1. INDEX 1 Introduction to CCTV2 Fundamentals of video 3 Cameras 4 Lenses !

!onitors " Video s#itc$in% & 'nalo%ue video recordin% ( Di%ital tec$nolo%) * I+ Tec$nolo%) 1, -ousin%s 11 .emote /ositionin% devices 12 Control s)stems and ca0lin% 13 !ulti/le screen dis/la)s 14 Li%$t and illumination 1 Transmission1 ca0le 1" Transmission1 remote 1& Transmission 0) fi0re o/tics 1( Video motion detection 1* Interfacin% #it$ ot$er s)stems 2, 2urve)in% for CCTV 21 2/ecif)in% CCTV s)stems 22 Testin% and commissionin% '//endi3 1 4 5lossar) of CCTV terms 2. 1.Introduction to Closed Circuit Television

Introduction 's t$e name im/lies1 Closed Circuit Television 6CCTV7 is a s)stem in #$ic$ t$e circuit is closed and all t$e elements are directl) connected. T$is is unli8e 0roadcast television #$ere an) receiver t$at is correctl) tuned can /ic8 u/ t$e si%nal from t$e air#aves. Directl) connected in t$is conte3t includess)stems lin8ed 0) micro#ave1 infrared 0eams1 etc. T$is article introduces t$e main com/onents t$at can %o to ma8e u/ CCTV s)stems of var)in% com/le3it). T$e '//lications for CCTV +ro0a0l) t$e most #idel) 8no#n use of CCTV is in securit) s)stems and suc$ a//lications as retails$o/s1 0an8s1 %overnment esta0lis$ments1 etc. T$e true sco/e for a//lications is almost unlimited.2ome e3am/les are listed 0elo#.9 !onitorin% traffic on a 0rid%e.9 .ecordin% t$e inside of a 0a8in% oven to find t$e cause of /ro0lems.9 ' tem/orar) s)stem to carr) out a traffic surve) in a to#n centre.9 Time la/se recordin% for t$e animation of /lasticine /u//ets.9 :sed 0) t$e sta%e mana%er of a s$o# to see o0scured /arts of a set.9 T$e #ell4/u0licised use at foot0all stadiums.9 -idden in 0uses to control vandalism.9 .ecordin% t$e 0irt$ of a %orilla at a ;oo.9 !a8in% a #ildlife /ro%ram usin% a lar%e model $elico/ter.9 .e/roducin% t$e infrared vision of a %oldfis$<9 'erial /$oto%ra/$) from a $ot air 0alloon. 3. 9 +roduction control in a factor).T$e list is almost endless and onl) limited 0) t$e ima%ination.T$e CameraT$e startin% /oint for an) CCTV s)stem must 0e t$e camera. T$e camera creates t$e /icture t$at #ill0e transmitted to t$e control /osition. '/art from s/ecial desi%ns CCTV cameras are not fitted #it$ alens. T$e lens must 0e /rovided se/aratel) and scre#ed onto t$e front of t$e camera. T$ere is astandard scre# t$read for CCTV cameras1 alt$ou%$ t$ere are different t)/es of lens mounts.Dia%ram 1 Camera 'nd LensNot all lenses $ave focus and iris ad=ustment. !ost $ave iris ad=ustment. 2ome ver) #ide an%le lensesdo not $ave a focus rin%. T$e >NC /lu% is for connectin% t$e coa3ial video ca0le. Line /o#eredcameras do not $ave t$e mains ca0le. +o#er is /rovided via t$e coa3ial ca0le.T$e !onitorT$e /icture created 0) t$e camera needs to 0e re/roduced at t$e control /osition. ' CCTV monitor isvirtuall) t$e same as a television receiver e3ce/t t$at it does not $ave t$e tunin% circuits. 4. Dia%ram 2 CCTV !onitor2im/le CCTV 2)stemsT$e sim/lest s)stem is a camera connected directl) to a monitor 0) a coa3ial ca0le #it$ t$e /o#er fort$e camera 0ein% /rovided from t$e monitor. T$is is 8no#n as a line /o#ered camera. Dia%ram 3s$o#s suc$ a s)stem. +ro0a0l) t$e earliest #ell48no#n version of t$is #as t$e +)e ?0servation 2)stemt$at /o/ularised t$e conce/t of CCTV1 mainl) in retail esta0lis$ments. It #as an afforda0le1 do4it4)ourself1 self4contained s)stem.Dia%ram 3 ' >asic Line +o#ered CCTV 2)stemT$e ne3t develo/ment #as to incor/orate

t$e out/uts from four cameras into t$e monitor. T$ese could0e set to se@uence automaticall) t$rou%$ t$e cameras or an) camera could 0e $eld selectivel).Dia%ram 4 s$o#s a t)/ical arran%ement of suc$ a s)stem. T$ere #as even a micro/$one 0uilt into t$ecamera to carr) sound and a s/ea8er in t$e monitor.T$e s/ea8er1 of course1 onl) /ut out t$e sound of t$e selected camera. T$ere #ere $o#ever a fe#disadvanta%es #it$ t$e s)stem1 alt$ou%$ t$is is not to dis/ara%e it. T$e micro/$one1 0ein% in t$ecamera1 tended to /ic8 u/ sound close to it and not at t$e area at #$ic$ it #as aimed. T$ere #as anoticea0le1 and sometimes anno)in%1 /ause 0et#een /ictures #$en s#itc$in%. T$is #as 0ecause t$ecamera #as /o#ered do#n #$en not selected and it too8 time for t$e tu0e to $eat u/ a%ain. . T$e s)stem #as1 t$ou%$1 c$ea/ to 0u) and sim/le to install. It came com/lete in a 0o3 #it$ camera11"mm lens1 0rac8et1 s#itc$in% monitor and 12 metres of coa3ial ca0le #it$ fitted /lu%s. 'n outlet soc8etfor a video recorder #as /rovided1 alt$ou%$ revie#in% could 0e a little tedious #$en t$e cameras $ad0een set to se@uence.T$ere are no# man) s)stems of line /o#ered cameras on t$e mar8et t$at are more so/$isticated t$ant$is 0asic s)stem. !ost of t$e dra#0ac8s mentioned $ave 0een overcome.Cameras $ad 0een around for a lon% time of course1 0efore t$is develo/ment. T$e e3am/le is %iven tos$o# t$e sim/lest1 /ractical a//lication. T$e use of some line /o#ered cameras can im/ose limitationson s)stem desi%n. T$e) do t$ou%$1 offer t$e advanta%e of ease of installation. Dia%ram 4 ' Four4Camera Line +o#ered CCTV 2)stem !ains +o#ered CCTV 2)stemsT$e 0asic CCTV installation is s$o#n in dia%ram #$ere t$e camera is mains /o#ered as is t$emonitor. ' coa3ial ca0le carries t$e video si%nal from t$e camera to t$e monitor. 'lt$ou%$ sim/le toinstall it s$ould 0e 0orn in mind t$at t$e installation must com/l) #it$ t$e relevant re%ulations suc$ ast$e Institute of Electrical En%ineers latest edition. 6No# incor/orated into >ritis$ 2tandard >2&"&17.Failure to do so could 0e dan%erous and create /ro0lems #it$ t$e validit) of insurance.T$is arran%ement allo#s for a %reat deal more fle3i0ilit) in desi%nin% com/le3 s)stems. A$en moret$an one camera is re@uired1 t$en a video s#itc$er must 0e included as s$o#n in dia%ram ". :sin% t$is ". s#itc$er an) camera ma) 0e selected to 0e $eld on t$e screen or it can 0e set to se@uence in turnt$rou%$ all t$e cameras. :suall) t$e time t$at eac$ camera is s$o#n ma) 0e ad=usted 0) a control 8no0or 0) a scre#driver.Dia%ram ' >asic !ains +o#ered CCTV 2)stemDia%ram." ' Four4Camera 2)stem Ait$ Video 2#itc$er2)stems #it$ Video .ecordin% &. T$e ne3t develo/ment of a 0asic s)stem is to add a video recorder1 t$e arran%ement #ould 0e ass$o#n in dia%ram &.Dia%ram &' !ulti

Camera 2)stem Ait$ Video .ecorderAit$ t$is arran%ement t$e /ictures s$o#n durin% /la) 0ac8 #ill 0e accordin% to t$e #a) in #$ic$ t$es#itc$er #as set u/ #$en recordin%. T$at is1 if it #as set to se@uence t$en t$e same vie#s #ill 0edis/la)ed on t$e monitor. T$ere is no control over #$at can 0e dis/la)ed.!ova0le Cameras2o far all t$e cameras s$o#n $ave 0een fi3ed #it$ fi3ed focal len%t$ lenses. In man) a//lications t$earea to 0e covered #ould need man) fi3ed cameras. T$e solution to t$is is to use cameras fi3ed to amova0le /latform. T$is /latform can t$en 0e controlled from a remote location. T$e /latform ma) sim/l)rotate in a $ori;ontal /lane and is %enerall) 8no#n as a scanner. 'lternativel) t$e /latform ma) 0econtrolla0le in 0ot$ $ori;ontal and vertical /lanes and is %enerall) 8no#n as a /an1 tilt unit. ' 0asics)stem is illustrated in dia%ram (.T$is c$a/ter does not deal #it$ $o# cameras are controlled or #iredB it is =ust s$o#in% t$e facilities t$atma) 0e incor/orated into a CCTV s)stem. T$erefore t$e dia%rams t$at follo# are sim/l) descri/tive0loc8 dia%rams and not connection dra#in%s. (. Dia%ram ( >asic !ova0le Camera 2)stemCameras ma) 0e used indoors or outdoors. A$en used outdoors t$e) #ill al#a)s re@uire a /rotective$ousin%. For indoor use t$e environment or aest$etic constraints #ill dictate #$et$er a $ousin% isneeded. 2)stems ma) contain a com0ination of 0ot$ fi3ed and mova0le cameras.Dia%ram * !ulti/le Camera 2)stem?t$er ConsiderationsT$is $as 0een an introduction to some of t$e fundamentals of CCTV. .ecent develo/ments $ave madesome ver) so/$isticated s)stems /ossi0le. T$ese include conce/ts suc$ as multi/le recordin% of man)camerasB almost real time /ictures over tele/$one linesB true real time colour /ictures over t$e I2DNtele/$one linesB s#itc$in% of $undreds1 even t$ousands1 of cameras from man) se/arate control/ositions to do;ens of monitorsB relia0le detection of movement 0) electronic evaluation of t$e videosi%nalB immediate full colour /rints in seconds from a camera or recordin%B t$e re/lacement of manualcontrols 0) sim/l) touc$in% a screenB *. 2.Fundamentals of VideoIntroductionVideo si%nals are t$e si%nals used to send closed circuit television /ictures from one /lace to anot$er.Television 6TV7 is literall)1 tele4vision1 a means of vie#in% one /lace from some#$ere else. T$e #ordvideo comes from t$e Latin ver0 Videre1 to see.' television /icture is made u/ from a num0er of $ori;ontal lines on t$e television screen1 #$ic$ are laiddo#n1 or scanned1 from t$e to/ to t$e 0ottom of t$e television screen. T$ere are no# onl) t#ostandards for TV /ictures in %eneral use1 2 lines in t$e :2' 6EI'7 and Ca/an and "2 lines else#$ere6CCI.7. T$e descri/tions t$at follo# are 0ased on t$e "2 4line s)stem. T$e num0er of lines descri0es$o# eac$ still /icture is created1 0ut a television /icture is

