UNIT 7 CULVERTS, CAUSEWAY AND BRIDGES

Structure
7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 Introduction
Objectives

Culverts, Causeway and Bridges

Types of Cross-drainage Structures and their Adoption Criteria Guidelines for Selection of Site Components of a Bridge Fixation of Waterway
7.5.1 7.5.2 7.5.3 7.5.4 7.5.5 7.5.6 7.5.7 Estimation of Discharge Alluvial Streams Streams not Wholly Alluvial Streams with Rigid Banks Steams which Overflow the Banks Span Arrangement Clearance

7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9

Foundation Depth and Arrangement Bridge Loadings Types of Culverts Types of Bridges and their Suitability

7.10 Causeways 7.11 Over-bridges, Flyovers and Underpasses 7.12 Summary 7.13 Key Words 7.14 Answers to SAQs

7.1 INTRODUCTION
Roads have to cross several natural streams like rivers and canals. They also have to cross railway lines and cross-roads. The structures needed for this purpose are culverts, bridges, causeways, over-bridges, flyovers and underpasses.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to understand what are the various types of structures encountered in a road, understand their suitability to site conditions, and know how their span and foundation details are worked out.

7.2 TYPES OF CROSS-DRAINGE STRUCTURES AND THEIR ADOPTION CRITERIA

7.2.1 Types of Cross-drainage Structures
The following are the types of cross-drainage structures : (a) (b) (c) Culverts, having waterway upto 6 m. Minor Bridges, having waterway in the range of 6-30 m. Medium size Bridges, having waterway in the range of 30-100 m. 91

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(d) (e)

Major Bridges, having waterway greater than 100 m. Paved dips and Causeway which allow water to flow over the roadway.

7.2.2 High Level and Submersible Bridges

Bridges may be high level or submersible. Highway level bridges have their deck level sufficiently above the highest flood level, with adequate clearance. On less important roads, it is permissible to allow the bridge to be submerged for a few times in a year and for few hours on each occasion. Such structures are known as submersible bridges.

7.3 GUIDELINES FOR SELECTION OF SITE

The following are some of the guidelines for selecting the site of a bridge : (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) A site which is on a straight reach of the river is preferred to a site on a bend of the river. The site should be sufficiently away from the confluence of tributories. A site with a stable and well-defined bank is preferred. A site which offers a square crossing should be preferred. A site with good foundation conditions (rocky bed) should be preferred. Avoid a site with geological faults. Select a site free from landslides, slips and subsidences.

7.4 COMPONENTS OF A BRIDGE

The main components of a bridge are :
Sl. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Component Superstructure Bearings Abutment Pier Abutment/Pier cap Foundations : (a) Open footings (b) Piles (c) Wells 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Flooring Curtain walls Wing wall/Return wall Railing Wearing coat Approach slab Guide bunds Footpath Kerb Function To withstand the live load and transmit it to substructure and foundations To facilitate longitudinal movement of superstructure To bear the load from the superstructure at the two ends and withstand the earth pressure Intermediate supports To provide a seat for the bearings To transmit the load to the soil strata below at a safe bearing capacity value

To prevent scour of foundations To prevent scour of foundations To support the earthwork in approaches behind the abutment To define the end of the bridge and prevent vehicles falling into the streams To distribute the wheel loads on the slab and protect the slab To withstand the effect of live loads behind abutment To guide the flow of large alluvial streams into the waterway provided To provide for pedestrian movement A vertical or nearly vertical member at the two ends of the carriageway to protect the vehicle from hitting the railing

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These are indicated in Figures 7.1 and 7.2.

C L C L C L

Culverts, Causeway and Bridges

SUPERSTRUCTURE APPROACH SLAB DIRT WALL ABUTMENT CAP ABUTMENT RIGHT RETURN WALL

PIER CAP PIER

BEARINGS

CLEARANCE
HFL GL

FOUNDATION

Figure 7.1(a) : Elevation of Bridge

WEARING COAT KERB 2.5% RAILING SUPERSTRUCTURE BEARING PIER CAP PIER
1 8

HFL GL
1 8

SECTION OF A PIER

Figure 7.1(b) : Elements of a Bridge

TOP OF WEARING COAT SLAB

IN 12

H = 11'-4"

FRONT BATTE R1

ABUTMENT BACK LINE

4'-0" 4'-0" NEAT LINE G.L.

