British Empire

The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom. It originated with the overseas possessions and trading posts established by England between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. t its height, it was the largest empire in history and, !or over a century, was the !oremost global power." #y 1$%% the #ritish Empire held sway over about &'8 million people, one(!i!th o! the world)s population at the time. The empire covered more than **,+,,,,,, -m% .1*,,1%,,,, s/ mi0, almost a /uarter o! the Earth)s total land area. s a result, its political, legal, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread. t the pea- o! its power, the phrase 1the empire on which the sun never sets1 was o!ten used to describe the #ritish Empire, because its e2panse across the globe meant that the sun was always shining on at least one o! its territories. 3uring the ge o! 3iscovery in the 1'th and 16th centuries, 4ortugal and 5pain pioneered European e2ploration o! the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious o! the great wealth these empires generated, England, 6rance, and the 7etherlands, began to establish colonies and trade networ-s o! their own in the mericas and sia. series o! wars in the 1+th and 18th centuries with the 7etherlands and 6rance le!t England .and then, !ollowing union between England and 5cotland in 1+,+, 8reat #ritain0 the dominant colonial power in 7orth merica and India. The independence o! the Thirteen 9olonies in 7orth merica in 1+8* a!ter the merican :evolutionary ;ar caused #ritain to lose o! some o! its oldest and most populous colonies. #ritish attention soon turned towards sia, !rica, and the 4aci!ic. 6ollowing the de!eat o! 7apoleonic 6rance in 181', #ritain en<oyed a century o! almost unchallenged dominance and e2panded its imperial holdings across the globe. Increasing degrees o! autonomy were granted to its white settler colonies, some o! which were reclassi!ied as dominions. #y the end o! the 1$th century 8ermany and the United 5tates had eroded #ritain)s economic lead. 5ubse/uent military and economic tensions between #ritain and 8ermany were ma<or causes o! the 6irst ;orld ;ar, during which #ritain relied heavily upon its empire. The con!lict placed enormous !inancial and population strain on #ritain, and although the empire achieved its largest territorial e2tent immediately a!ter the war, it was no longer a peerless industrial or military power. In the 5econd ;orld ;ar, #ritain)s colonies in 5outh( East sia were occupied by =apan. 3espite the eventual victory o! #ritain and its allies, this damaged #ritish prestige and accelerated the decline o! the empire. #ritish India, #ritain)s most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence two years a!ter the end o! the war. !ter the end o! the 5econd ;orld ;ar, as part o! a larger decolonisation movement, #ritain granted independence to most o! the territories o! the #ritish Empire. This process ended with the political trans!er o! >ong Kong to 9hina in 1$$+. The 1& #ritish ?verseas Territories remain under #ritish sovereignty. !ter independence, many !ormer #ritish colonies <oined the 9ommonwealth o! 7ations, a !ree association o! independent states. 5i2teen 9ommonwealth nations share their head o! state, @ueen EliAabeth II, as 9ommonwealth realms.
?rigins .1&$+B1'8*0

replica o! The Matthew, =ohn 9abot)s ship used !or his second voyage to the 7ew ;orld The !oundations o! the #ritish Empire were laid when England and 5cotland were separate -ingdoms. In 1&$6 King >enry CII o! England, !ollowing the successes o! 5pain and 4ortugal in overseas e2ploration, commissioned =ohn 9abot to lead a voyage to discover a route to sia via the 7orth tlantic." 9abot sailed in 1&$+, !ive years a!ter the discovery o! merica, and although he success!ully made land!all on the coast o! 7ew!oundland .mista-enly believing, li-e 9hristopher 9olumbus, that he had reached sia0, there was no attempt to !ound a colony. 9abot led another voyage to the mericas the !ollowing year but nothing was heard o! his ships again. 7o !urther attempts to establish English colonies in the mericas were made until well into the reign o! EliAabeth I, during the last decades o! the 16th century. The 4rotestant :e!ormation had made enemies o! England and 9atholic 5pain. In 1'6%, the English 9rown sanctioned the privateers =ohn >aw-ins and 6rancis 3ra-e to engage in slave(raiding attac-s against 5panish and 4ortuguese ships o!! the coast o! ;est !ricaD1," with the aim o! brea-ing into the tlantic trade system. This e!!ort was rebu!!ed and later, as the nglo( 5panish ;ars intensi!ied, EliAabeth lent her blessing to !urther privateering against 5panish ports in the mericas and shipping that was returning across the tlantic, laden with treasure !rom the 7ew ;orld. t the same time, in!luential writers such as :ichard >a-luyt and =ohn 3ee .who was the !irst to use the term 1#ritish Empire10were beginning to press !or the establishment o! England)s own empire. #y this time, 5pain was entrenched in the mericas, 4ortugal had established trading posts and !orts !rom the coasts o! !rica and #raAil to 9hina, and 6rance had begun to settle the 5aint Eawrence :iver, later to become 7ew 6rance.
4lantations o! Ireland

lthough England trailed behind other European powers in establishing overseas colonies, it had been engaged during the 16th century in the settlement o! Ireland, drawing on precedents dating bac- to the 7orman invasion o! Ireland in 116$.5everal people who helped establish the 4lantations o! Ireland also played a part in the early colonisation o! 7orth merica, particularly a group -nown as the ;est 9ountry men.
6irst #ritish Empire .1'8*B1+8*0 Fain articleG English overseas possessions

In 1'+8, @ueen EliAabeth I granted a patent to >umphrey 8ilbert !or discovery and overseas e2ploration. That year, 8ilbert sailed !or the ;est Indies with the intention o! engaging in piracy and establishing a colony in 7orth merica, but the e2pedition was aborted be!ore it had crossed the tlantic. In 1'8* he embar-ed on a second attempt, on this occasion to the island o! 7ew!oundland whose harbour he !ormally claimed !or England, although no settlers were le!t behind. 8ilbert did not survive the return <ourney to England, and was succeeded by his hal!(brother, ;alter :aleigh, who was granted his own patent by EliAabeth in 1'8&. Eater that year, :aleigh !ounded the colony o! :oano-e on the coast o! present(day 7orth 9arolina, but lac- o! supplies caused the colony to !ail In 16,*, King =ames CI o! 5cotland ascended to the English throne and in 16,& negotiated the Treaty o! Eondon, ending hostilities with 5pain. 7ow at peace with its main rival, English attention shi!ted !rom preying on other nations) colonial in!rastructure to the business o! establishing its own overseas colonies.The #ritish Empire began to ta-e shape during the early 1+th century, with the English settlement o! 7orth merica and the smaller islands o! the 9aribbean, and the establishment o! private companies, most notably the English East India 9ompany, to administer colonies and overseas trade. This period, until the loss o! the Thirteen 9olonies a!ter the merican ;ar o! Independence towards the end o! the 18th century, has subse/uently been re!erred to as the 16irst #ritish Empire1.
mericas, !rica and the slave trade

Fain articlesG #ritish coloniAation o! the mericas, #ritish merica, and Thirteen 9olonies The 9aribbean initially provided England)s most important and lucrative colonies, but not be!ore several attempts at colonisation !ailed. n attempt to establish a colony in 8uiana in 16,& lasted only two years, and !ailed in its main ob<ective to !ind gold deposits. 9olonies in 5t Eucia .16,'0 and 8renada .16,$0 also rapidly !olded, but settlements were success!ully established in 5t. Kitts .16%&0, #arbados .16%+0 and 7evis .16%80.The colonies soon adopted the system o! sugar plantations success!ully used by the 4ortuguese in #raAil, which depended on slave labour, andHat !irstH3utch ships, to sell the slaves and buy the sugar. To ensure that the increasingly healthy pro!its o! this trade remained in English hands, 4arliament decreed in 16'1 that only English ships would be able to ply their trade in English colonies. This led to hostilities with the United 3utch 4rovincesHa series o! nglo(3utch ;arsHwhich would eventually strengthen England)s position in the mericas at the e2pense o! the 3utch.In 16'', England anne2ed the island o! =amaica !rom the 5panish, and in 1666 succeeded in colonising the #ahamas