made u/ from a num0er of still /icturesdis/la)ed ever) second.T$ere is a c$aracteristic of t$e $uman e)e 8no#n as D/ersistence of vision.E T$e e)e retains anim/ression of an ima%e for a fraction of a second after it $as disa//eared. If a series of still ima%es is/resented at a rate of a0out 14 /er second an im/ression of continuous movement #ill 0e /erceived.T$is1 $o#ever1 #ould %ive rise to a ver) distractin% flic8er. If t$e rate #ere increased to 24 ima%es /ersecond1 t$e flic8er #ould 0e almost unnoticea0le. Increasin% t$is to , ima%es /er second #ouldeliminate noticea0le flic8er.To transmit , com/lete ima%es /er second #ould 0e needlessl) com/le3 and e3/ensive to /roduce.T$e solution is to ado/t #$at is 8no#n as interlaced scannin%. Instead of scannin% t$e full "2 lines , times a second1 t$e scannin% s/eed is effectivel) dou0led and so is t$e vertical s/acin% of t$e lines.T$erefore1 one scan /roduces 312 1F2 lines from t$e to/ to t$e 0ottom of t$e /icture. T$is is 8no#n asone field. T$e ne3t scan is arran%ed to start at a /recise /osition e3actl) 0et#een t$e lines of t$e firstscan1 so t$at t$e lines of t$e second field interlace1 li8e fin%ers1 0et#een t$e lines of t$e first field. In t$is#a)1 a com/lete frame of video is created made u/ from t#o fields.?n a TV screen1 t$e /$os/$or on t$e screen continues to %lo# from t$e first scan #$ile t$e secondscan is 0ein% dis/la)ed. In t$is #a)1 alt$ou%$ onl) 2 com/lete /ictures 6frames7 are /resented /ersecond t$e screen is scanned , times 6fields7 /er second. T$e result is to ac$ieve a flic8er rate of ,-; 6c)cles /er second7 #$ile onl) usin% a 0and#idt$ for 2 frames /er second. 2ome 0roadcasttelevisions no# use a tec$ni@ue called G1,,-; tec$nolo%)H to furt$er reduce t$e flic8er on t$e TVscreen. -o#ever1 t$is tec$ni@ue is not %enerall) used in CCTV monitors due to t$e e3tra cost involved. 1,. Dia%ram 2.1 Interlaced FieldsT$e relations$i/ 0et#een t$e len%t$ of t$e $ori;ontal lines and t$e $ei%$t of t$e /icture is al#a)s t$esame and is 8no#n as t$e as/ect ratio. It is %iven 0) t$e follo#in% ratio.!onoc$rome Video 2i%nal Com/onentsT$e si%nal used to carr) t$e scannin% /ictures from one /lace to anot$er is called t$e video si%nal. 'volta%e is %enerated /ro/ortional to t$e 0ri%$tness of t$e ima%e at an) /oint on a $ori;ontal line. For t$e0ri%$test /arts1 corres/ondin% to a #$ite area1 a level of one volt is /roducedB t$is is t$e #$ite level.For t$e dar8est /arts corres/ondin% to a 0lac8 ima%e1 a volta%e of a//ro3imatel) ,.3 volts is /roducedBt$is is t$e 0lac8 level. >et#een t$ese levels1 t$e camera #ill /roduce a volta%e /ro/ortional to t$es$ade of %re) of t$e ima%e.-o#ever1 t$e 0ri%$tness si%nal is not t$e onl) /art of t$e video si%nal normall) /roduced 0) a camera.2ome met$od is re@uired of s)nc$ronisin% t$e monitor on #$ic$ t$e camera /icture is 0ein% dis/la)edto t$e field and line scannin% /rocess.T$is is to ena0le it to re4create t$e /icture t$at t$e camera is vie#in%. T$e met$od used to ac$ieve t$isis to add /ulses for t$e start of eac$ field

and t$e start of eac$ line. T$e s)nc$ronisin%1 or s)nc1 /ulsesfor t$e start of eac$ field are called Vertical 2)nc +ulses. T$ese vertical s)nc /ulses reduce t$evolta%e from t$e 0lac8 level do#n to ;ero voltsand ta8e u/ a time s/ace e@uivalent to 2 $ori;ontal lins1i.e. 1." milliseconds. T$e s)nc /ulses for t$e start of eac$ line are called -ori;ontal 2)nc +ulses. T$e$ori;ontal s)nc /ulses are also from t$e 0lac8 level do#n to ;ero volts and are 4.& microseconds inlon%. 11. T$e t)/e of video si%nal t$at contains 0ot$ video and s)nc$ronisin% information is 8no#n as com/ositevideo.Dia%ram 2.2 com/osite video si%nalT$e relations$i/ in level 0et#een t$e video si%nal and s)nc /ulses is normall) %iven 0) t$e follo#in%formulaIT$e com/lete $ori;ontal line lasts "4 microseconds. T$ere is a s$ort /eriod 0et#een t$e end of t$evideo si%nal for a line and t$e leadin% ed%e of t$e ne3t $ori;ontal s)nc /ulse. T$is is 8no#n as t$e front/orc$.T$ere is also a s$ort /eriod 0et#een t$e trailin% ed%e of t$e $ori;ontal s)nc /ulse and t$e start of t$evideo si%nal of t$e ne3t line. T$is is 8no#n as t$e 0ac8 /orc$. Considerin% t$e times for t$e $ori;ontals)nc and t$e front and 0ac8 /orc$es1 t$e actual len%t$ of t$e video si%nal in a $ori;ontal line is 2microseconds. In /ractice onl) 4& to , microseconds is visi0le due to over4scannin% at t$e monitor.T$ere is not =ust one s)nc /ulse. T$e nominall) "2 line s)stem uses 2 lines for field 0lan8in%1t$erefore , lines in one frame. T$is leaves & lines for /icture information. 12. 3.CamerasIntroductionT$e /rinci/al /art of a CCTV s)stem is t$e camera. T$ere are man) t)/es of camera and man) #a)s in#$ic$ t$e) are used. In t$is c$a/ter1 t$e different sorts of cameras and t$e fundamentals of t$eiro/eration #ill 0e e3amined. It #ill also e3/lain t$e terms descri0in% t$e /erformance of t$e cameras.T$is #ill ena0le an understandin% of t$e data s$eets availa0le for t$e m)riad of cameras availa0le ont$e mar8et. T$ere is no# no standard met$od for manufacturers to /resent data definin% camera/erformance. T$erefore1 t$eir literature s$ould 0e studied carefull) 0efore ma8in% a selection andcom/arisons made a%ainst a common standard.T)/es ?f CameraInternal CamerasInternal cameras are usuall) desi%nated for use indoor #it$out t$e need for environmental /rotection.Normall) t$e cameras are sim/l) fitted #it$ a lens to vie# t$e re@uired area and mounted on a #all orceilin% 0rac8et. If t$e camera is in an area suc$ as a corridor or ot$er /lace #$ere t$e li%$t level doesnEtc$an%e1 t$en a sim/le manual iris lens ma) 0e used. T$e li%$t level ma) c$an%e 0ecause t$ere are#indo#s or s8)li%$ts in t$e area 0ein% vie#ed. 'lternativel)1 if t#ent)4four $our o/eration of t$e camerais needed t$en an automatic iris lens or anot$er means of electronic sensitivit) control must 0e used.62ee electronic s$utter cameras.7Fre@uentl) t$e st)lin% of an internal camera is im/ortant 0ecause an arc$itect or similar /erson

#ill #antt$e camera to 0lend into t$e surroundin% decor. In t$ose cases1 t$e camera ma) 0e mounted insidesome 8ind of $ousin%. T$ere are man) $ousin%s of different st)les availa0le1 from sim/le cases t$rou%$to domes1 #ed%es and ot$er t)/es. Internal $ousin%s are also used for ot$er reasons. It ma) 0eim/ortant t$at t$e camera is not seen at all1 in #$ic$ event a covert $ousin% is used to $ide t$e cameraor dis%uise it as somet$in% else.-ousin%s ma) also 0e used to %ive a measure of /rotection in certain situations. T$ere are man) t)/esof enclosures t$at can 0e used to /rotect t$e camera from vandalism1 dust1 or ot$er contaminants.E3ternal CamerasE3ternal cameras are usuall) descri0ed for use in outdoor situations. T$e) are nearl) al#a)s $oused insome form of #eat$er/roof $ousin%1 an e3ce/tion 0ein% #$ere t$e camera case itself is #ater4resistant. 13. T$e e3ternal camera $ousin% normall) contains a $eater and t$ermostat to /revent t$e %lass #indo# att$e front from mistin% at lo# tem/eratures.E3ternal cameras al#a)s need some form of electronic sensitivit) control. T$is is 0ecause1 over t$ecourse of t$e da) and ni%$t1 t$e li%$t level ma) #ell c$an%e 0) a factor of over a million times. 't t$etime t$is 0oo8 #ent to /ress t$e most effective #a) of %ivin% suc$ electronic sensitivit) control is anautomatic iris lens fitted #it$ a neutral densit) s/ot filter. C$a/ters 4 and 14 /rovide more detailedinformation on lenses and li%$tin%.Electronic 2$utter CamerasT$ere are an increasin% num0er of cameras 0ein% introduced #it$ Delectronic s$uttersEB electronicdevices t$at are controlled 0) t$e amount of li%$t fallin% on t$e ima%in% device. In effect1 it is t$eelectronic e@uivalent of t$e varia0le s/eed mec$anical s$utter fitted to earl) cine cameras. In t$ese1 t$eamount of li%$t #as measured 0) a /$otoelectric cell1 an increase in li%$t causin% t$e s$utter to revolvefaster and vice versa. T$e same /ro0lems a//l) to 0ot$ devices. 't ver) $i%$ li%$t levels1 t$ere is a limitto t$e s/eed at #$ic$ t$e s$utter can effectivel) o/erate #it$out t$e /icture flarin%. 't ver) lo# li%$tlevels1 t$e e3/osure time is so lon% t$at movin% ima%es 0ecome 0lurred. 2ome manufactures $aveclaimed t$at t$ese cameras eliminate t$e need for an automatic iris lens. T$is is dou0tful in allconditions. T$e) are ideal for indoor conditions #$ere t$ere is a limited ran%e of li%$t levels. 's al#a)s1t$e manufacturerEs s/ecification s$ould 0e consulted carefull) to c$ec8 t$e li%$t ran%e covered. 'not$er/ro0lem t$at s$ould 0e a//reciated is t$at 0ecause t$e iris is invaria0l) set at t$e ma3imum a/erturet$e de/t$ of field is %reatl) reduced. 2ee automatic li%$t control and electronic s$utter later in t$isc$a/ter.!iniature Cameras2ince CCD cameras 6see later in t$is c$a/ter7 $ave 0een availa0le1 t$e si;e of cameras $as reducedconsidera0l). T$ese miniature cameras are availa0le in a num0er of st)les in t#o main %rou/s1 eit$er#$ere t$e camera is a com/lete unit or #$ere t$e ima%e sensor is se/arated from t$e