4'-0"

FRONT ELEVATION
OFFSET FOUNDATION OFFSET

SECTION ON X X'

FOUNDATION OFFSET

FRONT BATTER 1:12

SLAB SEAT BALLAST WALL

LEVEL OFFSET

REAR BATTER

X'

SLOPE

22 45
ET FS OF ET ON F S TI OF DA L UN VE FO LE

LE VE S R EA L LO TR P R IA IN N G B FR GUL PO A TT O AR RTIO ER LE NT PO N O R VE B TIO F W 1 FO A IN IN N L U O TTE O F G W 3. N S FF D 5 R WIN ALL A LO SE 1 : G W TO TI P 12 A P O E T LL N TO O F P

4'-0"
Y'

FS ET

SECTION ON Y Y'

LEVEL PORTION

4'-0"
Y

FOUNDATION PLAN

1 IN 12

R REA

BAT

TER

1 IN

3.6

Figure 7.2 : Abutment and Wing Wall

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7.5 FIXATION OF WATERWAY

7.5.1 Estimation of Discharge
The estimation of discharge of a stream is necessary for determining the waterway, clearance and foundation details. Discharge is estimated from : (a) (b) empirical formula, and rational formula.

There are several empirical formula for estimation of discharge. Dickens formula, given below is commonly adopted. Q = CM3/4 where Q = Discharge in cu m/sec, M = Catchment area in sq. km, C = A constant with the following values : C = 11-14 where the annual rainfall is 60-120cm = 14-19 in Madhya Pradesh = 22 in Western Ghats. The rational formula, given below, requires the intensity of rainfall. Q = 0.028 PAIC where Q = Discharge in cum per sec., P = Coefficient of run-off for the catchment, having values of 0.10-0.90 depending upon porosity of the surface, A = Catchment area in hectares, and Ic = Critical intensity of rainfall in cm per hour.

7.5.2 Alluvial Streams

In alluvial streams, the regime width of a river is calculated from the Laceys formula : W = 4.8 Q where W = Regime width in m, and Q = Discharge in cu m per sec. The waterway is kept equal to the regime width.

7.5.3 Streams Not Wholly Alluvial

In streams which are not wholly alluvial, consisting of bed of pebbles, rock, etc. the liner waterway is kept equal to the actual surface width of the stream, measured from edge to edge along the high flood level line.

7.5.4 Streams with Rigid Boundaries

The bridge should span from bank to bank, measured along the high flood level line.

7.5.5 Streams which Overflow the Banks

In streams which overflow the banks, the waterway is kept equal to the Laceys regime width and the river is provided with guide bunds to train the flow.

7.5.6 Span Arrangement

The number of spans and the span length are decided on the basis of the well-known thumb rule that the cost of the superstructure equals the cost of the substructure and foundations. Roughly, the span is 1.5 times the height of the pier from the bottom of the foundation to the top of the pier.

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7.5.7 Clearance
Clearance is provided above the high flood level upto the levels where bearings are fixed for accommodating any trees floating along the river. The clearance depends upon the discharge, and varies from 0.15 m for small discharge (upto 0.3 cu m per sec) to 1.5 m for discharge over 3000 cu m per sec.

Culverts, Causeway and Bridges

SAQ 1
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) What are culverts, minor bridges, medium size bridges, major bridges, paved dips and causeways? What are the guidelines for selecting the site of a bridge? What are the main components of a bridge and their function? Give the Dickens formula for estimating discharge. If the catchment area is 1000 sq km and the stream is located in Madhya Pradesh, what is the maximum estimated discharge? Give the Laceys formula for fixing the waterway of a bridge across a river with alluvial bed.