Fap o! #ritish colonies in 7orth merica, 1+6*B1++6 England)s !irst permanent settlement in the mericas was !ounded in 16,+ in =amestown, led by 9aptain =ohn 5mith and managed by the Cirginia 9ompany. #ermuda was settled and claimed by England as a result o! the 16,$ shipwrec- there o! the Cirginia 9ompany)s !lagship, and in 161' was turned over to the newly(!ormed 5omers Isles 9ompany. The Cirginia 9ompany)s charter was revo-ed in 16%& and direct control o! Cirginia was

assumed by the crown, thereby !ounding the 9olony o! Cirginia. The Eondon and #ristol 9ompany was created in 161, with the aim o! creating a permanent settlement on 7ew!oundland, but was largely unsuccess!ul. In 16%,, 4lymouth was !ounded as a haven !or puritan religious separatists, later -nown as the 4ilgrims. 6leeing !rom religious persecution would become the motive o! many English would(be colonists to ris- the arduous trans( tlantic voyage G Faryland was !ounded as a haven !or :oman 9atholics .16*&0, :hode Island .16*60 as a colony tolerant o! all religions and 9onnecticut .16*$0 !or 9ongregationalists. The 4rovince o! 9arolina was !ounded in 166*. ;ith the surrender o! 6ort msterdam in 166&, England gained control o! the 3utch colony o! 7ew 7etherland, renaming it 7ew Ior-. This was !ormalised in negotiations !ollowing the 5econd nglo( 3utch ;ar, in e2change !or 5uriname.In 1681, the colony o! 4ennsylvania was !ounded by ;illiam 4enn. The merican colonies were less !inancially success!ul than those o! the 9aribbean, but had large areas o! good agricultural land and attracted !ar larger numbers o! English emigrants who pre!erred their temperate climates.

!rican slaves wor-ing in 1+th(century Cirginia, by an un-nown artist, 16+, In 16+,, King 9harles II granted a charter to the >udson)s #ay 9ompany, granting it a monopoly on the !ur trade in what was then -nown as :upert)s Eand, a vast stretch o! territory that would later ma-e up a large proportion o! 9anada. 6orts and trading posts established by the 9ompany were !re/uently the sub<ect o! attac-s by the 6rench, who had established their own !ur trading colony in ad<acent 7ew 6rance. Two years later, the :oyal !rican 9ompany was inaugurated, receiving !rom King 9harles a monopoly o! the trade to supply slaves to the #ritish colonies o! the 9aribbean. 6rom the outset, slavery was the basis o! the #ritish Empire in the ;est Indies. Until the abolition o! the slave trade in 18,+, #ritain was responsible !or the transportation o! *.' million !rican slaves to the mericas, a third o! all slaves transported across the tlantic. To !acilitate this trade, !orts were established on the coast o! ;est !rica, such as =ames Island, ccra and #unce Island. In the #ritish 9aribbean, the percentage o! the population o! !rican descent rose !rom %' percent in 16', to around 8, percent in 1+8,, and in the 1* 9olonies !rom 1, percent to &, percent over the same period .the ma<ority in the southern colonies0.6or the slave traders, the trade was e2tremely pro!itable, and became a ma<or economic mainstay !or such western #ritish cities as #ristol and Eiverpool, which !ormed the third corner o! the so(called triangular trade with !rica and the mericas. 6or the transported, harsh and unhygienic conditions on the slaving ships and poor diets meant that the average mortality rate during the middle passage was one in seven. In 16$', the 5cottish parliament granted a charter to the 9ompany o! 5cotland, which established a settlement in 16$8 on the isthmus o! 4anama. #esieged by neighbouring 5panish colonists o! 7ew 8ranada, and a!!licted by malaria, the colony was abandoned two years later. The 3arien scheme was a !inancial disaster !or 5cotlandHa /uarter o! 5cottish capitalD&," was lost in the enterpriseHand ended 5cottish hopes o! establishing its own overseas empire. The episode also had ma<or political conse/uences, persuading the

governments o! both England and 5cotland o! the merits o! a union o! countries, rather than <ust crowns.D&1" This occurred in 1+,+ with the Treaty o! Union, establishing the Kingdom o! 8reat #ritain.
:ivalry with the 7etherlands in sia

was !ounded at Fadras in 16*$. t the end o! the 16th century, England and the 7etherlands began to challenge 4ortugal)s monopoly o! trade with sia, !orming private <oint(stoc- companies to !inance the voyagesHthe English, later #ritish, East India 9ompany and the 3utch East India 9ompany, chartered in 16,, and 16,% respectively. The primary aim o! these companies was to tap into the lucrative spice trade, an e!!ort !ocused mainly on two regionsJ the East Indies archipelago, and an important hub in the trade networ-, India. There, they competed !or trade supremacy with 4ortugal and with each other.D&%" lthough England would ultimately eclipse the 7etherlands as a colonial power, in the short term the 7etherlands) more advanced !inancial systemD&*" and the three nglo(3utch ;ars o! the 1+th century le!t it with a stronger position in sia. >ostilities ceased a!ter the 8lorious :evolution o! 1688 when the 3utch ;illiam o! ?range ascended the English throne, bringing peace between the 7etherlands and England. deal between the two nations le!t the spice trade o! the East Indies archipelago to the 7etherlands and the te2tiles industry o! India to England, but te2tiles soon overtoo- spices in terms o! pro!itability, and by 1+%,, in terms o! sales, the #ritish company had overta-en the 3utch.
6ort 5t. 8eorge 8lobal con!licts with 6rance

4eace between England and the 7etherlands in 1688 meant that the two countries entered the 7ine Iears) ;ar as allies, but the con!lictHwaged in Europe and overseas between 6rance, 5pain and the nglo(3utch allianceHle!t the English a stronger colonial power than the 3utch, who were !orced to devote a larger proportion o! their military budget on the costly land war in Europe.The 18th century would see England .a!ter 1+,+, #ritain0 rise to be the world)s dominant colonial power, and 6rance becoming its main rival on the imperial stage. The death o! 9harles II o! 5pain in 1+,, and his be/ueathal o! 5pain and its colonial empire to 4hilippe o! n<ou, a grandson o! the King o! 6rance, raised the prospect o! the uni!ication o! 6rance, 5pain and their respective colonies, an unacceptable state o! a!!airs !or England and the other powers o! Europe.D&6" In 1+,1, England, 4ortugal and the 7etherlands sided with the >oly :oman Empire against 5pain and 6rance in the ;ar o! the 5panish 5uccession, which lasted until 1+1&. t the concluding Treaty o! Utrecht, 4hilip renounced his and his descendants) right to the 6rench throne and 5pain lost its empire in Europe.D&6" The #ritish Empire was territorially enlargedG !rom 6rance, #ritain gained 7ew!oundland and cadia, and !rom 5pain, 8ibraltar and Finorca. 8ibraltar, which is still a #ritish territory, became a critical naval base and allowed #ritain to control the tlantic entry and e2it point to the

Fediterranean.