cameraelectronics. Com/lete cameras are availa0le at t$e /resent time #it$ dimensions similar to t$e si;e1sa)1 of a /ac8 of ci%arettes. If even smaller si;es are re@uired1 t$e cameras #it$ se/arate sensor $eads$ave sensor 0loc8s of onl) 2 mm cu0ed. ?ne restriction to t$e minimum si;e of camera is due to t$enecessit) of fittin% a lens and mountin% t$e camera. T$e ultimate is a camera of current desi%n t$at isa0out t$e si;e of a t$um0nail1 includin% all t$e electronics.Line +o#ered CamerasNormall) a CCTV camera $as to $ave some 8ind of /o#er source1 eit$er #ired from a central /oint orfrom a local mains s/ur. ?0viousl) t$ere is a cost involved of /rovidin% t$e necessar) ca0lin% or su//l) 14. /oints for suc$ cameras. 2ome camera manufacturers $ave addressed t$is issue 0) ma8in% camerasto #$ic$ t$e /o#er for t$e camera is sent do#n t$e same coa3ial ca0le used to 0rin% t$e video si%nal0ac8 from t$e camera. CCTV s)stems usin% line4/o#ered cameras1 t$en1 cost less to install in terms ofsu//l) ca0les or mains s/urs. T$ere are1 $o#ever1 t#o disadvanta%es. First1 some cameras need as/ecialised /o#er su//l) unit to feed t$e camera and se/arate t$e video for t$e monitor. Furt$ermore1#it$ lon% ca0le runs it is not /ossi0le to am/lif) t$e video si%nal from t$e camera 0ecause t$e /o#ercannot travel t$rou%$ t$e video am/lifier. T$is is also a /ro0lem if t$ere is %round loo/ interference ont$e camera as it is not /ossi0le to use a video isolation transformer #it$ line /o#ered cameras.>oard !ounted Cameras>oard mounted cameras are normall) small CCD cameras mounted on t$e /rinted circuit 0oard ofanot$er s)stem. T$e) are used to %ive a /icture as /art of t$e function of t$e s)stem. T$e 0est e3am/leof 0oard mounted cameras is t$ose used in video entr) /$one s)stems. In t$ese s)stems1 a com/leteCCD camera #it$ a lens is mounted on t$e +C> of t$e door entr) unit. T$e 0oard4mounted camera%ives /ictures to residents1 on small dedicated monitor units1 of t$e /erson o/eratin% t$e 0ell /us$.T)/es of Ima%e 2ensorsTu0ed CamerasT$e first CCTV cameras to 0e used #ere 0ased around s/ecial vacuum tu0es #it$ a li%$t sensitivecoatin% on one end. Li%$t stri8in% t$is coatin% caused electric current to flo# do#n t$e tu0e1 /ro/ortionalto t$e amount of li%$t fallin% at eac$ /oint on t$e coatin%. T$e circuits of t$e camera t$en converted t$ecurrent to t$e video si%nal.T$is #as a %ood initial desi%n and %ave cameras t$at $ad %ood sensitivit) and resolution. -o#ever t$ecameras #ere 0ul8) and t$e tu0es $ad a limited life s/an1 re@uirin% re%ular1 e3/ensive tu0e c$an%es.CCD cameras1 #$en introduced1 #ere smaller1 li%$ter and re@uired /racticall) no maintenance. T$is$as led to t$eir #ides/read re/lacement of tu0ed cameras in CCTV s)stems1 #$ere CCD cameras areno# used in /racticall) all ne# installations. For t$is reason1 no furt$er discussion of tu0ed cameras #ill0e made in t$is 0oo8.CCD

CamerasCCD is an a00reviation of C$ar%e Cou/led Device. T$is is t$e name %iven to a %rou/ of o/ticaldetector inte%rated circuits made from semiconductors 6see dia%ram 3.17. ' lens focuses li%$t onto t$esurface of t$e CCD ima%e sensor. T$e areas of li%$t and dar8 are sensed 0) individual /$oto4diodes1#$ic$ 0uild u/ an electrical c$ar%e /ro/ortional to t$e li%$t. T$at is to sa) t$at t$e 0ri%$ter t$e li%$t onan individual /$oto4diode t$e 0i%%er t$e c$ar%e develo/ed. T$ese /$oto4diodes are arran%ed in amatri3 of ro#s and columns and are %iven t$e name /icture cells or +i3els. T$e c$ar%e is removed from 1 . eac$ /i3el 0) ro#s of CCD cells. T$ese CCD ro#s are li8e ladders for c$ar%e1 ena0lin% ste/40)4ste/ t$ec$ar%e on eac$ /i3el1 and conse@uentl) t$e li%$t level on it1 to 0e read off 0) /rocessin% electronics.A$en t$e first CCD cameras #ere develo/ed1 it #as im/ortant t$at t$e) could re/lace e3istin% tu0ecameras #it$out $avin% to c$an%e lens si;es. T$erefore1 t$e first CCD cameras #ere created in 2F3Hformat. 's CCD sensor tec$nolo%) $as im/roved1 t$e format of CCD cameras $as decreased to 1F2inc$1 1F3 inc$1 and most recentl) to 1F4 inc$ and 1F(t$ inc$ to ma8e cameras smaller and c$ea/er. T$eassociated lenses are also muc$ more com/act1 0ut not necessaril) c$ea/er due to t$e muc$ $i%$eraccurac) re@uired to %rind a smaller lens. T$e dimensions of t$e ima%in% devices are s$o#n in C$a/ter4.Dia%ram 3. 1 CCD Ima%in% Device'n am/lifier is needed to 0oost t$e si%nal from t$e CCD sensor electronics u/ to t$e level #$ere it can0e used on a monitor. ' s)nc$ronisin% %enerator is also used in t$e CCD camera to %enerate t$esi%nals t$at read t$e li%$t level c$ar%e off t$e CCD and t$e s)nc$ronisation /ulses used 0) t$e videomonitor to re4create t$e ima%e. T$e mi3er section com0ines t$e video and s)nc$ronisation si%nals to/roduce t$e com/osite video si%nal used 0) t$e monitor. 1". Dia%ram 3. 2 !onoc$rome CCD Camera >loc8 Dia%ramT$ere are man) advanta%es of CCD cameras t$at $ave led to t$eir #ide s/read re/lacement of tu0edcameras. First1 CCD cameras use less /o#er and need no $i%$ volta%es li8e t$e tu0e. 's mentioned int$e section on miniature cameras1 CCD cameras can 0e ver) muc$ smaller t$an tu0ed cameras. T$e/icture linearit) is 0etter #it$ CCD cameras as tu0ed cameras used a ma%netic field to scan t$e ima%esensor. It is e3tremel) difficult to ma8e a ma%netic field t$at is com/letel) even over a %iven area. T$ismeant t$at t$e /ictures from tu0ed cameras #ere sometimes distorted 0) t$e ma%netic field1 0ul%in% outat t$e ed%es 60arrellin%7 in 0ul%in% in 6/in4cus$ionin%7. CCD cameras do not use ma%netic fields andconse@uentl) do not $ave t$is %eometric distortion.CCD cameras are also a %ood deal more ru%%ed t$an tu0e cameras. Vie#in% t$e sun or anot$er 0ri%$t/oint could easil) dama%e t$e surface of t$e tu0e and t$e tu0es re%ularl) needed re/lacement as aroutine maintenance tas8.

CCD cameras do not $ave t$is /ro0lem and are not dama%ed 0) $i%$ li%$tintensities1 nor do ima%es 0ecome 0urned into t$e surface over lon% /eriods. T$is1 and t$e a0ilit) ofCCD cameras to survive vi0ration and mec$anical s$oc81 %ives ver) muc$ reduced maintenance costfor CCD cameras.Colour CCD CamerasColour CCD cameras are 0asicall) t$e same as monoc$rome cameras. -o#ever1 t$ere are additionalcom/onents t$at $ave im/ortant effects on t$e /erformance of t$e camera 1&. Dia%ram 3. 3 Colour CCD Camera >loc8 Dia%ramLi%$t /asses t$rou%$ t$e lens and t$rou%$ a colour correction filter on to t$e CCD. T$e CCD is sensitiveto infrared li%$t1 #$ic$ is /resent in normal da)li%$t. T$is infrared li%$t /roduces false si%nals from t$eCCD t$at affects t$e /urit) of t$e colours re/roduced 0) t$e camera. T$e colour correction filterremoves t$e infrared li%$t 0efore it $its t$e CCD and ensures t$e colour /urit) of t$e camera. -o#ever1it also means t$at infrared illuminators cannot 0e used #it$ normal colour cameras as t$e colourcorrection filter removes all t$e li%$tin% created.T$e actual CCD ima%e sensor com/rises of an arra) of /i3els li8e a monoc$rome camera. -o#ever1eac$ /i3el is su0divided in to t$ree smaller li%$t sensitive areas t$at are constructed to 0e sensitive tored1 %reen and 0lue li%$t res/ectivel). Conse@uentl) t$e /i3els are lar%er in si;e t$an for monoc$romeCCDs and t$e num0er of /i3els #$ic$ can 0e fitted on to a colour CCD of a %iven si;e is less t$an amonoc$rome CCD of e@ual dimension. T$is is #$)1 %enerall)1 monoc$rome cameras still $averesolution #$ic$ is $i%$er t$an colour cameras. T$e colour correction filter and colour sensitivit) of t$e/i3els also tend to ma8e colour cameras less sensitive to li%$t t$at monoc$rome cameras. T)/icall)1colour cameras $ave sensitivities 0et#een 1 lu3 and 2. lu3 #$ereas monoc$rome cameras $avesensitivities 0et#een ,.,1 lu3 and ,.1 lu3.T$e se/arate 0ri%$tness si%nals for red1 %reen and 0lue are am/lified se/aratel) and t$e used 0) si%nal/rocessin% circuits to /roduce t$e luminance 6J7 si%nal 60) com0ination as descri0ed in c$a/ter 27 and 1(. t$e c$rominance 6C7 si%nal 60) /$ase and am/litude modulation of t$e 4.434!-; colour su04carrier asdescri0ed in c$a/ter 27. T$e J and C si%nals are t$en com0ine #it$ t$e com/osite s)nc /ulses to/roduce a com/osite colour video si%nal. !an) colour cameras also feature a se/arate connector#$ere t$e J and C si%nals are out/ut se/aratel) for connection to 2u/er V-2 video recorders andmonitors1 for im/roved resolution.Dia%ram 3. 4 :sin% J4C out/ut #it$ 24V-2 recorderT#o coa3ial ca0les must 0e installed 0et#een t$e camera and t$e 24V-2 video recorder. T$e J4Cout/ut of t$e recorder must 0e connected to t$e J4C in/ut of t$e monitor. T$is is normall) ac$ievedusin% a /re4made 24 V-2 ca0le #it$ mini4DIN connectors on eac$ end. -o#ever1 t$e 0enefit

