Cnut's takeover

When William, Duke of Normandy defeated Harold Godwinson on the field of Hastings, he was conquering a nation of collaborators. The story of the Norman Conquest does not start in !"", but #! years earlier, with another in$asion and another grou% of Norsemen. &n ! ", Cnut, 'ing of Denmark, sei(ed the kingdom of )ngland by e*%loiting the bitter ri$alries between king +ethelred ,nraed -without counsel., his son )dmund &ronside and his closest ad$isors. Cnut/s takeo$er had not been une*%ected0 many )nglish magnates had been aligning themsel$es for 1ust such an e$entuality 2 most im%ortant among them being )adric, ealdorman of 3ercia, whose treachery at the 4attle of +shingdon handed Cnut the throne. ...traitors were never trusted but collaboration paid. )adric did not get quite the reward he e*%ected. +t the Christmas court of ! 5, Cnut stunned the )nglish with the murder of ealdorman )adric, his su%%orters and e$ery member of +ethelred/s royal family he could get his hands on. 6nly )dward and his brothers, the younger sons of +ethelred, sur$i$ed. They fled to Normandy, where they took refuge with Duke 7ichard &&, brother of their mother )mma. &n %lace of the murdered magnates, Cnut installed his own men, both Danish and )nglish, loyal to himself. The most %rominent of these were )arls 8eofric and Godwine, who %ros%ered under the new Danish r9gime. They and their families had learned two $aluable lessons from the Danish conquest0 traitors were ne$er trusted, but collaboration %aid. Cnut also secured his e*ternal %osition by marrying )mma, maintaining a link to the old r9gime and ensuring that the Duke of Normandy would not come out in fa$our of the dis%ossessed )dward.

The Godwines
)dward s%ent the ne*t :! years in e*ile under the %rotection of his uncle, Duke 7ichard && and his successors. Whilst there, he made se$eral friends, among them )ustace of 4oulogne and the 4reton 7al%h the ;taller. 6n his return to )ngland in !<=, as )dward the Confessor, he %romoted many of these >renchmen into %ositions of influence, as a counterbalance to the o$erweening %ower of the Godwine family. ...a notorious group called the Frenchmen... The Godwines had %ros%ered greatly while )dward was away. ,nder Cnut and his successors, they had amassed so much land that they were second only in %ower and wealth to that of the 'ing. ;o when )dward returned after the death of Cnut/s son, Harthacnut, he found his %osition hamstrung by Cnut/s old )arls. He tried to offset this by allying himself with )arls 8eofric and ;iward, the enemies of Godwine, and by %romoting his own friends, a notorious grou% called the />renchmen/ who were made u% of the Norman and >rench nobles with whom )dward had shared his young adulthood.

William of Normandy
3eanwhile, Normandy was embroiled in its own succession crisis. Duke 7ichard &&/s son, 7obert, had died in !:#, lea$ing an ?2year2old bastard son, William as his heir. William/s formati$e years were immersed in assassination, e*ile and ci$il war, from which he emerged in !<5 at the 4attle of @al2As2Dunes as the dominant %ower in Normandy, with his ca%ital at 7ouen, a %ros%erous trading settlement much like @iking Bor$ik -Cork.. William was a large man, of e*ce%tional strength and a%%earance. His tomb at ;t )tienne in Caen was des%oiled by Cal$inists during the 7eformation, but its si(e and analysis of the one remaining thigh bone show that he was remarkably tall for a medie$al man, standing at #/ !D. He had inordinate strength0 William of 3almesbury describes how he could draw a bow that no other man could draw, whilst s%urring on a horse. He was also ruthlessly efficient, and thanks to his childhood $alued %ersonal loyalty and the unbreakable ties of the family abo$e all else. To this end, he %romoted his two half2brothers into key %ositions. 7obert became Count of 3ortain and 6do became 4isho% of 4ayeu*. &n !#!, he married 3atilda, daughter of the Count of >landers in what seems to ha$e been a genuine lo$e2match. He doted on his wife and trusted her 1udgement enough in later life to lea$e her as his regent in Normandy.

dward the Confessor

...he was aware he might ne$er ha$e children... )dward, by contrast, was already an old man. He had s%ent his entire adult life waiting for the chance to be 'ing of )ngland, and ha$ing achie$ed it had found his %ower circumscribed by the o$er2%owerful sub1ects of his %redecessors, so much so that he was forced to marry )dith, daughter of Godwine, in a marriage of dynastic e*%ediency. The chroniclers say that he des%ised his wife so much that he ne$er consummated the marriage. &nstead, he /found God/ throwing himself into %ious works, the most enduring of which was the foundation of Westminster +bbey. ;o by !# , it is entirely %ossible that he was aware he might ne$er ha$e children, so long as he remained married to )dith. &n !# , he acted against the Godwines. The le$er he used was a dis%ute between )ustace of 4oulogne and )arl Godwine s%arked by an incident at Do$er. )ustace, on the orders of the 'ing, tried to take o$er the town. Godwine resisted, and when he was called to account, chose to flee into e*ile with his sons rather than face a %re1udiced tribunal. )dward immediately %ut aside )dith, and at the same time, William of Normandy came to $isit )ngland.