7.6 FOUNDATION DEPTH AND ARRANGEMENT

There are two types of foundations, viz, (a) (b) Shallow foundations, also known as open foundations, and Deep foundations.

Slab culverts and small bridges are generally provided with shallow foundations. Even for large bridges, if good rocky strata is met with at shallow depths, open foundations are adequate. If the strata is erodible, open foundations can be protected by providing impermeable flooring protected by cut-off walls (Figure 7.3).
FLOOR DEPRESSED BY 0.5m BELOW DEEPEST BED LEVEL 6m 3m LENGTH OF PIER 1.5m 3m

0.8m 1.2m DRY RUBBLE TALUS D/S CURTAIN WALL 2.75m IMPERVIOUS APRON 0.5m THICK C.C. (M-15) BED 0.15m THICK

0.8m 1m DRY RUBBLE TALUS U/S CURTAIN WALL

Figure 7.3 : General Arrangement of Floor Protection Works

Deep foundations are generally made of wells for rivers. For land structures, pile foundations are adopted. For erodible beds (such as alluvial streams), the foundations should be taken to a depth below the maximum high flood level equal to 1.33 times the maximum scour depth. The scour depth is calculated from the Laceys formula :
1

D=

0.473 Q 3 f
1 3

where D = Scour depth in m, Q = Discharge in cu m per sec, and f = silt factor, equal to 1.76 m , where m is the mean diameter of the particles in mm.
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For example, if the maximum discharge of a river is 1000 cu m per sec, and the silt factor is 0.60, the maximum scour depth is : D= 0.473
1 (1000) 3 1

f3
1

0.473 9.98 3 = 0.84

= 5.62 m The depth of the foundation below the high flood level is then 1.33 5.62 = 7.47 or 7.5 m. The well foundation consists of : (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) well curb with cutting edge well steining bottom plug sand filling top plug well cap

A typical arrangement of a well foundation is given in Figure 7.4.

1.5m

2.5m R.C.C WELL CAP 0.3m TH. C.C TOP PLUG IN CONCRETE 2.5m DIA. WELL STEINING IN CONCRETE 4.0m DIA. SAND FILLING

BOTTOM PLUG IN CONCRETE R.C.C WELL CURB

1.5m 1.2m
0.75m

2.5m 100mm x 100mm x 10mm ANGLE 200mm x 12.5mm M.S PLATE 1.5m DETAILS OF WELL CURB AND CUTTING EDGE

4.0m

PLAN TWIN WHEELS PLAN OF TWIN WELLS

Figure 7.4 : Details of Well Foundation

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7.7 BRIDGE LOADINGS

Loadings of bridges in India have been standardized by the Indian Roads Congress. The major features of the various load classes are given below :
Class IRC Class 70 R Features A tracked vehicle of 70 Tonnes load or a wheel load of 100 Tonnes. Individual axle load of 20 Tonnes and bogie axle load of 40 Tonnes. A tracked vehicle of 70 Tonnes or a wheeled vehicle of 40 Tonnes. The maximum individual axle load of 20 Tonnes and bogie axle load of 40 Tonnes. A train of vehicles consisting of a main vehicle of 28.2 Tonnes load, followed by two trailers of 13.6 Tonnes load each. The maximum axle load is 11.4 Tonnes. The minimum nose-to-tail distance between two trains is 18.4 m. A train of vehicles consisting of a main vehicle of 16.8 Tonnes load, followed by two trailers of 8.2 Tonnes load each. The maximum axle load is 6.8 Tonnes. The minimum nose-to-tail distance between two trains is 18.4 m.

Culverts, Causeway and Bridges

IRC Class 70 R

IRC Class 70 R

IRC Class 70 R

Bridges and culverts on National Highways are designed for one lane of Class 70 R or two lanes of Class A loading, whichever produces more severe stresses. IRC Class AA loading is to be adopted within certain municipal limits, in certain contemplated or existing industrial areas, in other specified areas, or a long specified highways. IRC Class A load is to be normally adopted on all roads on which permanent bridges and culverts are constructed. IRC Class B loading is to be normally adopted for temporary structures (for example timber structures) and for bridges in specified areas.