ofinvestin% in t$is ca0lin% /lus an 24V-2 recorder and $i%$4resolution colour monitor 64,, TVL at centre7#ill 0e noticea0l) 0etter live and /la)0ac8 /ictures in terms of resolution. .esolution of t)/icall) 4,,TVL #ill 0e /ossi0le #$en vie#in% live action /ictures 6com/ared #it$ a0out 3 , TVL usin% t$ecom/osite video out/ut of t$e camera7. .esolution of t)/icall) 4,,TVL #ill 0e /ossi0le #$en vie#in%/ictures recorded on t$e24V-2 video recorder 6com/ared #it$ a0out 24, TVL com/ared #it$ astandard V-2 recorder7. T$e do#n side is t$e cost. 'n 24V-2 s)stem li8e t$is ma) cost t#ice as muc$as a standard V-2 s)stem usin% com/osite video.'dvanta%es ?f CCD Cameras9 No %eometric distortion.9 No coils1 ma%nets1 or %lass tu0e.9 Not /rone to %$ostin% or ima%e 0urn.9 !ore com/act and resistant to vi0ration.9 Not affected to electroma%netic interference. 1*. Initiall) CCD cameras could not /rovide t$e same de%ree of resolution com/ared to tu0ed cameras.T$e d)namic ran%e #as less and /roduced fe#er s$ades of %re). -o#ever1 im/rovements in CCDsensor desi%n $ave meant t$at t$e current %eneration of CCD cameras /roduces e3cellent ima%es of$i%$ resolution and accurate colour re/roduction.Di%ital 2i%nal +rocessin% 6D2+7 CCD CamerasIn conventional CCD cameras t$e functions of am/lification1 si%nal /rocessin% and mi3in% are carriedout 0) analo%ue circuits1 #$ic$ #or8 on c$an%in% t$e volta%es of t$e si%nals 0) various means.'d=ustments to /icture @ualit) are made 0) small ad=usta0le resistors #$ic$ are set u/ to %ive t$e 0estoverall /erformance across a ran%e of camera o/eratin% conditions 6li%$t levels etc.7 T$is a//roac$ isver) cost effective and %ives %ood @ualit) /ictures in most li%$tin% conditions -o#ever1 t$esead=ustments are1 at 0est1 a com/romise and t$e effects of tolerances in t$e values of t$e electroniccom/onents and c$an%es over t$e lifetime of t$e camera can cause t$e @ualit) of /ictures o0tainedfrom t$e camera to var) %reatl).In D2+ cameras di%ital circuits1 as s$o#n in fi%ure 3. 1 carr) out t$e si%nal /rocessin% and mi3in%.T$e si%nals from t$e CCD are connected to an analo%ue to di%ital converter 6'DC7. T$is converts t$e0ri%$tness level from eac$ /oint into a num0er. In t$is #a)1 t$e entire /icture ca/tured 0) t$e CCD atan) moment is re/resented 0) a %rou/ of num0ers. T$ese num0ers are /rocessed at $i%$ s/eed 0) t$edi%ital si%nal /rocessor1 #$ic$ does mat$ematics on t$e num0ers in order to /roduce t$e video si%nal att$e out/ut of t$e camera. T$e di%ital si%nal /rocessor %ives t$e ot$er name used for di%ital cameras1D2+.T$e com/osite video si%nal or J4C video si%nal is /roduced 0) a di%ital to analo%ue converter 6D'C7#$ic$ ta8es t$e finis$ed information from t$e di%ital si%nal /rocessor and /roduces t$e com/osite videodescri0ed in c$a/ter 2. !ost D2+ cameras still /roduce t$ese analo%ue com/osite video and J4Csi%nals as t$is is currentl) t$e most /o/ular format re@uired 0) t$e ot$er e@ui/ment in t$e video

s)stemBmonitors1 s#itc$ers1 multi/le3ers1 VC.Es etc. D2+ cameras do $ave t$e /ossi0ilit) to /roduce t$e videosi%nal in a di%ital form and it is li8el) t$at t$is #ill 0ecome /o/ular #$en a #orld#ide standard is a%reedfor sendin% video /ictures di%itall) in CCTV s)stems. 2,. Dia%ram 3. Di%ital Colour CCD Camera >loc8 Dia%ram' micro/rocessor controller sets t$e settin%s of t$e camera1 controlled 0) t$e D2+ circuits. T$is is asmall com/uter 0uilt in to t$e camera1 #$ic$ controls t$e mat$ematics used 0) t$e D2+ circuits to 0uildt$e video si%nal. T$e controls of t$e camera are usuall) a series of /us$ 0uttons on t$e camera1 #$ic$are scanned 0) t$e controller. Ait$ t$ese 0uttons t$e user can select and ad=ust t$e /icture @ualit) and/erformance of t$e camera usin% a series of menus overlaid on to t$e video /icture 0) t$e controller.?0viousl)1 t$e e3tra circuitr) re@uired 0) a D2+ camera ma8e t$em more e3/ensive t$an aconventional analo%ue camera. -o#ever1 t$ere are a num0er of 0enefits for t$is e3tra e3/enditure interms of features t$at are not availa0le from conventional analo%ue cameras. T$ese includeI9 2ta0ilit) 4 t$e ad=ustments to t$e camera are made 0) c$an%in% num0er values on an on4screen menu and not 0) small scre#driver ad=ustments. Conse@uentl) t$e settin%s of t$ecamera are easil) re/eata0le and tend not to c$an%e over time.9 !enu /ro%rammin% 4 /rovides an eas) and ra/id #a) to ad=ust t$e camera for t$e 0est /icturedurin% installation.9 Di%ital ;oom 4 T$e D2+ circuits $ave a com/lete numerical model of eac$ /icture and canmani/ulate t$ese num0ers. >) /erformin% certain calculations1 t$e D2+ circuits can selectivel)enlar%e a section of t$e /icture1 /roducin% a ;oomed4in ima%e. T$is is a useful feature 0ut it 21. s$ould 0e 0orne in mind t$at t$e num0er of /i3els in t$e CCD is constant and so t$e %reater t$eamount of di%ital ;oom used1 t$e /oorer t$e a//arent resolution of t$e /icture #ill 0e.9 !ulti4;one 0ac8li%$t com/ensation 4 :nli8e analo%ue cameras1 #$ic$ com/ensate for 0ri%$tli%$t 0e$ind an o0=ect 0) sam/lin% t$e video volta%e across t$e #$ole /icture1 D2+ camerasand $ave a num0er of se/arate ;ones #$ic$ can 0e /ositioned to cover 0ri%$t li%$t sources.Conse@uentl)1 t$is /rovides 0etter overall /icture @ualit) in t$ese situations.9 'utomatic @ualit) ad=ustment 4 D2+ cameras can $old a model of $o# a %ood @ualit) videosi%nal s$ould a//ear. T$e D2+ circuits can t$en com/are t$is #it$ t$e /icture 0ein% /roducedat an) moment1 and t$en activel) ad=ust t$e camera to /rovide t$e o/timum /icture @ualit). T$iscan %ive ver) %ood /icture @ualit) over a ver) #ide ran%e of li%$tin% conditions.9 .emote set4u/ and control 4 li8e an) com/uter1 t$e micro/rocessor controller cancommunicate #it$ ot$er com/uters over a di%ital lin8. Conse@uentl)1 D2+ cameras can 0eused in s)stems #$ere t$e) are set u/ and controlled 0) a matri3 s#itc$er or a +C1 even over%reat distances. T$is also sim/lifies camera re/lacement in t$e field as #$en

a camera0ecomes fault) t$e re/lacement fitted can $ave identical settin%s do#nloaded ver) @uic8l) to%ive identical /erformance to t$e ori%inal camera.T#in ColourF!onoc$rome CamerasT#in colourFmonoc$rome cameras1 are desi%ned to meet a /articular re@uirement in CCTV s)stems.2ometimes1 it is re@uired to $ave outdoor cameras #$ic$ /roduce colour ima%es in t$e da) 0ut #$ic$can /rovide %ood @ualit) /ictures in lo# li%$t levels at ni%$t1 /er$a/s even usin% infrared illuminators. Int$e /ast1 t$e onl) #a) to meet t$is re@uirement #as to use t#o se/arate camerasB one monoc$rome1one colour t$at #ere s#itc$ed over automaticall) 0) some t)/e of /$otocell or control s)stem.Im/rovements in CCD tec$nolo%) and t$e introduction of D2+ cameras $ave led to t$e availa0ilit) ofcolour cameras #$ic$ /roduce monoc$rome /ictures at ni%$t and #$ic$ $ave %ood sensitivit) toinfrared illumination. T$e cameras #or8 as normal colour cameras durin% t$e da). T$e ni%$t4time modeis controlled eit$er 0) t$e camera itself 60) sam/lin% t$e '5C volta%e1 see '5C 0elo#7 or remotel) 0) acontrol in/ut. In t$e ni%$ttime mode1 t$e colour su04carrier is s#itc$ed off and t$e camera /roduces =ustt$e monoc$rome com/osite video si%nal.Dual format cameras do $ave to overcome t$e /ro0lem of t$e infrared cut filter. Colour camerasnormall) $ave an ifrared cut filter t$at removes infrared li%$t and ensures accurate colour re/roduction0) t$e camera. -o#ever1 dual format cameras cannot use t$e colour correction filter at ni%$t 0ecause 22. t$is #ould filter out t$e li%$t /roduced 0) infrared illuminators. Camera manufacturers $ave solved t$is/ro0lem in t#o #a)s. ?ne #a) is to $ave small motor t$at moves a colour correction filter in front of t$eCCD in colour mode 0ut retracts it in monoc$rome mode. T$is $as t$e advanta%e of ensurin% t$e 0estcolour @ualit) 0ut $as t$e disadvanta%e t$at a com/le3 electro4mec$anical assem0l) is 0uilt in to t$ecamera and t$is #ill lo#er itEs relia0ilit) com/ared #it$ a camera t$at $as no movin% /arts. T$e ot$ersolution is to dis/ense #it$ t$e colour correction filter entirel). T$e effect of infrared li%$t is t$enad=usted 0) t$e di%ital si%nal /rocessin% of t$e camera. T$is %ives a camera1 #$ic$ is ver) relia0le1 0utt$e colour re/roduction of t$e camera #ill al#a)s 0e a com/romise as t$e amount of infra red li%$t seen0) t$e camera constantl) c$an%es and t$e com/ensation in t$e di%ital si%nal /rocessin% is fi3ed.Di%ital CamerasT$ere are alread) several camcorders on t$e mar8et t$at /roduce a di%ital out/ut instead of ananalo%ue video si%nal. T$ese record onto a miniature D'T 6Di%ital 'udioTa/e7 in di%ital form ordo#nload strai%$t to codecs. T$e /la)0ac8 can 0e eit$er via a di%ital to analo%ue converter in to aconventional monitor1 or direct 0) .5> in/ut to a com/uter monitor. T$e direct in/ut into a com/utermonitor #ill /rovide a si%nificant im/rovement in resolution and colour renderin%. T$e recordin%ca/a0ilit) for CCTV is