William gains power

8ater Norman chronicles claim that on this $isit )dward offered William the crown of )ngland. &t is difficult to see why. )dward was in the most %owerful %osition he had achie$ed since his accession in !<=. He had got rid of the Godwines and his a%%ointees were in all the %ositions of %ower. He had also %ut aside his wife, and no doubt could ha$e found a way round the di$orceEannulment %roblem in one of the many time2honoured traditions. Cet it can also be argued that knowing whilst he remained married to )dith that he would remain childless, )dward chose to $est the future of the kingdom into the hands of his old friend and %rotector/s family, which had 1ust %ro$en its fecundity with the birth of William/s son 7obert. We will ne$er know. What is certain is that if )dward did offer William the kingdom at this %oint, it would not be the last time he ga$e it away. The %romise was essentially worthless -though of course we know that William did not wish to $iew it that way.. ...his former allies teamed u% against him... William himself had rather more %ressing things on his mind by !#=. He had become so %owerful that his former allies had teamed u% against him, forcing him to defend his %osition. Howe$er, by !"!, both Henry & of >rance and Geoffrey of +n1ou had died lea$ing weak successors, and William was %oised to e*%and again. This e*%ansion had a %ur%ose. William was well aware of the $ulnerable %osition of Normandy, surrounded on three sides by enemies, and his actions from !"= onwards were designed to ensure that Normandy 2 and the %ersonal %atrimony of its dukes 2 would remain secure. ...he was in$ading merely to secure his inheritance. &n !"=, he in$aded the neighbouring county of 3aine. His 1ustification for this is worth noting, for William claimed that Count Hubert of 3aine had agreed to marry one of William/s daughters and lea$e his domain to William if he died without heirs. Hubert is su%%osed to ha$e named William his heir on his deathbed, and William claimed that he was in$ading merely to secure his inheritance. This is the first of three times this e*cuse was used to 1ustify conquest in William/s life0 the only time it e$er seems to be belie$ed is o$er )ngland. The increasing %ersonal %ower of William is demonstrated by the change in terminology on Norman charters at this time. Norman nobles cease being fidelis -faithful. men, and the duke becomes their dominus -lord.. The change is significant. William was now e*ercising control in Normandy through his own %ersonal %atronage, fa$ouring his most %owerful friends and su%%orters. +mong these were his childhood friends William fit(6sbern and 7oger de 3ontgomery, who had become his closest and most trusted ad$isors and confidants, alongside his half2brothers 7obert de 3ortain and 6do of 4ayeu*.

!arold
4ack in )ngland, the Godwines had returned. They were back by !#=, e$en more %owerful than before, and )dward/s >renchmen were forced to flee the kingdom. When Godwine died in !#:, his mantle was taken u% by his son Harold Godwinson. &n !##, )arl ;iward of Northumbria died whilst his son, Waltheof, was too young to succeed him, and Harold manoeu$red his brother Tostig into the earldom. This further strengthened the hold of the Godwine clan on the kingdom. 4y !"<, it was ob$ious to all that )dward was going to die without an heir, and Harold must ha$e been weighing u% his chances of becoming king. Harold/s character has been blackened beyond all recognition by the e$ents of !"". No chronicler could write of him without referring to the role he %layed in the drama that would lead u% to the Norman Conquest. Therefore, he has been %ortrayed as de$ious and secreti$e, an oathbreaker and a chancer. + chancer he undoubtedly was, but then e$eryone was gambling in !"". Harold was clearly courageous, an able warrior and an astute %olitician. He was able to 1udge the way the wind was blowing and bend with it, breaking through ancient enmities to form the alliances that were necessary to the real%olitik of his world. He was also handsome and charming, and had an undoubtedly lo$ing relationshi% with his concubine, )dith ;wan2neck. Cet the e$ents during the last two years of his life show that he was also willing to lie and e$en sacrifice his family on the altar of his ambition.

!arold visits Normandy

Harold %rayed at 4osham +bbey before making his tri% to Normandy F Harold $isited Normandy in !"<. Why he did this, no2one can be certain. +ll %ro2Norman sources claim that he was sent by )dward to confirm the offer of the crown to William. 6n the 4ayeu* Ta%estry, he is de%icted recei$ing either orders or a warning from )dward, but since he is undoubtedly being admonished for his /failure/ on his return, this can hardly ha$e been instructions to confirm William as king. )nglish sources hint that he was going to >rance and was shi%wrecked on his way, which was why he ended u% in Normandy. ;adly, the +nglo2;a*on Chronicle is com%letely silent on the sub1ect. &t has also been suggested that he was $isiting William in an effort to negotiate the freeing of his brother, Wulfnoth, who was a hostage in William/s court. William clearly wanted to o$erawe Harold. +ll we know for certain is that Harold landed in the Norman %ro$ince of Gonthieu, where he was arrested by Count Guy of Gonthieu. When William heard of his arri$al, he sent messengers ordering Count Guy to hand o$er his %risoner, which was duly done. +t this %oint, William was embarking u%on a cam%aign into 4rittany against the new Duke of 4rittany, Conan &&, and he took Harold with him. William clearly wanted to o$erawe Harold. He knew that they were both in the running for the crown of )ngland, and he ho%ed that by