7.8 TYPES OF CULVERTS

Culverts are constructed with various materials and to different designs. The popular forms are : (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) Temporary stone scuppers Stone slab culverts with abutments and piers RCC slab culverts with abutments and piers RCC Box culverts RCC Pipe culverts Armco Pipe (metal pipe) culverts Masonry arch culverts

7.8.1 Temporary Stone Scuppers

In hill roads, it is customary to cut the roads from the hill-face and to open up the road immediately thereafter to traffic. Further improvements such as construction of the pavement are taken up gradually. In such cases, it is the practice to construct temporary stone corbelled scuppers immediately after the road is cut (Figure 7.5). These are eventually replaced by permanent structures. 97

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Figure 7.5 : Dry Stone Masonry Scupper

7.8.3 Stone Slab Culverts with Abutments and Piers

Where good quality stone slabs are available like granite slabs, they can be used for superstructure of culverts, with suitable masonry abutments. Spans of such slabs are necessarily small, say upto one metre. Such culverts can be constructed for rural roads (Other District Roads and Village Roads).

7.8.4 RCC Slab Culverts

RCC slab culverts with masonry abutments and piers can be constructed for individual spans upto 6 m.

7.8.5 RCC Box Culverts

RCC Box culverts are ideal for in-situ constructions for opening of size upto 5 m. They can be constructed in square boxes or rectangular boxes, depending upon site conditions. Single or multiple boxes can be constructed. The advantage lies in the elimination of the stout abutment sections which are unavoidable in slab construction.

7.8.6 RCC Pipe Culverts

Reinforced cement concrete pipe culverts are ideal for dealing with small discharges. The advantages are : (a) (b) (c) (d) They are very economical, since a circular section is the most ideal for withstanding forces from all around. Since the pipes do not need very elaborate bedding, the cost further comes down. Pipe culverts do not demand structural design for individual cases. Pipes are standardised, in terms of mix, thickness and reinforcement. Pipes can be cast under strictly controlled conditions at a Central plant and thus their quality is assured.

The disadvantages with pipes are that they cannot be used for large openings. A minimum cover of at least half the diameter of the pipe is to be ensured over the pipes. In India, RCC pipes of the NP 3 class are suitable for highway loadings. For rural roads (Village Roads and Other District Roads), NP 2 pipes are suitable. Two conditions of bedding are followed :

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(a)

Granular bedding (Figure 7.6), which consists of forming and grading the bed with sand or any granular material passing 4.75 mm sieve. The thickness of the bedding layer should be minimum 75 mm. Such a bedding is suitable for fills upto 4 m height.
1000

Culverts, Causeway and Bridges

300 1500 100

Figure 7.6 : Granular Bedding for Pipe Culverts

(b)

Concrete cradle bedding (Figure 7.7), which consists of a concrete bed of M-15 grade concrete. The thickness of the bedding layer should be minimum 250 mm. Such a bedding is used for height of fills above 4 m.
1000

300 M 15 CONCRETE 1600 250

Figure 7.7 : Concrete Cradle Bedding for Pipe Culverts

Single pipe or a row of pipes can be used. The distance between pipes should be at least half the diameter of the pipe subject to a minimum of 450 mm. the pipes are kept sufficiently below the floor of the deepest bed. Pipe culverts are generally designed to flow full. Suitable head-walls are needed to protect the embankment fills. The slope of the floor is kept to a minimum of 1 : 1000.

7.8.7 Masonry Arch Culverts

Brick or stone masonry arches were very popular forms for culverts till recently. The disadvantage with this form is the unavoidable humps in the longitudinal profile that result. It can also give employment to skilled masons. It is a labour intensive form of construction.