still limited 0) t$e current /ro0lems of com/ression and stora%e ca/acit)1 0ut t$isis advancin% ra/idl) and soon #ill not 0e t$e main /ro0lem. Ima%ine com/uter %ra/$ic t)/e resolutionand @ualit) in a CCTV installation1 t$e da) #ill come.T$e ma=orit) of advances in CCTV cameras $ave 0een as a result of develo/ments in cameratec$nolo%) and miniaturisation in t$e vast domestic mar8et. T$ere is no reason to dou0t t$at t$e di%italcamera tec$nolo%) #ill soon 0e availa0le to our industr)1 alt$ou%$ not at t$e time of /u0lication of t$isissue. -o#ever1 it ma8es sense to /ro/ose some of t$e advanta%es of t$is tec$nolo%) #$en it 0ecomesreadil) availa0le.Transmission of video alon% tele/$one lines or fi0re o/tic ca0le re@uires an analo%ue to di%italconverter 6'DC7 to 0e incor/orated in t$e transmitter and t$e reverse di%ital to analo%ue converter6D'C7 at t$e receivin% end. :sin% a direct di%ital out/ut from t$e camera #ill render t$e 'DCunnecessar)1 t$us savin% cost. A$en e@ui/ment is availa0le t$at can acce/t a di%ital si%nal t$en t$eD'C #ill not 0e re@uired /rovidin% furt$er savin%s. It #ill no lon%er to use coa3ial ca0le #it$ all its/ro0lems of connectors and limited ran%e. Instead1 sim/le t#isted /air ca0les can 0e used #it$ %reatl)im/roved distances and @ualit).!ulti/le3ers need to convert t$e analo%ue si%nal to a di%ital si%nal to $old in t$e frame storeB a%ain1 t$is#ill 0e unnecessar). 23. Ever) time a conversion from one form of si%nal to anot$er is rendered unnecessar)1 t$ere #ill 0e anim/rovement in resolution and /icture @ualit).4.LensesIntroductionT$e $uman e)e is an incredi0l) ada/ta0le device t$at can focus on distant o0=ects and immediatel)refocus on somet$in% close 0). It can loo8 into t$e distance or at a #ide an%le near0). It can see in0ri%$t li%$t or at dus81 ad=ustin% automaticall) as it does so. It also $as a lon% Dde/t$ of fieldEB t$erefore1scenes over a lon% distance can 0e in focus simultaneousl). It sees colour #$en t$ere is sufficient li%$t10ut s#itc$es to monoc$rome vision #$en t$ere is not. It is also connected to a 0rain t$at $as a fasteru/datin% and retentive memor) t$an an) com/uter. T$erefore1 t$e e)es can s#ivel from side to sideand u/ and do#n1 retainin% a clear /icture of #$at #as scanned. T$e 0rain acce/ts all t$e data andma8es an immediate decision to move to a /articular ima%e of interest1 select t$e a//ro/riate an%le ofvie# and refocus. T$e e)e $as anot$er clever tric8 in t$at it can vie# a scene of %reat contrast andad=ust onl) to t$e /art of it t$at is of interest.>) contrast1 t$e 0asic lens of a CCTV camera is an e3ce/tionall) crude device. It can onl) 0e focusedon a sin%le /lane1 ever)t$in% 0efore and after t$is /lane 0ecomin% /ro%ressivel) out of focus. T$e an%leof vie# is fi3ed. 't an) time1 it can onl) vie# a s/ecific area t$at must 0e /redetermined. T$e iriso/enin% is fi3ed for a /articular scene and is onl) res/onsive to %lo0al c$an%es in li%$t levels. Even anautomatic iris lens can 0e onl) 0e set for t$e overall li%$t level1

alt$ou%$ t$ere are com/ensations fordifferent contrasts #it$in a scene. 'not$er /ro0lem is t$at a lens ma) 0e set to see into s/ecific areasof interest #$en t$ere is muc$ contrast 0et#een t$ese and t$e surroundin% areas. -o#ever1 as t$e sunand seasons c$an%e so do li%$t areas 0ecome dar8 and dar8 areas 0ecome li%$t. T$e im/ortant scenecan 0e D#$ited outE or too dar8 to 0e of an) use.' controversial 0ut im/ortant as/ect of desi%nin% a successful CCTV s)stem is t$e correct selection oft$e lens. T$e /ro0lem is t$at t$e customer ma) $ave a totall) different /ers/ective of #$at a lens cansee com/ared to t$e realit). T$is is 0ecause most /eo/le /erceive #$at t$e) #ant to vie# as t$e) see itt$rou%$ t$eir o#n e)es. To/ics suc$ as identification of miscreants or num0er/lates must 0e su0=ectsde0ated fre@uentl) 0et#een installin% com/anies and customers.T$e selection of t$e most a//ro/riate lens for eac$ camera must fre@uentl) 0e a com/romise 0et#eent$e a0solute re@uirements of t$e user and t$e /ractical use of t$e s)stem. It is =ust not /ossi0le to seet$e #$ole of a lar%e loadin% 0a) and read all t$e ve$icle num0er /lates #it$ one camera. T$e solution 24. ma) 0e more cameras or vie#in% =ust a restricted area of /articular interest. ' Com/an) /uttin% for#ardt$e s)stem /ro/osal s$ould $ave no $esitation in /ointin% out t$e restrictions t$at ma) 0e incurredaccordin% to t$e com0ination of lens versus t$e num0er of cameras. >etter t$is t$an an un$a//)customer #$o is reluctant to /a) t$e invoice.'lt$ou%$ a lens is crude com/ared to t$e $uman e)e1 it incor/orates a $i%$ de%ree of tec$nolo%) anddevelo/ment. T$ere can 0e a lar%e variation in t$e @ualit) 0et#een different ma8es and t$is s$ould 0econsidered accordin% to t$e needs of a /articular installation. T$e lens is t$e first interface 0et#een t$escene to 0e vie#ed and t$e eventual /icture on t$e monitor. T$erefore1 t$e @ualit) of t$e s)stem #ill 0ever) muc$ affected 0) t$e c$oice of lens. For %eneral surveillance of1 for instance1 a small retail s$o/1 itis /ossi0le to use a lo#er @ualit) lens #it$ @uite acce/ta0le results. 's t$e demands of t$e s)stemre@uirement increase t$en t$e use of a /remium @ualit) lens must 0e considered. T$e difference in cost0et#een a /oor @ualit) and a $i%$ @ualit) lens #ill 0e a ver) small /ercenta%e of t$e total cost of a lar%eindustrial s)stem.T$e CCTV LensE3/osure ControlT$e e3/osure in a normal /$oto%ra/$ic camera can 0e controlled 0) a com0ination of s$utter s/eedand iris o/enin%. T$is is not so #it$ a CCTV camera lens. ' standard CCTV camera /roduces acom/lete /icture ever) 1F2 of t$e mains fre@uenc). T$is is ever) 1F2 second #$ere t$e mainsfre@uenc) is , -; 6c)cles /er second7 and ever) 1F3, second #$ere t$e mains fre@uenc) is ", -;.5enerall) t$e e3/osure time is fi3ed and t$e onl) control of t$e amount of li%$t /assin% to t$e ima%in%device is 0) ad=ustin% t$e si;e of t$e iris. T$is is covered in more detail later in t$is c$a/ter. !ostcamera tu0es and ima%in% devices $ave some tolerance of

t$e amount of li%$t /assed 0) t$e lens tocreate an acce/ta0le /icture. T$e ran%e of tolerance is %enerall) inversel) /ro/ortional to t$e sensitivit)of t$e camera. T$e more sensitive cameras re@uire %reater control of t$e iris a/erture.T)/es of LensesLens FormatsEarl) CCTV lenses #ere desi%ned for t$e 1H format tu0e camera and man) of t$ese are still availa0leon t$e mar8et. T$e lens scre# t$read on t$ese cameras is called a C4mount. T$is is a /articular desi%nof t$read si;e and flan%e len%t$ ori%inall) used on /$oto%ra/$ic cameras. In recent )ears lenses $ave 2 . 0een develo/ed for t$e 2F3H1 1F2H and no# 1F3H format cameras. Conse@uentl)1 %reat care must 0ee3ercised #$en selectin% a lens for a /articular camera. Cust as t$ere are four formats of camera sot$ere are four formats of lenses and t$e) are not com/ati0le in ever) com0ination. ' lens desi%ned for alar%er format camera ma) 0e used on a smaller format 0ut not t$e reverse. In addition1 t$e field of vie##ill not 0e t$e same on different si;e cameras. T$ere is no# a furt$er com/lication in t$at t$ere is aran%e of lenses #it$ #$at is called t$e C24 mount. T$e difference 0et#een t$e t#o t)/es of mount is t$eflan%e 0ac8 len%t$1 #$ic$ is t$e distance from t$e 0ac8 flan%e of t$e lens to t$e face of t$e sensor. 2eedia%ram 4.1. T$e scre# t$read and s$oulder len%t$ for eac$ t)/e of mount is identical. T$is ma8es itim/ossi0le to see t$e difference e3ce/t t$at t$e overall si;e of t$e C24mount lens is %enerall) smaller. 'C4mount lens ma) 0e used on a C24mount camera #it$ an ada/ter rin% 0ut a C24mount lens cannot 0eused on a C4mount camera. T$e main /ro0lem is t$at eit$er t)/e of lens can 0e scre#ed onto 0ot$t)/es of camera #it$out a//arent dama%e. T$e result is t$at if t$e #ron% t)/e is used it #ill 0eim/ossi0le to focus t$e camera. 2ome C4 !ount lenses $ave a /ro=ection at t$e 0ac8 t$at could dama%et$e sensor in a C24!ount camera.Dia%ram 4. 1 T)/es of Lens !ounts' c$art is /rovided at t$e end of t$is c$a/ter s$o#in% t$e relations$i/s 0et#een different lenses andcamera com0inations and t$e associated an%le of vie#. 't t$e time of %oin% to /ress1 most lenses #it$a focal len%t$ of 2 mm and a0ove are still desi%ned for 1H cameras. T$is means t$at s/ecial care must0e ta8en #$en usin% t$is lon% focal len%t$ lens on modern cameras. For instance1 a 2 mm 1H lens/rovides t$e follo#in% a//ro3imate an%les of vie# on t$e different formats. T$erefore1 t$ere #ould 0e asi%nificant variation in t$e e3/ected scene content if t$is fact #ere overloo8ed. 2". F?.!'T 1K 2F3K 1F2K 1F3K'N5LE ?FVIEA2*L *. L 114L *.&*LDia%ram 4. 2 'n%le of vie# for different formatsLens 2electionT$ere are t#o ot$er main factors t$at must 0e considered #$en selectin% t$e most a//ro/riate lens fora /articular situation. T$e focal len%t$ and t$e t)/e of iris control. Ait$in eac$ of t$ese factors1 t$ereare ot$er features t$at #ill also need to 0e considered. Lenses ma) 0e o0tained #it$ all