Finorca was returned to 5pain at the Treaty o! miens in 18,%, a!ter changing hands twice. 5pain also ceded the rights to the lucrative asiento .permission to sell slaves in 5panish merica0 to #ritain.D&+" The 5even Iears) ;ar, which began in 1+'6, was the !irst war waged on a global scale, !ought in Europe, India, 7orth merica, the 9aribbean, the 4hilippines and coastal !rica. The signing o! the Treaty o! 4aris .1+6*0 had important conse/uences !or the !uture o! the #ritish Empire. In 7orth merica, 6rance)s !uture as a colonial power there was e!!ectively ended with the recognition o! #ritish claims to :upert)s Eand,D*'" and the ceding o! 7ew 6rance to #ritain .leaving a siAeable 6rench(spea-ing population under #ritish control0 and Eouisiana to 5pain. 5pain ceded 6lorida to #ritain. In India, the 9arnatic ;ar had le!t 6rance still in control o! its enclaves but with military restrictions and an obligation to support #ritish client states, ending 6rench hopes o! controlling India.D&8" The #ritish victory over 6rance in the 5even Iears) ;ar there!ore le!t #ritain as the world)s most power!ul maritime power.D&$"
:ise o! the 5econd #ritish Empire .1+8*B181'0

:obert 9live)s

victory at the #attle o! 4lassey established the 9ompany as a military as well as a commercial power.
9ompany rule in India Fain articleG 9ompany rule in India

3uring its !irst century o! operation, the English East India 9ompany !ocused on trade with the Indian subcontinent, as it was not in a position to challenge the power!ul Fughal Empire,D'," which had granted it trading rights in 161+. This changed in the 18th century as the Fughals declined in power and the East India 9ompany struggled with its 6rench counterpart, the Compagnie franaise des Indes orientales, during the 9arnatic ;ars in the 1+&,s and 1+',s. The #attle o! 4lassey in 1+'+, in which the #ritish, led by :obert 9live, de!eated the 7awab o! #engal and his 6rench allies, le!t the 9ompany in control o! #engal and as the ma<or military and political power in India.D'1" In the !ollowing decades it gradually increased the siAe o! the territories under its control, either ruling directly or via local rulers under the threat o! !orce !rom the #ritish Indian rmy, the vast ma<ority o! which was composed o! Indian sepoys.D'%"
Eoss o! the Thirteen merican 9olonies Fain articleG merican :evolution

3uring the 1+6,s and early 1++,s, relations between the Thirteen 9olonies and #ritain became increasingly strained, primarily due to resentment o! the #ritish 4arliament)s attempts to govern and ta2 merican colonists without their consent.D'*" This was summarised at the time by the slogan 17o ta2ation without representation1, a perceived violation o! the guaranteed :ights o! Englishmen. The merican :evolution began with

re<ection o! 4arliamentary authority and moves towards sel!(government. In response #ritain sent troops to reimpose direct rule, leading to the outbrea- o! the merican :evolutionary ;ar in 1++'. The !ollowing year, in 1++6, the United 5tates declared independence. The entry o! 6rance to the war in 1++8 tipped the military balance in the mericans) !avour and a!ter a decisive de!eat at Ior-town in 1+81, #ritain began negotiating peace terms. merican independence was ac-nowledged at the 4eace o! 4aris in 1+8*.D'&"

Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown. The loss o! the merican colonies mar-ed the end o! the 1!irst #ritish Empire1. The loss o! such a large portion o! #ritish merica, at the time #ritain)s most populous overseas possession, is seen by historians as the event de!ining the transition between the 1!irst1 and 1second1 empires,D''" in which #ritain shi!ted its attention away !rom the mericas to sia, the 4aci!ic and later !rica. dam 5mith)s Wealth of Nations, published in 1++6, had argued that colonies were redundant, and that !ree trade should replace the old mercantilist policies that had characterised the !irst period o! colonial e2pansion, dating bac- to the protectionism o! 5pain and 4ortugal.D&$"D'6" The growth o! trade between the newly independent United 5tates and #ritain a!ter 1+8* seemed to con!irm 5mith)s view that political control was not necessary !or economic success.D'+"D'8" Events in merica in!luenced #ritish policy in 9anada, where between &,,,,, and 1,,,,,,D'$" de!eated Eoyalists had migrated !rom merica !ollowing independence.D6," The 1&,,,, Eoyalists who went to the 5aint =ohn and 5aint 9roi2 river valleys, then part o! 7ova 5cotia, !elt too !ar removed !rom the provincial government in >ali!a2, so Eondon split o!! 7ew #runswic- as a separate colony in 1+8&.D61" The 9onstitutional ct o! 1+$1 created the provinces o! Upper 9anada .mainly English(spea-ing0 and Eower 9anada .mainly 6rench( spea-ing0 to de!use tensions between the 6rench and #ritish communities, and implemented governmental systems similar to those employed in #ritain, with the intention o! asserting imperial authority and not allowing the sort o! popular control o! government that was perceived to have led to the merican :evolution.D6%" Tensions between #ritain and the United 5tates escalated again during the 7apoleonic ;ars, as #ritain tried to cut o!! merican trade with 6rance and boarded merican ships to impress into the :oyal 7avy men o! #ritish birth. The U.5. declared war, the ;ar o! 181%, and invaded 9anadian territory, but the pre(war boundaries were rea!!irmed by the 181& Treaty o! 8hent, ensuring 9anada)s !uture would be separate !rom that o! the United 5tates.
D6*"D6&"

E2ploration o! the 4aci!ic

=ames 9oo-)s

mission was to !ind the alleged southern continent Terra Australis. 5ince 1+18, transportation to the merican colonies had been a penalty !or various criminal o!!ences in #ritain, with appro2imately one thousand convicts transported per year across the tlantic.D6'" 6orced to !ind an alternative location a!ter the loss o! the 1* 9olonies in 1+8*, the #ritish government turned to the newly discovered lands o! ustralia.D66" The western coast o! ustralia had been discovered !or Europeans by the 3utch e2plorer ;illem =ansA in 16,6 and was later named 7ew >olland by the 3utch East India 9ompany,D6+" but there was no attempt to colonise it. In 1++, =ames 9oo- discovered the eastern coast o! ustralia while on a scienti!ic voyage to the 5outh 4aci!ic ?cean, claimed the continent !or #ritain, and named it 7ew 5outh ;ales.D68" In 1++8, =oseph #an-s, 9oo-)s botanist on the voyage, presented evidence to the government on the suitability o! #otany #ay !or the establishment o! a penal settlement, and in 1+8+ the !irst shipment o! convicts set sail, arriving in 1+88.D6$" #ritain continued to transport convicts to 7ew 5outh ;ales until 18&,.D+," The ustralian colonies became pro!itable e2porters o! wool and gold,D+1" mainly due to gold rushes in the colony o! Cictoria, ma-ing its capital Felbourne the richest city in the worldD+%" and the largest city a!ter Eondon in the #ritish Empire.D+*" 3uring his voyage, 9oo- also visited 7ew Kealand, !irst discovered by 3utch e2plorer bel Tasman in 16&%, and claimed the 7orth and 5outh islands !or the #ritish crown in 1+6$ and 1++, respectively. Initially, interaction between the indigenous FLori population and Europeans was limited to the trading o! goods. European settlement increased through the early decades o! the 1$th century, with numerous trading stations established, especially in the 7orth. In 18*$, the 7ew Kealand 9ompany announced plans to buy large tracts o! land and establish colonies in 7ew Kealand. ?n 6 6ebruary 18&,, 9aptain ;illiam >obson and around &, Faori chie!s signed the Treaty o! ;aitangi.D+&" This treaty is considered by many to be 7ew Kealand)s !ounding document,D+'" but di!!ering interpretations o! the Faori and English versions o! the te2tD+6" have meant that it continues to be a source o! dispute.D++"
;ar with 7apoleonic 6rance Fain articleG 7apoleonic ;ars

#ritain was challenged again by 6rance under 7apoleon, in a struggle that, unli-e previous wars, represented a contest o! ideologies between the two nations.D+8" It was not only #ritain)s position on the world stage that was threatenedG 7apoleon threatened to invade #ritain itsel!, <ust as his armies had overrun many countries o! continental Europe.

