathogens. It also contains substances that are concerned with immunity to disease. b. The blood contains factors that protect against blood loss from the site of an injury. BLOOD CONSTITUENTS A. Blood Plasma over half of the total volume of blood the plasma itself is 90% water, the other 10% make up by other substances the next largest percentage of material in the plasma is protein 1. Albumin, the most abundant protein plasma, is important for maintaining osmotic pressure of the blood. This protein is manufactures in the liver. 2. Antibodies combat infection. 3. Blood clotting factors are also manufactured in the liver. 4. A system of enzymes made of several proteins collectively known as complement, helps antibodies in their fight against pathogens. Nutrients are also found in the plasma. 1. The principal carbohydrate found in the plasma is glucose, which is absorbed by the capillaries of the intestine following digestion. Glucose is stored mainly in the liver as glycogen and is released as needed to supply energy. 2. Amino acids, the products of protein digestion, are also found in the plasma. These are also absorbed into the blood through the intestinal capillaries. 3. Lipids constitute a small percentage of blood plasma. Lipids include fats. They may be stored as fat for reserve energy or carried to the cells as a source of energy. 4. The electrolytes in the plasma appear primarily as chloride, carbonate, or phosphate salts of sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium.

 waste products hormones and other materials B. Formed Elements 1. Erythrocytes from erythro meaning red, are the red blood cells, which transport oxygen are tiny, disk-shaped bodies with a central area that is thinner than the edges the most numerous of the corpuscles, averaging from 4.5 to 5 million per cubic millimetre of blood the production of erythrocytes is stimulated by the hormone erythropoietin which is produced in the kidney in response to a decrease in oxygen supply. functions are: a. to carry oxygen from the lungs to the tissues b. to carry a small amount of carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs for elimination by exhalation 2. Leukocytes from leuko, meaning white, are several types of white blood cells, which protects against infection they contain nuclei of varying shapes and sizes; the cells themselves are round they are outnumbered by red blood cells by 700 to 1, numbering but 5000 to 10,000 per cubic millimetre of blood there are different types of white blood cells identified by their size, shape of the nucleus and the appearance of granules in the cytoplasm A. granulocytes a. neutrophils which shows lavender granules - most numerous of the white cells, constituting up to 60% of all leukocytes - they are also called polymorphs or simply polys because the nuclei are of various shapes b. eosinophils which have beadlike, bright pink granules c. basophils which have large, dark blue granules that often obscure the neuclus B. agranulocytes a. lymphocytes b. monocytes function mainly to destroy pathogens 3. Platelets also called thrombocytes, are cell fragments that participate in blood clotting the smallest formed elements the number of platelets in the circulating blood has been estimated to 200,000 to 400,000 per cubic millimetre they are essential to blood coagulation HEMOSTASIS the process that prevents the loss of blood from the circulation when a blood vessel is ruptured by an injury events in hemostasis include the following: a. Contraction of the muscles in the wall of the blood vessels. This reduces the flow of blood and loss from the defect in the vessel wall.