taking him on the 4rittany cam%aign he could im%ress Harold with the futility of o%%osing Norman interests. Howe$er, the %lan backfired s%ectacularly. The 4ayeu* Ta%estry, in a masterful %iece of %ro%aganda, %ortrays the cam%aign as a trium%h0 Conan flees furti$ely from the town of Dol and surrenders the keys of Dinan to William. Howe$er, other sources %ortray a com%letely different %icture in which William e*hausted himself in a futile chase around 4rittany and was finally forced to withdraw after he ran out of su%%lies. The only %erson to come out well from the whole affair was Harold, who is %ortrayed on the 4ayeu* Ta%estry rescuing some of William/s men from the quicksands in front of 3ont ;t. 3ichel. His later actions tend to indicate that he was less than im%ressed by this demonstration of the ine*orable Norman war machine in action.

"ath

Harold/s ca%ture in >rance F The $isit ended with Harold swearing his infamous oath to Duke William. This is eloquently described by the +nglo2 Norman historian 6rderic @italis0 /Harold himself had taken an oath of fealty to Duke William at 7ouen in the %resence of the Norman nobles, and after becoming his man had sworn on the most sacred relics to carry out all that was required of him. +fter that, the Duke had taken Harold on an e*%edition against Conan, Count of 4rittany, and had gi$en him s%lendid arms and horses and hea%ed other tokens u%on him and his com%anions./ &n this %assage, 6rderic highlights the three great bones of contention about the oath0 no2one can agree where it was sworn -7ouenH 4onne$illeH 4ayeu*H.I no2one can agree when it was sworn -before or after the 4rittany cam%aignH.I and no2one can agree why it was sworn. Was Harold sim%ly swearing an oath of fealty as a $assal of William, or was there actually something more to it, as the %ro2Norman sources would ha$e us belie$eH This is im%ortant, because as a $assal of William/s, Harold was not constrained to hand o$er the crown of )ngland any more than William, a $assal of the >rench king, owed the crown to >rance. + close e*amination of the 4ayeu* Ta%estry tends to suggest that Harold was being honoured after heroics on the 4rittany cam%aign, gi$en arms and armour, and in return swearing an oath of fealty. )$en the most %ro2Norman sources tend to suggest that there was an element of trickery about the whole occasion0 Harold is said to ha$e sworn a hollow oath, after which William whi%%ed away the co$ering on the table, re$ealing the most holy of relics which bound it. ;o it seems likely that Harold did not belie$e he was swearing away the kingdom, and it was only after the fact that William and his a%ologists were able to dress this u% as the great act of %er1ury that it became.

Consolidation of power
;till, we should not %aint Harold in com%letely innocent colours. Harold was already thinking like a king by !"<. He was undoubtedly considering his own %osition $is J $is the throne of )ngland, and like any %olitician of his age, he would undoubtedly ha$e sworn to anything in order to get himself out of the dangerous %osition in which he found himself. ...'ings made and broke...$ows all the time... 'ings made and broke solemn $ows all the time, and it was only when someone else had something to gain from it that they were called to account. Harold needed to get back to )ngland and muster the su%%ort he would require to make his bid. &n order to do that, he would ha$e sworn away his own brother. &n a %assage laden with hindsight, the chronicler )admer has )dward admonishing Harold on his return0 /Did & not tell you that & knew William, and your going might bring untold calamity u%on this kingdomH/ The %roof of this all came in !"#, when the %eo%le of Northumbria rebelled against the harsh rule of their new earl, Harold/s brother Tostig. Tostig a%%ealed to Harold and the 'ing for hel%, but that hel% was not forthcoming. )dward held no lo$e for Tostig, and Harold had seen a way that he could use his brother/s misfortune to win the backing of the other great %ower in the land, the family of 8eofric. 8eofric/s grandson, )dwin, was now the )arl of 3ercia and almost as strong as Harold himselfI but his brother, 3orcar, was yet to ha$e an earldom. Harold made a deal0 he would su%%ort 3orcar into Northumbria against his own brother Tostig and also against the rightful heir, Waltheof, if the family of 8eofric eschewed its old enmity with the Godwines and su%%orted Harold in his bid for the throne. This act of filial treachery was to ha$e significant consequences. Tostig fled into e*ile, $owing re$enge against his brother, and the scene was set for the tragic e$ents of !"".