The #attle o! ;aterloo ended in the de!eat o! 7apoleon. The 7apoleonic ;ars were there!ore ones in which #ritain invested large amounts o! capital and resources to win. 6rench ports were bloc-aded by the :oyal 7avy, which won a decisive victory over a 6ranco(5panish !leet at Tra!algar in 18,'. ?verseas colonies were attac-ed and occupied, including those o! the 7etherlands, which was anne2ed by 7apoleon in 181,. 6rance was !inally de!eated by a coalition o! European armies in 181'. D+$" #ritain was again the bene!iciary o! peace treatiesG 6rance ceded the Ionian Islands, Falta .which it had occupied in 1+$+ and 1+$8 respectively0, Fauritius, 5t Eucia, and TobagoJ 5pain ceded TrinidadJ the 7etherlands 8uyana, and the 9ape 9olony. #ritain returned 8uadeloupe, Fartini/ue, 6rench 8uiana, and :Munion to 6rance, and =ava and 5uriname to the 7etherlands, while gaining control o! 9eylon .1+$'B181'0.D8,"
bolition o! slavery

Under increasing pressure !rom the #ritish abolitionist movement, the #ritish government enacted the 5lave Trade ct in 18,+ which abolished the slave trade in the empire. In 18,8, 5ierra Eeone was designated an o!!icial #ritish colony !or !reed slaves.D81" The 5lavery bolition ct passed in 18** abolished slavery in the #ritish Empire on 1 ugust 18*& .with the e2ception o! 5t. >elena, 9eylon and the territories administered by the East India 9ompany, though these e2clusions were later repealed0. Under the ct, slaves were granted !ull emancipation a!ter a period o! & to 6 years o! 1apprenticeship1.D8%"
#ritain)s imperial century .181'B1$1&0 5ee alsoG Industrial :evolution and Cictorian era

#ritish India, 1$,$. reas directly governed by the #ritish are shaded pin-J the princely states under #ritish suAerainty are in yellow. n elaborate map o! the #ritish Empire in 1886, mar-ed in the traditional colour !or imperial #ritish dominions on maps

#etween 181' and 1$1&, a period re!erred to as #ritain)s 1imperial century1 by some historians,D8*"D8&" around 1,,,,,,,,, s/uare miles .%6,,,,,,,, -m%0 o! territory and roughly &,, million people were added to the #ritish Empire.D8'" Cictory over 7apoleon le!t #ritain without any serious international rival, other than :ussia in central sia.D86" Unchallenged at sea, #ritain adopted the role o! global policeman, a state o! a!!airs later -nown as the Pax ritanni!a,D8+" and a !oreign policy o! 1splendid isolation1.D88" longside the !ormal control it e2erted over its own colonies, #ritain)s dominant position in world trade meant that it e!!ectively controlled the economies o! many countries, such as 9hina, rgentina and 5iam, which has been characterised by some historians as 1in!ormal empire1.D8$"
D$,"

#ritish imperial strength was underpinned by the steamship and the telegraph, new technologies invented in the second hal! o! the 1$th century, allowing it to control and de!end the empire. #y 1$,%, the #ritish Empire was lin-ed together by a networ- o! telegraph cables, the so(called ll :ed Eine.D$1"
East India 9ompany in sia 5ee alsoG #ritish :a<

n 18+6 political cartoon o! #en<amin 3israeli .18,&B18810 ma-ing @ueen Cictoria Empress o! India. The caption was 17ew crowns !or old onesN1 The East India 9ompany drove the e2pansion o! the #ritish Empire in sia. The 9ompany)s army had !irst <oined !orces with the :oyal 7avy during the 5even Iears) ;ar, and the two continued to cooperate in arenas outside IndiaG the eviction o! 7apoleon !rom Egypt .1+$$0, the capture o! =ava !rom the 7etherlands .18110, the ac/uisition o! 5ingapore .181$0 and Falacca .18%&0 and the de!eat o! #urma .18%60.D86" 6rom its base in India, the 9ompany had also been engaged in an increasingly pro!itable opium e2port trade to 9hina since the 1+*,s. This trade, illegal since it was outlawed by the @ing dynasty in 1+%$, helped reverse the trade imbalances resulting !rom the #ritish imports o! tea, which saw large out!lows o! silver !rom #ritain to 9hina.D$%" In 18*$, the con!iscation by the 9hinese authorities at 9anton o! %,,,,, chests o! opium led #ritain to attac- 9hina in the 6irst ?pium ;ar, and resulted in the seiAure by #ritain o! >ong Kong Island, at that time a minor settlement.D$*" 3uring the late 18th and early 1$th centuries the #ritish 9rown began to assume an increasingly large role in the a!!airs o! the 9ompany. series o! cts o! 4arliament were passed, including the :egulating ct o! 1++*, 4itt)s India ct o! 1+8& and the 9harter ct o! 181* which regulated the 9ompany)s a!!airs and established the sovereignty o! the 9rown over

the territories that it had ac/uired.D$&" The 9ompany)s eventual end was precipitated by the Indian :ebellion, a con!lict that had begun with the mutiny o! sepoys, Indian troops under #ritish o!!icers and discipline.D$'" The rebellion too- si2 months to suppress, with heavy loss o! li!e on both sides. The !ollowing year the #ritish government dissolved the 9ompany and assumed direct control over India through the 8overnment o! India ct 18'8, establishing the #ritish :a<, where an appointed governor(general administered India and @ueen Cictoria was crowned the Empress o! India.D$6" India became the empire)s most valuable possession, 1the =ewel in the 9rown1, and was the most important source o! #ritain)s strength.D$+" series o! serious crop !ailures in the late 1$th century led to widespread !amines on the subcontinent in which it is estimated that over 1' million people died. The East India 9ompany had !ailed to implement any coordinated policy to deal with the !amines during its period o! rule. Eater, under direct #ritish rule, commissions were set up a!ter each !amine to investigate the causes and implement new policies, which too- until the early 1$,,s to have an e!!ect.D$8"
:ivalry with :ussia Fain articleG The 8reat 8ame

3uring the 1$th century, #ritain and the :ussian Empire vied to !ill the power vacuums that had been le!t by the declining ?ttoman Empire, @a<ar dynasty and @ing dynasty. This rivalry in Eurasia came to be -nown as the 18reat 8ame1.D$$" s !ar as #ritain was concerned, de!eats in!licted by :ussia on 4ersia and Tur-ey demonstrated its imperial ambitions and capabilities, and sto-ed !ears in #ritain o! an overland invasion o! India.D1,," In 18*$, #ritain moved to pre(empt this by invading !ghanistan, but the 6irst nglo( !ghan ;ar was a disaster !or #ritain.D8," ;hen :ussia invaded the Tur-ish #al-ans in 18'*, !ears o! :ussian dominance in the Fediterranean and Fiddle East led #ritain and 6rance to invade the 9rimean 4eninsula in order to destroy :ussian naval capabilities.D8," The ensuing 9rimean ;ar .18'&B'60, which involved new techni/ues o! modern war!are,D1,1" and was the only global war !ought between #ritain and another imperial power during the Pax ritanni!a, was a resounding de!eat !or :ussia.D8," The situation remained unresolved in 9entral sia !or two more decades, with #ritain anne2ing #aluchistan in 18+6 and :ussia anne2ing KirghiAia, KaAa-hstan, and Tur-menistan. 6or a while it appeared that another war would be inevitable, but the two countries reached an agreement on their respective spheres o! in!luence in the region in 18+8, and on all outstanding matters in 1$,+ with the signing o! the nglo(:ussian Entente.D1,%" The destruction o! the :ussian 7avy by the =apanese at the #attle o! 4ort rthur during the :usso(=apanese ;ar o! 1$,&B,' also limited its threat to the #ritish.
D1,*"