SAQ 2
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) If the maximum discharge of a river with alluvial bed is 1000 cu m per sec, what is the waterway required? What is the thumb rule for fixing the span length of a bridge? Why is clearance provided in bridges across streams? Give a sketch of floor protection for open foundations. What is the formula for determining the maximum scour depth? For a river is alluvial bed with a silt factor of f = 0.60, and having a discharge of 1500 cu m per sec, what is the depth of foundation? 99

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7.9 TYPES OF BRIDGES AND THEIR SUITABILITY

Bridging is a specialized filed of engineering science. India has very high degree of sill and expertise in this field, gathered from bridging its mighty rivers. The types of superstructure commonly adopted and the site conditions for which they are suitable are indicated in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1 : Types of Bridges and their Suitability
Sl. No. 1. 2. 1. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Masonry arch RCC slab, simply supported RCC T-beam and slab, simply supported Continuous T-beam and slab, RCC RCC Balanced Cantilever Prestressed T-beam and slab, simply supported Prestressed segmental balanced cantilever Cable-stayed girders Type Suitability Good foundations Spans upto 15 m Any type of foundations Spans upto 10 m Any type of foundations Spans in the range 10-25 m Rocky unyielding foundations Spans in the range 10-20 m Deep foundations Spans in the range of 25-60 m Any type of foundations, generally deep Spans in the range 20-60 m Deep foundations Spans in the range 60-100 m Deep foundations Spans in the range 80-500 m

A simple rule in determining the length of span of the super-structure of bridges is that the cost of the foundations and sub-structure should equal the cost of the superstructure. This is generally achieved by making the span length 1 to 2 times the height of foundations plus the sub-structure.

SAQ 3
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) Give a sketch of a well foundation showing all the components. What are the various IRC bridge loadings? A National Highway bridge is to be designed. What IRC bridge loading shall be considered? What are the various types of culverts? What are the advantages and disadvantages of pipe culverts? What are the various types of bridges and what is the suitability of each?

7.10 CAUSEWAYS
7.10.1 Paved Dips
Paved dips, also known as bed level causeways, are structures consisting of gentle and shallow depressions in the road where the water is allowed to flow over the road. The full road width is paved with a cement concrete bed, and curtain walls are provided on the upstream and downstream sides to prevent scour (Figure 7.8).

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0.5m HIGH STREAMLINED GUIDE POST @ 2m C/C U/S ROADWAY UNIDIRECTIONAL CAMBER 1 IN 60 D/S

Culverts, Causeway and Bridges

0.6-1.0m

0.45m

0.45m 2.0m 0.15-0.22m THICK RUBBLE SOLING OR OVERSIZE METAL BASE IN 2 LAYERS 0.15m THICK CC PAVEMENT OR HAMMER DRESSED STONE FLOORING

0.6m

0.55m 0.75m

(a) Cross-section
ROAD TOP PROFILE TO BE IN SMOOTH CURVE

NORMAL ANNUAL FLOOD LEVEL

FOUNDATION LINE OF U/S CURTAIN WALL

FOUNDATION LINE OF D/S CURTAIN WALL

(b) Longitudinal Profile Figure 7.8 : Typical Paved Dip

7.10.2 Vented Causeway

Vented causeways are structures provided with vents (usually pipes) to take care of dry weather perennial flows and which allow water to overflow the paved bed on occasions of high rainfall (Figure 7.9).
FLOW BELL MOUTHED ENTRY BED LEVEL 0.3m 1.0m 2.0m 0.75m 1.0m 1.0m 2.0m 0.3m THICK RUBBLE APRON ON 0.15m THICK FILTER BACKING 0.15m THICK CC OR HAMMER DRESSED STONE FLOORING OVER RUBBLE SOLING CROSSFALL 0.6m RCC PIPE MIN. 0.75 DIA. 0.5m HIGH STREAMLINED GUIDE POST @ 2m C/C

6.0m

(a) Alternative 1 : With Masonry Head/Cut-off Wall

0.5m HIGH STREAMLINED GUIDE POST @ 2m C/C 0.3m THICK RUBBLE PITCHING OVER 0.15m THICK FILTER POINTED IN cm 1:3 2.0m 0.5m 0.5m 0.75m 0.3m THICK RUBBLE APRON ON 0.15m THICK FILTER BACKING PAVEMENT AS IN ALT. I