b. Formation of a platelet plug. Activated platelets become sticky and adhere to the defect to form a temporary plug. c. Formation of a blood clot. II. THE HEART the prime mover that propels blood throughout the body it is a muscular pump that drives the blood through the blood vessels slightly bigger than a fist it is located between the lungs in the center and a bit to the left of the midline of the body the strokes of this pump average about 72 per minute and are carried on unceasingly for the whole of a lifetime STRUCTURE OF THE HEART A. Layers of the Heart Wall 1. Endocardium a very thin smooth layer of cells that resembles squamous epithelium. This membrane lines the interior of the heart. The valves of the heart are formed by reinforced folds of this material. 2. Myocardium the muscle of the heart, is the thickest layer. The structure of cardiac muscle is unique and have specialized cell membranes that allow for rapid transfer of electric impulses between the cells. 3. Epicardium forms the thin, outermost layer of the heart wall and is continuous with the serous lining of the fibrous sac that encloses the heart. These membranes together make up the pericardium. The serous lining of the pericardial sac is separated from the epicardium on the heart surface by a thin film of fluid. B. Two Hearts and a Partition the two sides are completely separated from each other by a partition called the septum. the upper part of the partition is called the interatrial septum, while the larger portion is called interventricular septum. C. Four Chambers 1. Right atrium a tin walled chamber that receives the blood returning from the body tissues. This blood, which is low in oxygen, is carried in the veins, the blood vessels leading to the heart from the body tissues. 2. Right Ventricle pumps the venous blood received from the right atrium into the lungs 3. Left atrium receives blood high in oxygen content as it returns from the lungs 4. Left ventricle which has the thickest walls of all, pumps oxygenated blood to all parts of the body. This blood goes through the arteries, the vessels that take blood from the heart to the tissues. D. Four Valves 1. right atrioventricular valve 2. left atrioventricular valve 3. pulmonic valve located between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery that leads to the lungs 4. aortic valve located between the left ventricle and the aorta E. Blood supply to the Myocardium 1. Coronary arteries first branches of aorta; fill when heart relaxes 2. Coronary sinus collects venous blood from heart and empties into right atrium

PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HEART A. The Cardiac Cycle 1. diastole relaxation phase 2. systole contraction phase B. Cardiac Output volume pumped by each ventricle per minute 1. stroke volume amount pumped with each beat 2. heart rate number of beats per minute C. Conduction System 1. sinoatrial node pacemaker-at top of right atrium 2. atrioventricular node between atria and ventricles 3. atrioventricular bundle branches into right and left bundle branches on either side of septum D. Heart Rates controlled by internal and external factors 1. bradycardia slower rate than normal; less than 60 beats/minute 2. tachycardia faster rate than normal; more than 100 beats/minute 3. extrasystole premature beat E. Heart Sounds 1. Normal a. Lubb occurs at closing of atrioventricular valves b. Dupp occurs at closing of semilunar valves 2. Abnormal - murmur

III.

THE BLOOD VESSELS A. Functional Classification 1. Arteries carries blood away from the heart a. arterioles small arteries 2. Veins carries blood toward heart a. venules small veins 3. Capillaries allow for exchanges between blood and tissues, or blood and air in lungs; connect arterioles and venules B. Circuits 1. Pulmonary circuit carries blood to and from lungs 2. Systemic circuit carries blood to and from rest of body C. Structure 1. Tissue layers a. innermost single layer of flat epithelial cells (endothelium) b. middle thicker layer of smooth muscle and elastic connective tissue c. outer connective tissue 2. Arteries all three layers; highly elastic 3. Arterioles thinner walls, less elastic tissue, more smooth muscle 4. Capillaries only endothelium; single layer of cells 5. Veins all three layers; thinner walls than arteries, less elastic tissue D. Systemic Arteries 1. Aorta largest artery Divisions: a. ascending aorta 1. left and right coronary arteries b. aortic arch 1. brachiocephalic trunk 2. left common carotid artery

c. descending aorta 1. thoracic aorta 2. abdominal aorta 2. Iliac arteries final division of aorta; branch to pelvis and legs 3. Anastomoses communications between arteries E. Systemic Veins 1. location a. superficial near surface b. deep usually parallel to arteries with same names as corresponding arteries 2. superior vena cava drains upper part of body 3. inferior vena cava drains lower part of body 4. venous sinuses enlarged venous channels 5. hepatic portal system carries blood from abdominal organs to liver, where it is processed before returning to heart F. Physiology of Circulation 1. Capillary exchange a. primary method diffusion b. medium tissue fluid c. blood pressure drives fluid into tissues d. osmotic pressure pulls fluid into capillary 2. Regulation of blood flow a. vasodilation increase in diameter of blood vessel b. vasoconstriction decrease in diameter of blood vessel c. vasomotor center in medulla; controls contraction and relaxation of smooth muscle in vessel wall d. effects 1. control of blood distribution 2. regulation of blood pressure 3. Return of blood to heart a. pumping action of the heart b. pressure of skeletal muscles on veins c. valves in veins d. breathing changes in pressure move blood toward heart