com0inations offocal len%t$ and iris control. T$e selection #ill de/end on t$e site and s)stem re@uirement.Focal Len%t$T$e focal len%t$ of a lens determines t$e field of vie# at /articular distances. T$is can eit$er 0ecalculated from t$e formula %iven later in t$is c$a/ter or found from ta0les /rovided 0) most lenssu//liers. !ost manufacturers also /rovide sim/le to use slide or rotar) calculators t$at com/utes t$elens focal len%t$ from t$e scene si;e and t$e o0=ect distance. T$e lon%er t$e focal len%t$ t$e narro#eris t$e an%le of vie#. 'lt$ou%$ not strictl) correct1 lenses #it$ a focal len%t$ lon%er t$an 2 mm are oftencalled ;oom lenses. T$e focal len%t$ of t$e lens re@uires careful selection to ensure t$at t$e correctarea is in vie# and t$at t$e de%ree of detail is acce/ta0le. ' rule of t$um0 is t$at to DseeE a /erson on amonitor t$e) s$ould re/resent at least 1,M of t$e screen $ei%$t. To DseeE in t$is conte3t means to 0ea0le to decide t$at it is a /erson. For /ur/oses of 0ein% a0le to identif) a 8no#n /erson re@uires t$emto 0e at least ,M of t$e screen $ei%$t and /refera0l) ",M. 'n un8no#n /erson s$ould occu/) at least12,Mof t$e screen $ei%$t.Fi3ed Focal Len%t$T$is t)/e of lens is sometimes called a monofocal lens. 's t$e name im/lies1 it is s/ecified #$en t$e/recise field of vie# is fi3ed and #ill not need to 0e varied #$en usin% t$e s)stem. T$e an%le of vie#can 0e o0tained from t$e su//lierEs s/ecification or c$arts /rovided. T$e) are %enerall) availa0le infocal len%t$s from 3.&mm to & mm. Lon%er focal len%t$s ma) 0e /roduced 0) addin% a 23 ada/ter0et#een t$e lens and t$e camera. It s$ould 0e noted t$at t$is #ould increase t$e f4num0er 0) a factorof t#o 6reducin% t$e amount of li%$t reac$in% t$e camera7. If focal len%t$s lon%er t$an t$ese arere@uired1 it #ill 0e necessar) to use a ;oom lens and set it accordin%l). 2&. E3ce/t for ver) #ide4an%le lenses1 ot$er lenses $ave a rin% for ad=ustin% t$e focus. In addition1 camerasinclude a focusin% ad=ustment t$at moves t$e ima%in% device mec$anicall) relative to t$e lens /osition.T$is is to allo# for minor variations in t$e 0ac8 focal len%t$ of lenses and manufacturin% tolerances inassem0lin% t$e device in t$e camera. Correct focusin% re@uires settin% of 0ot$ t$ese ad=ustments. T$e/rocedure is to decide t$e /lane of t$e scene on #$ic$ t$e 0est focus is re@uired and t$en set t$e lensfocusin% rin% to t$e mid /osition. T$en set t$e camera mec$anical ad=ustment for ma3imum clarit).Final fine focusin% can 0e carried out usin% t$e lens rin%.T$e mec$anical focusin% on cameras is often called t$e 0ac8 focus1 ori%inall) 0ecause a scre# at t$e0ac8 of t$e camera moved t$e tu0e on a rac8 mec$anism. !odern cameras no# $ave man) forms ofmec$anical ad=ustment. 2ome $ave scre#s on t$e side or t$e to/1 some still at t$e 0ac8. T$ere arecameras t$at $ave a com0ined CFC24mount on t$e front t$at also $as t$e mec$anical ad=ustment andcan acce/t eit$er t)/e of lens format. T$e lon%er t$e focal len%t$ of t$e lens t$e more critical is t$efocusin%.

T$is is a function of de/t$ of field descri0ed later in t$is c$a/ter.Varia0le Focal Len%t$T$is is a desi%n of lens t$at $as a limited ran%e of manual focal len%t$ ad=ustment. It is strictl) not a;oom lens 0ecause it $as @uite a s$ort focal len%t$. T$e) are usuall) used in internal situations #$ere amore /recise ad=ustment of t$e scene in vie# is re@uired #$ic$ ma) fall 0et#een t#o standard lenses.T$e) are also useful #$ere for a small e3tra cost one lens ma) 0e s/ecified for all t$e cameras in as)stem. T$is saves muc$ installation time and t$e cost of return visits to c$an%e lenses if t$e vie#s arenot @uite ri%$t. For com/anies involved in man) small to medium si;ed internal installations suc$ asretail s$o/s and offices t$is can save on stoc8 $oldin%. It ma8es t$e standardisation of s)stems andcostin% muc$ easier.!anual Noom Lens' ;oom lens is one in #$ic$ t$e focal len%t$ can 0e varied manuall) over a ran%e. :suall) t$is is 0)means of a 8nurled rin% on t$e lens 0od). It $as t$e connotation of D;oomin% inE and t$erefore infers alens #it$ a lon%er t$an normal focal len%t$. 62a) more t$an 2 mm.7 T$e ;oom ratio is stated as 0ein%for instance "I11 #$ic$ means t$at t$e lon%est focal len%t$ is si3 times t$at of t$e s$ortest. T$e usual#a) of descri0in% a ;oom lens is 0) t$e format si;e1 ;oom ratio and t$e s$ortest and lon%est focallen%t$s. For e3am/le1 2F3H1 "I11 12. mm to & mm. '%ain1 %reat care must 0e ta8en in esta0lis$in% 0ot$t$e camera and t$e lens format. T$e lens =ust descri0ed #ould $ave t$ose focal len%t$s on a 2F3Hcamera 0ut an e@uivalent ran%e of (mm to 4(mm on a 1F2H camera. 2(. !otorised Noom Lens!anual ;oom lenses are not #idel) used in CCTV s)stems 0ecause t$e an%le of tilt of t$e camera oftenneeds to 0e c$an%ed as t$e lens is ;oomed in and out. T$e most common need for a ;oom lens is#$ere used #it$ a /an tilt unit. T$e lens ;oom rin% is driven 0) tin) DC motors and o/erated from aremote controller.Ait$ t$e develo/ment of ever4smaller cameras and lon%er focal len%t$ lenses t$e met$od of mountin%t$e cameraFlens com0ination must 0e considered. T$ere are man) cases #$ere t$e lens isconsidera0l) lar%er t$an t$e camera and it ma) 0e necessar) to mount t$e lens ri%idl) #it$ t$e camerasu//orted 0) it. In ot$er cases1 it ma) 0e necessar) to /rovide ri%id su//orts for 0ot$ camera and t$elens. 'l#a)s c$ec8 t$e relations$i/ 0et#een t$e camera and lens si;es and #ei%$ts #$en selectin% a$ousin% or mountin%. !ost manufacturers of $ousin%s can /rovide lens su//orts as an accessor).Focussin% ' Noom Lens.T$e most fre@uent reason for t$e focus c$an%in% #$en ;oomin% is t$at t$e mec$anical focus of t$ecamera $as not 0een set correctl). T$e follo#in% is t$e /rocedure for settin% u/ t$e focus on a camerafitted #it$ a ;oom lens.T$e focusin% rin% s$ould 0e mar8ed DnearE and DfarE. 2et t$is to DfarE and set t$e ;oom rin% to t$e #idestan%le of vie#. 'im t$e camera at an o0=ect a0out 4, metres a#a) and ad=ust t$ecamera focus

forma3imum clarit). Ne3t ;oom in to an o0=ect near0) and set t$e lens focus for ma3imum clarit). It s$ouldno# 0e /ossi0le to ;oom all t$e #a) 0ac8 #it$out t$e focus c$an%in%. !an) motorised ;oom lenses #ill0e used in e3ternal conditions #it$ limited li%$t. If t$is is t$e case t$en it is advisa0le to fit a neutraldensit) filter in front of t$e lens to ma8e t$e iris o/en full). ' neutral densit) filter is one t$at reduces t$eamount of li%$t t$at enters t$e lens1 evenl) over t$e #$ole of t$e visi0le s/ectrum. T$is #ill create t$es$ortest de/t$ of field and ensure settin% u/ more accuratel) for t$e #orst conditions. T$e de/t$ offield1 as e3/lained later1 de/ends on t$e a/erture o/enin%.2ome controllers can override t$e automatic iris mec$anism1 usuall) to o/en it to see into dar8er areas.T$is is often t$e case #$en a camera is loo8in% out over o/en countr) in 0ri%$t sunli%$t and t$e lenscloses 0ecause it measures t$e avera%e li%$t levels. T$e scene at %round level can 0e ver) dar8 int$ese conditions1 #it$ little detail. T$is is not a desira0le feature to include unless a0solutel) necessar).T$is is 0ecause t$e override can 0e for%otten #it$ resultant /oor /ictures 0ein% recorded if t$e s)stemis not full) monitored. T$e 0etter solution is to tilt t$e camera do#n until t$ere is less /ro/ortion of s8) int$e /icture. 2*. !otorised Noom Lenses Ait$ /re4setsT$ere are man) situations #$ere it is re@uired to /an1 tilt1 and ;oom to a /redetermined /osition #it$int$e area 0ein% covered. It is /ossi0le to o0tain motorised lenses #it$ /otentiometers fitted to t$e ;oomand focusin% mec$anisms. T$ese cause t$e lens to ;oom automaticall) and focus to t$e settin% 0)measurin% t$e volta%e across t$e /otentiometer and com/arin% it #it$ t$e si%nals in t$e control s)stem.'ll ot$er functions are as for motorised ;oom lenses. +re4set controls are onl) /ossi0le #it$ telemetr)controlled s)stems. T$e s/ecification of t$e telemetr) controls s$ould 0e c$ec8ed to see #$et$er t$e/re4set /ositions are set from t$e central controller or locall) from t$e telemetr) receiver.Iris Control of Lens!anual IrisAit$ t$is t)/e of lens1 t$e iris o/enin% is set manuall) 0) rotatin% a 8nurled rin% on t$e lens 0od).T)/icall)1 it #ill $ave a ran%e of settin%s from t$e ma3imum to full) closed1 alt$ou%$ t$e ad=ustment #ill0e rat$er coarse. T$is t)/e of lens is onl) suita0le for indoor a//lications #$ere t$e li%$t levels remainfairl) constant. It can also 0e used indoors #it$ cameras $avin% electronic s$utters ma8in% a si%nificantcost savin%. Care must 0e e3ercised in usin% t$is cameraFlens com0ination in e3ternal a//lications0ecause t$e camera ma) not $ave ade@uate control to cover t$e total li%$t ran%e. In addition1 manualiris lenses do not usuall) $ave a neutral densit) s/ot filter to co/e #it$ e3tremel) 0ri%$t sunli%$t.In man) indoor situations1 t$e %eneral level of li%$t #ill var) si%nificantl) 0et#een summer and #interdue to li%$t from #indo#s1 s8)li%$ts1 etc. T$erefore1 it is often necessar) to ad=ust t$e a/erture t#o ort$ree times a )ear to maintain