9ape to 9airo

The "hodes ColossusH9ecil :hodes

spanning 19ape to 9airo1 The 3utch East India 9ompany had !ounded the 9ape 9olony on the southern tip o! !rica in 16'% as a way station !or its ships travelling to and !rom its colonies in the East Indies. #ritain !ormally ac/uired the colony, and its large !ri-aner .or #oer0 population in 18,6, having occupied it in 1+$' in order to prevent its !alling into 6rench hands, !ollowing the invasion o! the 7etherlands by 6rance.#ritish immigration began to rise a!ter 18%,, and pushed thousands o! #oers, resent!ul o! #ritish rule, northwards to !ound their ownH mostly short(livedHindependent republics, during the 8reat Tre- o! the late 18*,s and early 18&,s.In the process the Coortre--ers clashed repeatedly with the #ritish, who had their own agenda with regard to colonial e2pansion in 5outh !rica and with several !rican polities, including those o! the 5otho and the Kulu nations. Eventually the #oers established two republics which had a longer li!espanG the 5outh !rican :epublic or Transvaal :epublic .18'%B++J 1881B1$,%0 and the ?range 6ree 5tate .18'&B1$,%0.D1,6" In 1$,% #ritain occupied both republics, concluding a treaty with the two #oer :epublics !ollowing the 5econd #oer ;ar .18$$B1$,%0. In 186$ the 5ueA 9anal opened under 7apoleon III, lin-ing the Fediterranean with the Indian ?cean. Initially the 9anal was opposed by the #ritishJ but once opened, its strategic value was /uic-ly recognised and became the 1<ugular vein o! the Empire1.In 18+', the 9onservative government o! #en<amin 3israeli bought the indebted Egyptian ruler Isma)il 4asha)s && percent shareholding in the 5ueA 9anal !or O& million .O%8, million in %,1*0. lthough this did not grant outright control o! the strategic waterway, it did give #ritain leverage. =oint nglo(6rench !inancial control over Egypt ended in outright #ritish occupation in 188%. The 6rench were still ma<ority shareholders and attempted to wea-en the #ritish position,but a compromise was reached with the 1888 9onvention o! 9onstantinople, which made the 9anal o!!icially neutral territory. ;ith 6rench, #elgian and 4ortuguese activity in the lower 9ongo :iver region undermining orderly incursion o! tropical !rica, the #erlin 9on!erence o! 188&B8' was held to regulate the competition between the European powers in what was called the 15cramble !or !rica1 by de!ining 1e!!ective occupation1 as the criterion !or international recognition o! territorial claims. The scramble continued into the 18$,s, and caused #ritain to

reconsider its decision in 188' to withdraw !rom 5udan. <oint !orce o! #ritish and Egyptian troops de!eated the Fahdist rmy in 18$6, and rebu!!ed a 6rench attempted invasion at 6ashoda in 18$8. 5udan was nominally made an nglo(Egyptian 9ondominium, but a #ritish colony in reality. #ritish gains in southern and East !rica prompted 9ecil :hodes, pioneer o! #ritish e2pansion in !rica, to urge a 19ape to 9airo1 railway lin-ing the strategically important 5ueA 9anal to the mineral(rich 5outh. 3uring the 188,s and 18$,s, :hodes, with his privately owned #ritish 5outh !rica 9ompany, occupied and anne2ed territories subse/uently named a!ter him, :hodesia.
9hanging status o! the white colonies

9anada)s ma<or industry trade. ?ntario c. 1$,,.

in terms o! employment and value o! the product was the timber

The path to independence !or the white colonies o! the #ritish Empire began with the 18*$ 3urham :eport, which proposed uni!ication and sel!(government !or Upper and Eower 9anada, as a solution to political unrest there." This began with the passing o! the ct o! Union in 18&,, which created the 4rovince o! 9anada. :esponsible government was !irst granted to 7ova 5cotia in 18&8, and was soon e2tended to the other #ritish 7orth merican colonies. ;ith the passage o! the #ritish 7orth merica ct, 186+ by the #ritish 4arliament, Upper and Eower 9anada, 7ew #runswic- and 7ova 5cotia were !ormed into the 3ominion o! 9anada, a con!ederation en<oying !ull sel!(government with the e2ception o! international relations. ustralia and 7ew Kealand achieved similar levels o! sel!( government a!ter 1$,,, with the ustralian colonies !ederating in 1$,1. The term 1dominion status1 was o!!icially introduced at the 9olonial 9on!erence o! 1$,+. The last decades o! the 1$th century saw concerted political campaigns !or Irish home rule. Ireland had been united with #ritain into the United Kingdom o! 8reat #ritain and Ireland with the ct o! Union 18,, a!ter the Irish :ebellion o! 1+$8, and had su!!ered a severe !amine between 18&' and 18'%. >ome rule was supported by the #ritish 4rime Finister, ;illiam 8ladstone, who hoped that Ireland might !ollow in 9anada)s !ootsteps as a 3ominion within the empire, but his 1886 >ome :ule bill was de!eated in 4arliament. lthough the bill, i! passed, would have granted Ireland less autonomy within the UK than the 9anadian provinces had within their own !ederation,many F4s !eared that a partially independent Ireland might pose a security threat to 8reat #ritain or mar- the beginning o! the brea-(up o! the empire. second >ome :ule bill was also de!eated !or similar reasons. third bill was passed by 4arliament in 1$1&, but not implemented due to the outbrea- o! the 6irst ;orld ;ar leading to the 1$16 Easter :ising
;orld wars .1$1&B1$&'0

#y the turn o! the %,th century, !ears had begun to grow in #ritain that it would no longer be able to de!end the metropole and the entirety o! the empire while at the same time

maintaining the policy o! 1splendid isolation1.8ermany was rapidly rising as a military and industrial power and was now seen as the most li-ely opponent in any !uture war. :ecognising that it was overstretched in the 4aci!ic and threatened at home by the Imperial 8erman 7avy, #ritain !ormed an alliance with =apan in 1$,%, and its old enemies 6rance and :ussia in 1$,& and 1$,+, respectively.
6irst ;orld ;ar Fain articleG >istory o! the United Kingdom during ;orld ;ar I

5oldiers o! the ustralian 'th 3ivision, waiting to attac- during the #attle o! 6romelles, 1$ =uly 1$16 #ritain)s !ears o! war with 8ermany were realised in 1$1& with the outbrea- o! the 6irst ;orld ;ar. The #ritish declaration o! war on 8ermany and its allies also committed the colonies and 3ominions, which provided invaluable military, !inancial and material support. ?ver %.' million men served in the armies o! the 3ominions, as well as many thousands o! volunteers !rom the 9rown colonies. #ritain /uic-ly invaded and occupied most o! 8ermany)s overseas colonies in !rica, and in the 4aci!ic, ustralia and 7ew Kealand occupied 8erman 7ew 8uinea and 5amoa respectively. The contributions o! ustralian and 7ew Kealand troops during the 1$1' 8allipoli 9ampaign against the ?ttoman Empire had a great impact on the national consciousness at home, and mar-ed a watershed in the transition o! ustralia and 7ew Kealand !rom colonies to nations in their own right. The countries continue to commemorate this occasion on 7K 9 3ay. 9anadians viewed the #attle o! Cimy :idge in a similar light. The important contribution o! the 3ominions to the war e!!ort was recognised in 1$1+ by the #ritish 4rime Finister 3avid Eloyd 8eorge when he invited each o! the 3ominion 4rime Finisters to <oin an Imperial ;ar 9abinet to coordinate imperial policy. Under the terms o! the concluding Treaty o! Cersailles signed in 1$1$, the empire reached its greatest e2tent with the addition o! 1,8,,,,,, s/uare miles .&,+,,,,,, -m%0 and 1* million new sub<ects. The colonies o! 8ermany and the ?ttoman Empire were distributed to the llied powers as Eeague o! 7ations Fandates. #ritain gained control o! 4alestine, Trans<ordan, Ira/, parts o! 9ameroon and Togo, and Tanganyi-a. The 3ominions themselves also ac/uired mandates o! their ownG the Union o! 5outh !rica gained 5outh(;est !rica

.modern(day 7amibia0, ustralia gained 8erman 7ew 8uinea, and 7ew Kealand ;estern 5amoa. 7auru was made a combined mandate o! #ritain and the two 4aci!ic 3ominions.
Inter(war period P Irish ;ar o! Independence