R C C PIPE 0.75m

5.0m

(b) Alternative 2 : With Stone Pitched Bank

PROFILE TO BE IN SMOOTH CURVES

ROAD LEVEL

VENTS TO BE DISTRIBUTED ALL ALONG CAUSEWAY

NORMAL FLOOD LEVEL

STREAM BED LEVEL

LONGITUDINAL SECTION

Figure 7.9 : Vented Causeway with RCC Pipes for Vents

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7.11 OVERBRIDGES, FLY-OVERS AND UNDERPASSES

7.11.1 Railway Over-bridges
Railway Over-bridges (ROB) are structures constructed to enable the road traffic to go over the railway tracks.

7.11.2 Fly-overs
Where one road crosses another road, and it is desired that they should not cross at the same level on the ground, a fly-over is constructed. One of the roads goes above the road it crosses, with sufficient clearance (about 5.0-5.5 m).

7.11.3 Underpasses
Underpasses are structures constructed to enable light vehicles, animals and pedestrians cross underneath a high speed facility. A clearance of 2.5-3.5 m is provided.

7.11.4 Reinforced Earth Walls

When constructing ROBs, fly-overs and underpasses, it is often not possible to provide sloped earthen embankments for the approaches, which are as high as 8-12 m at places. It is cheaper to construct reinforced earth (RE) walls than reinforced concrete retaining walls. The RE walls consist of : (a) (c) (d) a facia wall in panels of suitable size, a reinforcing element of metal strips or geogrids or geofabric, and granular fill to provide friction between the reinforcing element and the soil.

Figure 7.10 gives a view of the arrangement.

Figure 7.10 : General Arrangement of a Reinforced Earth Wall

SAQ 4
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) 102 (f) What are paved dips? Give a sketch. What are vented causeways? Give a sketch. What is a railway Overbridge? What is a fly-over? What is an underpass? What is a Reinforced Earth Wall? Give a sketch.

7.12 SUMMARY
In this unit you have understood the various types of culverts, causeways and bridges encountered in a road. You have been told how the waterway, span and foundations of the bridges are determined.

Culverts, Causeway and Bridges

7.13 KEY WORDS

Culverts Minor Bridge Medium Size Bridge Major Bridge : A structure having a waterway upto 5 m. : A structure having a waterway of 6-30 m. : A structure having a waterway of 30-100 m. : A structure having a waterway above 100 m.

7.14 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Refer to Sections 7.2.1 and 7.10 Refer to Section 7.3 Refer to Section 7.4 Refer to Section 7.5.1 Using Dickens formula,
3

Q = CM 4

where, C = 19 for Madhya Pradesh M = 1000 sq Km

3

Q = 19 1000 4

= 19 178 = 3382 cu m per sec (f)

SAQ 2

Refer to Section 7.5.2

(a)

Using Laceys formula,

W = 4.8
1 Q2
1 (1000) 2

= 4.8

= 4.8 31.6 = 151.68 m (b) (c) (d) (e) Refer to Section 7.5.6 Refer to Section 7.5.7 Figure 7.3 Refer to Section 7.6 103

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(f)

Using formula : D= 0.473

1 1 Q3

f3 = 0.473
1 (1500) 3 1

(0.6) 3

0.473 11.42 0.84

= 6.43 m Dept of foundation below HFL = 1.33 6.43 = 8.55 m

SAQ 3

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

SAQ 4

Figure 7.4 Refer to Section 7.7 Refer to Section 7.7 Refer to Section 7.8.1 Refer to Section 7.8.6 Refer to Section 7.9.1.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

Refer to Section 7.10.1 and Figure 7.8 Refer to Section 7.10.2 and Figure 7.9 Refer to Section 7.11.1 Refer to Section 7.11.2 Refer to Section 7.11.3 Refer to Section 7.11.4 and Figure 7.10.

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