o/timum clarit) of t$e /icture.'utomatic IrisDue to on%oin% develo/ment1 tu0ed cameras #ere 0ecomin% more sensitive and t$eir use #ass/readin% to more outdoor a//lications. T$e) #ere ver) limited in t$e ran%e of li%$t t$at could 0e co/ed#it$. To overcome t$is /ro0lem manual iris lenses #ere fitted #it$ motors 0olted on to t$e 0arrel todrive t$e iris rin%. T$e motors #ere connected 0) #a) of an am/lifier to t$e video out/ut of t$e camera.T$is #as monitored to ad=ust t$e iris rin% accordin% to t$e volta%e of t$e video si%nal. T$e lo#er t$evolta%e t$en t$e more t$e iris #ould 0e o/ened until t$e correct video volta%e #as ac$ieved1 and t$ereverse #$en t$e video volta%e increased. T$e earl) am/lifiers suffered from t$e /ro0lem of 0ein% toosensitive and res/ondin% too @uic8l) to c$an%es in t$e video si%nal. T$is caused D$untin%E of t$e iriso/enin% control and resulted in fluctuatin% contrast of t$e /icture. To overcome t$is a dela) circuit #asintroduced in t$e am/lifier 0ut t$is sometimes caused t$e reverse /ro0lem of t$e /icture c$an%in% tooslo#l). 3,. !odern automatic iris lenses are no# com/letel) self4contained units /roduced 0) t$e lensmanufacturer and containin% ver) so/$isticated electronics and microsco/ic motors. T$ere are t$reemain t)/es of automatic iris lenses.Iris 'm/lifierT$is t)/e of lens is sometimes referred to as a servo lens. T$e most common t)/e contains an am/lifierand is connected to t$e video si%nal of t$e camera. It is driven 0) a dc volta%e also /rovided from t$ecamera. It #as mentioned in C$a/ter 31 t$at t$e volta%e of t$e video si%nal is /ro/ortional to t$e amountof li%$t on t$e ima%in% device. T$e video level falls in /ro/ortion to t$e li%$t level. T$e am/lifier iscontinuousl) monitorin% t$is volta%e to maintain it at 14volt /ea8 to /ea8. 's t$e volta%e c$an%es so t$eiris am/lifier o/ens or closes t$e iris to maintain a constant 14volt.!ost cameras t$at /rovide an automatic iris drive include a soc8et on t$e rear. T$ere are t$reeconnections1 Ov1 ,v1 video. :nfortunatel)1 t$ere is no current standard for t$is connector 0ut mostcameras are /ac8ed #it$ t$e a//ro/riate /lu%. T$is can create /ro0lems if one camera is su0stitutedfor anot$er ma8e durin% maintenance or service. It can mean t$at t$e service en%ineer $as to c$an%et$e iris /lu% on site1 #$ic$ is not an eas) =o0. In reco%nition of t$is /ro0lem1 man) cameras are no#0ein% /roduced #it$ scre# terminals on t$e rear.5alvanometric LensT$ese are also 8no#n as a %alvometric or %alvano lens. T$is t)/e of automatic iris lens is driven 0) areference volta%e /roduced 0) an am/lifier in t$e camera. In ot$er #ords1 t$e am/lifier is #it$in t$ecamera instead of 0ein% /art of t$e lens. T$e lens contains a drivin% motor to o/en and close t$e lensand a dam/in% coil to /revent $untin%. T$ese lenses $ave four connections1 Ove drive1 4ve drive1 Ovedam/in%1 and 4ve dam/in%. T$e camera s/ecification s$ould 0e c$ec8ed to ensure t$at it contains t$ecircuitr) for t$is t)/e of lens. 5alvanometric lenses are usuall) less

e3/ensive t$an lenses #it$ a 0uilt4inam/lifier. T$e) are sim/ler to install 0ut can onl) 0e used #it$ a limited ran%e of cameras. '%ain1 fort$is t)/e of lens man) cameras are 0ein% /roduced #it$ scre# connectors instead of a soc8et for t$elens connection.2ensor LensT$is lens includes a li%$t sensor similar to t$at in a /$oto%ra/$ic camera. T$is measures t$e li%$t levelsand ad=usts t$e iris a/erture accordin%l). It re@uires a 124volt dc su//l) t$at ma) 0e o0tained from an)source. T$is t)/e of lens is not ver) common no# $avin% 0een introduced for use on Vidicon camerast$at did not $ave a video and 12 volt out/ut. T$e /ro0lem #as t$at t$e li%$t sensor #as /re4set and notres/onsive to t$e video level1 t$erefore t$e correct level #as al#a)s maintained. T$e vast ma=orit) of 31. cameras no# /rovide an automatic lens connection t$erefore t$ere #ill onl) 0e rare cases #$ere t$islens #ill 0e re@uired.Lens +arametersFocal Len%t$T$e ra)s from infinitel) distant o0=ects are condensed 0) t$e lens at a common /oint on t$e o/tical a3is.T$e /oint #$ere t$e ima%e sensor of t$e camera is to 0e /laced is called t$e focal /oint. ' lens $as t#ofocal /oints1 t$e /rimar) /rinci/al /oint and t$e secondar) /rinci/al /oint. T$e distance 0et#een t$esecondar) /rinci/al /oint and t$e /lane of t$e ima%e sensor is t$e focal len%t$ of t$e lens.Dia%ram 4. 3 Focal Len%t$ of Lenses'n%le of Vie# of LensesT$is is t$e an%le t$at t$e t#o lines from t$e secondar) /rinci/al /oint ma8e #it$ t$e ed%es of t$e ima%esensor. T$e focal len%t$ of a lens is fi3ed #$atever t$e si;e of t$e ima%e sensor. T$e an%le of vie#$o#ever varies accordin% t$e si;e of t$e sensor. 32. Dia%ram 4. 4 'n%le of Vie#T$e an%le of vie# is %iven 0) t$e follo#in% formulaIT$e an%le of vie# for a %iven focal len%t$ lens varies accordin% to t$e sensor si;e. T$is is s$o#n india%ram 4. . T$e corollar) of t$is is t$at for a %iven vie# t$e re@uired focal len%t$ varies accordin% tot$e sensor si;e as s$o#n in dia%ram 4.". T$is illustrates t$at for t$e same field of vie#1 t$e smaller t$eformat t$e s$orter is t$e re@uired focal len%t$.Dia%ram 4. 'n%les of Vie# for Different 2ensor 2i;es 33. Dia%ram 4. " Focal Len%t$s for Different 2ensor 2i;esField ?f Vie#T$e field of vie# is t$e ratio of t$e sensor si;e to t$e focal len%t$ and t$e distance to t$e su0=ect. T$is iss$o#n in dia%ram 4.&. T$e D#idt$ to $ei%$tE ratio of t$e sensor is 4I3. T$e $ori;ontal and vertical an%lesand t$erefore fields of vie# are different and must 0e considered se/aratel).Dia%ram 4. & Field ?f Vie#2ensor 2i;esDia%ram 4.( s$o#s t$e sensor si;es to 0e used #$en calculatin% fields of vie# and an%les of vie#.Dia%ram 4. ( 2ensor DimensionsFor e3am/le1 if it #ere re@uired to vie# a su0=ect 2. ! $i%$ at a distance of 1,! usin% a 2F3H cameraand lens t$e calculation #ould 0e as 0elo#. :sin% t$e relations$i/s %iven in dia%ram 4.".

34. T$e nearest standard lens in t$is case #ould 0e a 2 mm and t$e actual $ei%$t of t$e su0=ect scene#ould 0e 2."4 !. T$e sli%$tl) s$orter focal len%t$ lens /rovides a sli%$tl) #ider an%le of vie#.!ost lens 0roc$ures %ive t$e $ori;ontal and vertical an%les of vie#. T$e relevant vie#s can 0ecalculated from t$e formula as follo#sIA$ereI - is t$e $ei%$t of t$e scene1 d is t$e distance from t$e camera to t$e scene. T$is #ould %ive t$evertical $ei%$t of t$e scene usin% t$e vertical an%le of vie#. 2imilarl)1 t$e $ori;ontal #idt$ of t$e scene#ould 0e calculated from t$e $ori;ontal an%le of vie#..elations$i/ >et#een 2ensor 2i;e and Lens 2i;eIt can 0e ver) confusin% to esta0lis$ t$e actual field of vie# t$at #ill 0e o0tained from a com0ination ofsensor si;e and lens s/ecification. Lenses are s/ecified as desi%ned for a /articular sensor si;e. ' lensdesi%ned for one sensor si;e ma) 0e used on a smaller si;e 0ut not t$e reverse. T$e reason is t$at t$ee3tremities of t$e scene #ill 0e outside t$e area of t$e sensor. !an) /eo/le in t$e CCTV industr) $ave%ro#n u/ #it$ t$e 2F3H camera as t$e most /o/ular and are familiar #it$ t$e fields of vie# /roduced.-o#ever t$e 1F2H and 1F3H cameras are no# 0ein% e3tensivel) used and t$erefore t$ere are im/ortantfactors t$at must 0e ta8en account.Dia%ram 4. * Effect of 2ensor 2i;e on Vie#Dia%ram 4.* s$o#s t$e effect of usin% one lens on t#o different si;es of sensor. T$e result of usin% alar%er lens format on a smaller lens format is to create t$e effect of a lon%er focal len%t$1 #$ic$ is anarro#er an%le of vie#. 3 . Dia%ram 4. 1, :sin% a Correctl) !atc$ed Camera and Lens FormatDia%ram 4.1, s$o#s t$e result of usin% a lens desi%ned for a 1F2H format on a 1F2H sensor. T$is is anim/ortant consideration #$en decidin% t$e most a//ro/riate lens for a re@uired field of vie#. T$e desi%nsi;e of t$e lens must 0e related to t$e si;e of t$e sensor 0ein% used.To summarise t$enI1. ' lens desi%ned for one format ma) 0e used on a smaller format camera 0ut #ill /roduce anarro#er an%le of vie#.2. ' lens desi%ned for one format ma) not 0e used on a lar%er format camera.3. 'ssumin% a focal len%t$ $as 0een assessed 0ased on a /articular format of camera and lens1and it is t$en decided to use a smaller format camera1 t$e same field of vie# #ill onl) 0eo0tained if a s$orter focal len%t$ lens is used.4. 'l#a)s c$ec8 t$e an%le of vie# for t$e /articular lens and camera com0ination it is intended touse. . C$arts at t$e end of t$is c$a/ter /rovide %uidance on t$e selection of lenses and t$erelations$i/ 0et#een different formats of camera and lenses.'/ertureT$e si;e of t$e a/erture is called t$e Df num0erE of t$e lens1 e.%. f1.41 f1.21 etc. T$is is a mec$anical ratioof t$e lens com/onents and is s/ecified asI 3". T$e effective diameter is related to t$e si;e of t$e front lens. Note t$at t$is is effective diameter and nott$e actual diameter. T$is is a measure of t$e amount of li%$t t$at t$e lens #ill /ass to t$e