The changing world order that the war had brought about, in particular the growth o! the United 5tates and =apan as naval powers, and the rise o! independence movements in India and Ireland, caused a ma<or reassessment o! #ritish imperial policy. 6orced to choose between alignment with the United 5tates or =apan, #ritain opted not to renew its =apanese alliance and instead signed the 1$%% ;ashington 7aval Treaty, where #ritain accepted naval parity with the United 5tates This decision was the source o! much debate in #ritain during the 1$*,s as militaristic governments too- hold in =apan and 8ermany helped in part by the 8reat 3epression, !or it was !eared that the empire could not survive a simultaneous attac- by both nations. lthough the issue o! the empire)s security was a serious concern in #ritain, at the same time the empire was vital to the #ritish economy. In 1$1$, the !rustrations caused by delays to Irish home rule led members o! 5inn 6Min, a pro( independence party that had won a ma<ority o! the Irish seats at ;estminster in the 1$18 #ritish general election, to establish an Irish assembly in 3ublin, at which Irish independence was declared. The Irish :epublican rmy simultaneously began a guerrilla war against the #ritish administration. The nglo(Irish ;ar ended in 1$%1 with a stalemate and the signing o! the nglo(Irish Treaty, creating the Irish 6ree 5tate, a 3ominion within the #ritish Empire, with e!!ective internal independence but still constitutionally lin-ed with the #ritish 9rown. 7orthern Ireland, consisting o! si2 o! the *% Irish counties which had been established as a devolved region under the 1$%, 8overnment o! Ireland ct, immediately e2ercised its option under the treaty to retain its e2isting status within the United Kingdom.

King 8eorge C with the #ritish and 3ominion prime ministers at the 1$%6 Imperial 9on!erence similar struggle began in India when the 8overnment o! India ct 1$1$ !ailed to satis!y demand !or independence. 9oncerns over communist and !oreign plots !ollowing the 8hadar 9onspiracy ensured that war(time strictures were renewed by the :owlatt cts. This led to tension,particularly in the 4un<ab region, where repressive measures culminated in the mritsar Fassacre. In #ritain public opinion was divided over the morality o! the event, between those who saw it as having saved India !rom anarchy, and those who viewed it with revulsion. The subse/uent non(cooperation movement was called o!! in Farch 1$%% !ollowing the 9hauri 9haura incident, and discontent continued to simmer !or the ne2t %' years. In 1$%%, Egypt, which had been declared a #ritish protectorate at the outbrea- o! the 6irst ;orld ;ar, was granted !ormal independence, though it continued to be a #ritish client state until 1$'&. #ritish troops remained stationed in Egypt until the signing o! the nglo( Egyptian Treaty in 1$*6,Dunder which it was agreed that the troops would withdraw but continue to occupy and de!end the 5ueA 9anal Aone. In return, Egypt was assisted to <oin

the Eeague o! 7ations. Ira/, a #ritish mandate since 1$%,, also gained membership o! the Eeague in its own right a!ter achieving independence !rom #ritain in 1$*%. The ability o! the 3ominions to set their own !oreign policy, independent o! #ritain, was recognised at the 1$%* Imperial 9on!erence.#ritain)s re/uest !or military assistance !rom the 3ominions at the outbrea- o! the 9hana- crisis the previous year had been turned down by 9anada and 5outh !rica, and 9anada had re!used to be bound by the 1$%* Treaty o! Eausanne. !ter pressure !rom Ireland and 5outh !rica, the 1$%6 Imperial 9on!erence issued the #al!our 3eclaration, declaring the 3ominions to be 1autonomous 9ommunities within the #ritish Empire, e/ual in status, in no way subordinate one to another1 within a 1#ritish 9ommonwealth o! 7ations1.This declaration was given legal substance under the 1$*1 5tatute o! ;estminster.The parliaments o! 9anada, ustralia, 7ew Kealand, the Union o! 5outh !rica, the Irish 6ree 5tate and 7ew!oundland were now independent o! #ritish legislative control, they could nulli!y #ritish laws and #ritain could no longer pass laws !or them without their consent. 7ew!oundland reverted to colonial status in 1$**, su!!ering !rom !inancial di!!iculties during the 8reat 3epression. Ireland distanced itsel! !urther !rom #ritain with the introduction o! a new constitution in 1$*+, ma-ing it a republic in all but name.
5econd ;orld ;ar Fain articleG Filitary history o! the United Kingdom during the 5econd ;orld ;ar

The Eighth rmy was made up o! units !rom across the empire and !ought in the ;estern 3esert and Italy. #ritain)s declaration o! war against 7aAi 8ermany in 5eptember 1$*$ included the 9rown colonies and India but did not automatically commit the 3ominions. ustralia, 9anada, 7ew Kealand, 7ew!oundland and 5outh !rica all soon declared war on 8ermany, but the Irish 6ree 5tate chose to remain legally neutral throughout the war. !ter the 8erman occupation o! 6rance in 1$&,, #ritain and the empire stood alone against 8ermany, until the entry o! the 5oviet Union to the war in 1$&1. #ritish 4rime Finister ;inston 9hurchill success!ully lobbied 4resident 6ran-lin 3. :oosevelt !or military aid !rom the United 5tates, but :oosevelt was not yet ready to as- 9ongress to commit the country to war. In ugust 1$&1, 9hurchill and :oosevelt met and signed the tlantic 9harter, which included the statement that 1the rights o! all peoples to choose the !orm o! government under which they live1 should be respected. This wording was ambiguous as to whether it re!erred to European countries invaded by 8ermany, or the peoples colonised by European nations,

and would later be interpreted di!!erently by the #ritish, mericans, and nationalist movements. In 3ecember 1$&1, =apan launched, in /uic- succession, attac-s on #ritish Falaya, the United 5tates naval base at 4earl >arbor, and >ong Kong. 9hurchill)s reaction to the entry o! the United 5tates into the war was that #ritain was now assured o! victory and the !uture o! the empire was sa!e, but the manner in which the #ritish rapidly surrendered irreversibly harmed #ritain)s standing and prestige as an imperial power Fost damaging o! all was the !all o! 5ingapore, which had previously been hailed as an impregnable !ortress and the eastern e/uivalent o! 8ibraltar. The realisation that #ritain could not de!end its entire empire pushed ustralia and 7ew Kealand, which now appeared threatened by =apanese !orces, into closer ties with the United 5tates, which a!ter the war eventually resulted in the 1$'1 7KU5 4act between ustralia, 7ew Kealand and the United 5tates o! merica.
3ecolonisation and decline .1$&'B1$$+0

Though #ritain and the empire emerged victorious !rom the 5econd ;orld ;ar, the e!!ects o! the con!lict were pro!ound, both at home and abroad. Fuch o! Europe, a continent that had dominated the world !or several centuries, was in ruins, and host to the armies o! the United 5tates and the 5oviet Union, who now held the balance o! global power. #ritain was le!t essentially ban-rupt, with insolvency only averted in 1$&6 a!ter the negotiation o! a QU5 &.** billion loan .U5Q'6 billion in %,1%0 !rom the United 5tates, the last instalment o! which was repaid in %,,6. t the same time, anti(colonial movements were on the rise in the colonies o! European nations. The situation was complicated !urther by the increasing 9old ;ar rivalry o! the United 5tates and the 5oviet Union. In principle, both nations were opposed to European colonialism. In practice, however, merican anti(9ommunism prevailed over anti(imperialism, and there!ore the United 5tates supported the continued e2istence o! the #ritish Empire to -eep 9ommunist e2pansion in chec-. The 1wind o! change1 ultimately meant that the #ritish Empire)s days were numbered, and on the whole, #ritain adopted a policy o! peace!ul disengagement !rom its colonies once stable, non(9ommunist governments were available to trans!er power to. This was in contrast to other European powers such as 6rance and 4ortugal, which waged costly and ultimately unsuccess!ul wars to -eep their empires intact. #etween 1$&' and 1$6', the number o! people under #ritish rule outside the UK itsel! !ell !rom +,, million to !ive million, three million o! whom were in >ong Kong.
Initial disengagement

t least %',,,,, people were -illed and about 1&.' million lost their homes as a result o! the partition o! #ritish India in 1$&+.

The pro(decolonisation Eabour government, elected at the 1$&' general election and led by 9lement ttlee, moved /uic-ly to tac-le the most pressing issue !acing the empireG that o! Indian independence.India)s two independence movementsHthe Indian 7ational 9ongress and the Fuslim EeagueHhad been campaigning !or independence !or decades, but disagreed as to how it should be implemented. 9ongress !avoured a uni!ied secular Indian state, whereas the Eeague, !earing domination by the >indu ma<ority, desired a separate Islamic state !or Fuslim(ma<ority regions. Increasing civil unrest and the mutiny o! the :oyal Indian 7avy during 1$&6 led ttlee to promise independence no later than 1$&8. ;hen the urgency o! the situation and ris- o! civil war became apparent, the newly appointed .and last0 Ciceroy, Eord Fountbatten, hastily brought !orward the date to 1' ugust 1$&+. The borders drawn by the #ritish to broadly partition India into >indu and Fuslim areas le!t tens o! millions as minorities in the newly independent states o! India and 4a-istan. Fillions o! Fuslims subse/uently crossed !rom India to 4a-istan and >indus vice versa, and violence between the two communities cost hundreds o! thousands o! lives. #urma, which had been administered as part o! the #ritish :a<, and 5ri Ean-a gained their independence the !ollowing year in 1$&8. India, 4a-istan and 5ri Ean-a became members o! the 9ommonwealth, while #urma chose not to <oin. The #ritish Fandate o! 4alestine, where an rab ma<ority lived alongside a =ewish minority, presented the #ritish with a similar problem to that o! India. The matter was complicated by large numbers o! =ewish re!ugees see-ing to be admitted to 4alestine !ollowing the >olocaust, while rabs were opposed to the creation o! a =ewish state. 6rustrated by the intractability o! the problem, attac-s by =ewish paramilitary organisations and the increasing cost o! maintaining its military presence, #ritain announced in 1$&+ that it would withdraw in 1$&8 and leave the matter to the United 7ations to solve. The U7 8eneral ssembly subse/uently voted !or a plan to partition 4alestine into a =ewish and an rab state. 6ollowing the de!eat o! =apan in the 5econd ;orld ;ar, anti(=apanese resistance movements in Falaya turned their attention towards the #ritish, who had moved to /uic-ly reta-e control o! the colony, valuing it as a source o! rubber and tin. The !act that the guerrillas were primarily Falayan(9hinese 9ommunists meant that the #ritish attempt to /uell the uprising was supported by the Fuslim Falay ma<ority, on the understanding that once the insurgency had been /uelled, independence would be granted. The Falayan Emergency, as it was called, began in 1$&8 and lasted until 1$6,, but by 1$'+, #ritain !elt con!ident enough to grant independence to the 6ederation o! Falaya within the 9ommonwealth. In 1$6*, the 11 states o! the !ederation together with 5ingapore, 5arawa- and 7orth #orneo <oined to !orm Falaysia, but in 1$6' 9hinese(ma<ority 5ingapore was e2pelled !rom the union !ollowing tensions between the Falay and 9hinese populations. #runei, which had been a #ritish protectorate since 1888, declined to <oin the union and maintained its status until independence in 1$8&.
5ueA and its a!termath Fain articleG 5ueA 9risis

#ritish 4rime Finister nthony Eden)s decision to invade Egypt during the 5ueA 9risis ended his political career and revealed #ritain)s wea-ness as an imperial power. In 1$'1, the 9onservative 4arty returned to power in #ritain, under the leadership o! ;inston 9hurchill. 9hurchill and the 9onservatives believed that #ritain)s position as a world power relied on the continued e2istence o! the empire, with the base at the 5ueA 9anal allowing #ritain to maintain its pre(eminent position in the Fiddle East in spite o! the loss o! India. >owever, 9hurchill could not ignore 8amal bdul 7asser)s new revolutionary government o! Egypt that had ta-en power in 1$'%, and the !ollowing year it was agreed that #ritish troops would withdraw !rom the 5ueA 9anal Aone and that 5udan would be granted sel!(determination by 1$'', with independence to !ollow.5udan was granted independence on 1 =anuary 1$'6. In =uly 1$'6, 7asser unilaterally nationalised the 5ueA 9anal. The response o! nthony Eden, who had succeeded 9hurchill as 4rime Finister, was to collude with 6rance to engineer an Israeli attac- on Egypt that would give #ritain and 6rance an e2cuse to intervene militarily and reta-e the canal. Eden in!uriated U5 4resident 3wight 3. Eisenhower, by his lac- o! consultation, and Eisenhower re!used to bac- the invasion. nother o! Eisenhower)s concerns was the possibility o! a wider war with the 5oviet Union a!ter it threatened to intervene on the Egyptian side. Eisenhower applied !inancial leverage by threatening to sell U5 reserves o! the #ritish pound and thereby precipitate a collapse o! the #ritish currency. Though the invasion !orce was militarily success!ul in its ob<ectives, U7 intervention and U5 pressure !orced #ritain into a humiliating withdrawal o! its !orces, and Eden resigned. The 5ueA 9risis very publicly e2posed #ritain)s limitations to the world and con!irmed #ritain)s decline on the world stage, demonstrating that hence!orth it could no longer act without at least the ac/uiescence, i! not the !ull support, o! the United 5tates.The events at 5ueA wounded #ritish national pride, leading one F4 to describe it as 1#ritain)s ;aterloo1 and another to suggest that the country had become an 1 merican satellite1. Fargaret Thatcher later described the mindset she believed had be!allen the #ritish political establishment as 15ueA syndrome1, !rom which #ritain did not recover until the success!ul recapture o! the 6al-land Islands !rom rgentina in 1$8%. ;hile the 5ueA 9risis caused #ritish power in the Fiddle East to wea-en, it did not collapse. #ritain again deployed its armed !orces to the region, intervening in ?man .1$'+0, =ordan .1$'80 and Kuwait .1$610, though on these occasions with merican approval, as the new 4rime Finister >arold Facmillan)s !oreign policy was to remain !irmly aligned with the United 5tates. #ritain maintained a military presence in the Fiddle East !or

another decade. In =anuary 1$68, a !ew wee-s a!ter the devaluation o! the pound, 4rime Finister >arold ;ilson and his 3e!ence 5ecretary 3enis >ealeyJ announced that #ritish troops would be withdrawn !rom ma<or military bases East o! 5ueA, which included the ones in the Fiddle East, and primarily !rom Falaysia and 5ingapore. The #ritish withdrew !rom den in 1$6+, #ahrain in 1$+1, and Faldives in 1$+6.
;ind o! change

Fain articleG 3ecoloniAation o! !rica

#ritish decolonisation in !rica. #y the end o! the 1$6,s, all but :hodesia .the !uture Kimbabwe0 and the 5outh !rican mandate o! 5outh ;est !rica .7amibia0 had achieved recognised independence. Facmillan gave a speech in 9ape Town, 5outh !rica in 6ebruary 1$6, where he spo-e o! 1the wind o! change blowing through this continent.1 Facmillan wished to avoid the same -ind o! colonial war that 6rance was !ighting in lgeria, and under his premiership decolonisation proceeded rapidly. To the three colonies that had been granted independence in the 1$',sH5udan, the 8old 9oast and FalayaHwere added nearly ten times that number during the 1$6,s. #ritain)s remaining colonies in !rica, e2cept !or sel!(governing 5outhern :hodesia, were all granted independence by 1$68. #ritish withdrawal !rom the southern and eastern parts o! !rica was not a peace!ul process. Kenyan independence was preceded by the eight(year Fau Fau Uprising. In :hodesia, the 1$6' Unilateral 3eclaration o! Independence by the white minority resulted in a civil war that lasted until the Eancaster >ouse greement o! 1$+$, which set the terms !or recognised independence in 1$8,, as the new nation o! Kimbabwe. In the Fediterranean, a guerrilla war waged by 8ree- 9ypriots ended .1$6,0 in an independent 9yprus, with the UK retaining the military bases o! -rotiri and 3he-elia. The Fediterranean islands o! Falta and 8oAo were amicably granted independence !rom the UK in 1$6&, though the idea had been raised in 1$'' o! integration with #ritain. Fost o! the UK)s 9aribbean territories achieved independence a!ter the departure in 1$61 and 1$6% o! =amaica and Trinidad !rom the ;est Indies 6ederation, established in 1$'8 in an attempt to unite the #ritish 9aribbean colonies under one government, but which collapsed !ollowing the loss o! its two largest members. #arbados achieved independence in 1$66 and the remainder o! the eastern 9aribbean islands in the 1$+,s and 1$8,s, but nguilla and the Tur-s and 9aicos Islands opted to revert to #ritish rule a!ter they had already started on the path to independence. The #ritish Cirgin Islands, 9ayman Islands and Fontserrat opted to retain ties with #ritain, while 8uyana achieved independence in 1$66. #ritain)s

last colony on the merican mainland, #ritish >onduras, became a sel!(governing colony in 1$6& and was renamed #eliAe in 1$+*, achieving !ull independence in 1$81. dispute with 8uatemala over claims to #eliAe was le!t unresolved. #ritish territories in the 4aci!ic ac/uired independence in the 1$+,s beginning with 6i<i in 1$+, and ending with Canuatu in 1$8,. Canuatu)s independence was delayed due to political con!lict between English and 6rench(spea-ing communities, as the islands had been <ointly administered as a condominium with 6rance 6i<i, Tuvalu, the 5olomon Islands and 4apua 7ew 8uinea chose to become 9ommonwealth realms.
End o! empire 5ee alsoG 6al-lands ;ar

and Trans!er o! sovereignty over >ong Kong The independence o! :hodesia .as Kimbabwe0, the 7ew >ebrides .as Canuatu0 in 1$8,, and #eliAe in 1$81 meant that, aside !rom a scattering o! islands and outposts .and the ac/uisition in 1$'' o! an uninhabited roc- in the tlantic ?cean, :oc-all0,the process o! decolonisation that had begun a!ter the 5econd ;orld ;ar was largely complete. In 1$8%, #ritain)s resolve in de!ending its remaining overseas territories was tested when rgentina invaded the 6al-land Islands, acting on a long(standing claim that dated bac- to the 5panish Empire. #ritain)s ultimately success!ul military response to reta-e the islands during the ensuing 6al-lands ;ar was viewed by many to have contributed to reversing the downward trend in #ritain)s status as a world power. The same year, the 9anadian government severed its last legal lin- with #ritain by patriating the 9anadian constitution !rom #ritain. The 1$8% 9anada ct passed by the #ritish parliament ended the need !or #ritish involvement in changes to the 9anadian constitution.E/uivalent acts were passed !or ustralia and 7ew Kealand in 1$86. In 5eptember 1$8%, 4rime Finister Fargaret Thatcher travelled to #ei<ing to negotiate with the 9hinese government on the !uture o! #ritain)s last ma<or and most populous overseas territory, >ong Kong. Under the terms o! the 18&% Treaty o! 7an-ing, >ong Kong Island itsel! had been ceded to #ritain 1in perpetuity1, but the vast ma<ority o! the colony was constituted by the 7ew Territories, which had been ac/uired under a $$(year lease in 18$8, due to e2pire in 1$$+.Thatcher, seeing parallels with the 6al-land Islands, initially wished to hold >ong Kong and proposed #ritish administration with 9hinese sovereignty, though this was re<ected by 9hina. deal was reached in 1$8&Hunder the terms o! the 5ino( #ritish =oint 3eclaration, >ong Kong would become a special administrative region o! the 4eople)s :epublic o! 9hina, maintaining its way o! li!e !or at least ', years. The handover ceremony in 1$$+ mar-ed !or many,D including 9harles, 4rince o! ;ales, who was in attendance, 1the end o! Empire1.
Eegacy

#ritain retains sovereignty over 1& territories outside the #ritish Isles, which were renamed the #ritish ?verseas Territories in %,,%. 5ome are uninhabited e2cept !or transient military or scienti!ic personnelJ the remainder are sel!(governing to varying degrees and are reliant on the UK !or !oreign relations and de!ence. The #ritish government has stated its willingness to assist any ?verseas Territory that wishes to proceed to independence, where that is an option. #ritish sovereignty o! several o! the overseas territories is disputed by their geographical neighboursG 8ibraltar is claimed by 5pain, the 6al-land Islands and 5outh 8eorgia and the 5outh 5andwich Islands are claimed by rgentina, and the #ritish Indian ?cean Territory is claimed by Fauritius and 5eychelles.The #ritish ntarctic Territory is sub<ect to overlapping claims by rgentina and 9hile, while many countries do not recognise any territorial claims in ntarctica.

The !ourteen #ritish ?verseas Territories Fost !ormer #ritish colonies and protectorates are members o! the 9ommonwealth, a non( political, voluntary association o! e/ual members. 6i!teen members o! the 9ommonwealth continue to share their head o! state with the UK, the 9ommonwealth realms. 3ecades, and in some cases centuries, o! #ritish rule and emigration have le!t their maron the independent nations that arose !rom the #ritish Empire. The empire established the use o! English in regions around the world. Today it is the primary language o! up to &,, million people and is spo-en by about one and a hal! billion as a !irst, second or !oreign language. The spread o! English !rom the latter hal! o! the %,th century has been helped in part by the cultural in!luence o! the United 5tates, itsel! originally !ormed !rom #ritish colonies. E2cept in !rica where nearly all the !ormer colonies have adopted the presidential system , the English parliamentary system has served as the template !or the governments !or many !ormer colonies, and English common law !or legal systems.The #ritish =udicial 9ommittee o! the 4rivy 9ouncil still serves as the highest court o! appeal !or several !ormer colonies in the 9aribbean and 4aci!ic. #ritish 4rotestant missionaries who travelled across the globe o!ten in advance o! soldiers and civil servants spread the nglican 9ommunion to all continents. #ritish colonial architecture, such as in churches, railway stations and government buildings, can be seen in many cities that were once part o! the #ritish Empire.Individual and team sports developed in #ritainHparticularly !ootball, cric-et, lawn tennis and gol!Hwere also e2ported.The #ritish choice o! system o! measurement, the imperial system, continues to be used in some countries in various ways. The convention o! driving on the le!t hand side o! the road has been retained in much o! the !ormer empire. 4olitical boundaries drawn by the #ritish did not always re!lect homogeneous ethnicities or religions, contributing to con!licts in !ormerly colonised areas. The #ritish Empire was also responsible !or large migrations o! peoples. Fillions le!t the #ritish Isles, with the !ounding settler populations o! the United 5tates, 9anada, ustralia and 7ew Kealand coming mainly !rom #ritain and Ireland. Tensions remain between the white settler populations o! these countries and their indigenous minorities, and between settler minorities and indigenous ma<orities in 5outh !rica and Kimbabwe. 5ettlers in Ireland !rom 8reat #ritain have le!t their mar- in the !orm o! divided nationalist and unionist communities in 7orthern Ireland. Fillions o! people moved to and !rom #ritish colonies, with large numbers o! Indians emigrating to other parts o! the empire, such as Falaysia and 6i<i, and 9hinese people to Falaysia, 5ingapore and the 9aribbean. The demographics o! #ritain itsel! was changed a!ter the 5econd ;orld ;ar owing to immigration to #ritain !rom its !ormer colonies.