ima%in%device. 's stated it is a ratio and does not refer to t$e @ualit) of t$e lens. T$e smaller t$e num0er t$ent$e lar%er is t$e a/erture. T$e fi%ure %iven in s/ecifications for lenses is t$e ma3imum a/erture and t$isvalue is often follo#ed 0) t$e minimum a/erture. For instance1 f1.4 44 f3",1 t$is second value 0ein%im/ortant if t$e camera is ver) sensitive suc$ as an intensified sensor. Intensified cameras often re@uirea minimum a/erture as small as f1 ,,. From t$e formula a0ove it ma) 0e calculated t$at #it$ a 1"mmlens $avin% t$e a/erture set to f3", t$e effective diameter #ill 0e onl) ,.,4mm. Even so1 t$is couldallo# too muc$ li%$t to t$e sensor of an intensified camera and dama%e t$e tu0e or flare out t$e /icture.-avin% said t$at t$e f4num0er is a ratio1 t$is does not im/l) t$at a lens #it$ a lo#er num0er is 0ettert$an one #it$ a $i%$er num0er. T$ere are ot$er factors t$at affect t$e li%$t transmission t$rou%$ a lens.-o#ever1 #$en com/arin% t$e ma=or 0rands of lenses it is sufficient to use t$e f4num0er unless t$ea//lication is es/eciall) demandin%1 #$ere1 for instance1 ima%e com/arison or ultra fine resolution isnecessar).T$e efficienc) of a lens and t$e amount of li%$t it can transmit de/end on man) factors t$at lensdesi%ners must consider. -o#ever1 ultimatel) a lens must 0e a commercial /ro/osition and afforda0leto t$e CCTV installer and t$e customer. T#o factors t$at affect t$e cost of a lens are t$e si;e of t$e%lass elements and t$e num0er of elements. T$erefore1 it is less e3/ensive to /roduce a 1"mm f1.(lens t$an it is to /roduce a 1"mm f1.2. Conse@uentl)1 some manufacturers /roduce t$e same focallen%t$ lens in t#o variations of f4num0er. For indoor conditions #it$ am/le li%$t1 or outdoor use inda)li%$t onl)1 t$e c$ea/er f 1.( lens #ould 0e satisfactor) and could re/resent a savin% in cost.E3ercise care in selectin% t$e c$ea/er lens if t$e a//lication is outdoors #it$ lo# li%$t conditions. 'scan 0e seen from t$is c$a/ter1 t$is #ould re@uire nearl) t$ree times as muc$ li%$t as t$e f1.2 lens. !onitorsIntroduction'not$er im/ortant and often overloo8ed /art of a CCTV s)stem is t$e monitor. :ltimatel) t$e /ictureta8en 0) t$e camera and t$e lens is dis/la)ed on t$e monitor. T$e monitorEs /erformance andad=ustment #ill $ave an affect on t$e /icture seen 0) t$e s)stem o/erator. 3&. In t$e same #a) t$at cameras1 0ein% analo%ue devices1 $ave ad=ustments t$at ena0le t$e 0est /icture@ualit) to 0e o0tained so monitors1 also 0ein% analo%ue devices1 $ave settin%s and ad=ustments t$atena0le t$e 0est /icture to 0e dis/la)ed. If t$e controls on t$e monitor are not correctl) set t$en1similarl)1 t$e mone) s/ent on e3/ensive $i%$ /erformance cameras1 lenses and control e@ui/ment #ill0e a #aste 0ecause t$e /icture dis/la)ed on t$e monitor #ill not do =ustice to t$e rest of t$e s)stem.Conse@uentl)1 it is vital to understand t$e /rinci/les of t$e normal monitor controls1 t$eir effect on/icture @ualit) and t$e correct #a) to set t$e controls /ro/erl).!onitors are

availa0le in different screen si;es. T$e reason for t$is is t$at t$e si;e of t$e monitorde/ends on t$e vie#in% distance. If t$e incorrect si;e or /osition of a monitor is used t$en at 0est t$emonitor #ill 0e a#8#ard and un/leasant to useB at #orst t$e /icture #ill 0e too small to differentiatedetail or so lar%e t$at t$e /icture a//ears %rain) and lo# @ualit).In t$is c$a/ter t$e /rinci/les of o/eration of monoc$rome and colour monitors #ill 0e e3/lained in asim/lified #a)1 leadin% to t$e /rinci/les and effects of t$eir controls. T$e correct /rocedures used to sett$e controls to o0tain t$e 0est /icture @ualit) #ill 0e descri0ed. Finall)1 t$e /rinci/les of c$oosin% t$ecorrect num0er1 si;e and /ositionin% of monitors #ill 0e discussed so as to %et t$e ma3imum from t$isnormall) undervalued /art of CCTV s)stems.T$e +rinci/les of !onoc$rome !onitor ?/eration'/art from t$e use of transistors1 inte%rated circuits and ot$er solid state devices in t$e circuits ofmonitors t$e ma=or /art of t$e monitor1 t$e television or Cat$ode .a) Tu0e 6C.T71 $as remainedessentiall) unc$an%ed since t$e first TV monitors #ere develo/ed.'s s$o#n in Dia%ram .1 t$e C.T consists of a %lass tu0e #it$ all t$e air removed. 'n electron %un att$e 0ac8 of t$e C.T 6a s/ecial material t$at #$en $eated G0oils offH electrons7 %enerates a stream ofelectrons. T$ese are attracted to t$e front screen at ver) $i%$ s/eed 0) a $i%$ volta%e of severalt$ousand volts. T$e inside of t$e screen is coated #it$ a s/ecial /$os/$or t$at %lo#s #$en struc8 0)t$e electron 0eam1 t$e stron%er t$e 0eam t$e 0ri%$ter t$e s/ot %enerated.2cannin% coils around t$e nec8 of t$e tu0e %enerate a ma%netic field. T$e ma%netic field affects t$e/osition of t$e stri8in% /oint of t$e 0eam on t$e screen. >) c$an%in% t$e volta%e on t$e scannin% coilst$e stri8in% /oint of t$e 0eam can 0e scanned across t$e screen of t$e C.T to create a series of linesB#$en t$e 0eam moves 0ac8 across t$e screen1 durin% t$e retrace1 t$e 0eam is turned off so t$at onl)t$e line and not t$e retrace is visi0le. >) selectin% t$e correct #ave s$a/e and fre@uenc) t$e same "2 line frame and , fields /er second /atterns as /roduced 0) t$e camera can 0e re4created Fordescri/tions of fields1 frames and t$e #a) t$at t$e camera /roduces t$ese see C$a/tersE t#o and t$ree 3(. Dia%ram . 1 T$e Cat$ode .a) Tu0eT$e video si%nal is used to control t$e stren%t$ of t$e 0eam. T$e 0ri%$tness of t$e 0eam at an) /ointalon% a %iven line #ill 0e /ro/ortional to t$e level of t$e video si%nal. T$is is conse@uentl) /ro/ortionalto t$e li%$t intensit) at t$at /oint on t$e ima%e sensor of t$e camera. In t$is #a) t$e /icture ca/tured 0)t$e camera can 0e recreated on t$e screen of t$e monitor and o0served 0) t$e s)stem o/erator. 3*. Dia%ram . 2 >asic !onoc$rome !onitor >loc8 Dia%ramIn a 0asic monitor t$e video si%nal in/ut enters t$e monitor and is terminated in a sevent)4five o$mload. T$is matc$es t$e out/ut im/edance of t$e

camera and t$e coa3ial ca0le 6see C$a/ter t$ree7. 's)nc se/arator se/arates t$e video si%nal and s)nc /ulses. T$e s)nc /ulses are used to s)nc$roniset$e line oscillator of t$e monitor to t$e line oscillator of t$e camera 0ein% vie#ed. T$e line oscillator andfield oscillator res/ectivel) control t$e scannin% coils t$at scan t$e electron 0eam into "2 lines. Fields)nc /ulses control t$e scannin% coils to /roduce , fields. T$e $ori;ontal and vertical $old controlsad=ust t$e fre@uenc) of t$e line oscillator. Conse@uentl)1 t$ese can 0e used to com/ensate fordifferences in t$e s)nc /ulse fre@uencies comin% from t$e camera.' $i%$ volta%e %enerator is used to accelerate t$e electron 0eam. T$e stren%t$ of t$e 0eam iscontrolled 0) t$e out/ut of an am/lifier. T$e in/ut of t$e am/lifier is t$e video si%nal. In t$is #a)1 t$elevel of t$e video si%nal controls t$e 0ri%$tness at an) /oint on t$e screen. T$e 0ri%$tness control setst$e 0asic level of t$e 0eam and t$erefore t$e %eneral 0ri%$tness of t$e /icture. T$e contrast controlcontrols t$e am/lification or %ain of t$e am/lifier. T$e %reater t$e contrast t$e %reater is t$e effect of t$evideo si%nal on t$e 0ri%$tness. 't lo# contrast1 t$e /icture #ill a//ear %re) and uninterestin%. 'te3cessive contrast1 t$e 0lac8s and #$ites in t$e /icture are ver) $ars$ and t$e /icture is un/leasant tovie#. 't t$e correct 0ri%$tness and contrast levels1 t$e /icture #ill a//ear natural #it$ man) s$ades of%re). T$e DC .estoration affects t$e overall volta%e level of t$e video si%nal. 2ometimes t$is is needed0ecause t$e volta%e is modified as it /asses t$rou%$ ca/acitors in t$e circuits of cameras and controle@ui/ment. Ait$ t$e DC restoration turned off t$ere #ill 0e a %re) GrasterH #$en no video is in/ut to t$emonitor. Ait$ t$e DC restoration turned on t$e screen #ill 0e com/letel) 0lac8 #$en no video is in/ut.+rinci/les of Colour !onitor ?/eration' colour monitor #or8s in 0asicall) t$e same #a) as a monoc$rome monitor e3ce/t t$at t$ere are t$reeelectron %uns. T$ese t$ree %uns are for t$e t$ree /rimar) colours1 red1 %reen1 and 0lue. T$e %uns are 4,. ali%ned to t$e mas8 on t$e /$os/$or screen. If a TV screen is e3amined closel)1 it can 0e seen t$at it isa matri3 of ver) fine red1 %reen and 0lue dots. T$is is #$) t$e resolution of colour monitors is t)/icall)lo#er t$an monoc$rome monitors.' com0ination of all t$ree dots is needed to %enerate #$ite com/ared #it$ a sin%le dot for amonoc$rome monitor. T$is means t$at for t$e same num0er of /i3els t$e a0ilit) to resolve 0lac8 and#$ite lines ma) 0e u/ to t$ree times less on a colour monitor. A$en t$e 0eam from t$e correct %unstri8es a s/ot or /i3el on t$e corres/ondin% mas8 t$en t$e /i3el %lo#s red1 %reen1 or 0lue. 's /reviousl)e3/lained in C$a/ter t#o1 com0inations of t$ese t$ree 0asic colours can 0e used to form an) colour int$e s/ectrum. T$e firin% of t$e %uns in com0ination 0) t$e colour com/osite video si%nal recreates t$ecolour /icture vie#ed 0) t$e camera.Dia%ram . 3 Colour

!onitor >loc8 Dia%ram'fter s)nc se/aration t$e com0ined c$rominance and luminance si%nals are /rocessed 0) decoder andam/lifier circuits. T$ese are divided into se/arate si%nals to control t$e stren%t$ of t$e red1 0lue and%reen electron %uns. >esides t$e normal 0ri%$tness and contrast controls t$ere is also a colour controlt$at affects t$e %eneral c$rominance of t$e /icture. Ait$ t$e control #ound to minimum1 t$e ima%e #ill0e monoc$rome. A$en t$e control is turned to ma3imum t$e colours #ill 0e ver) saturated and #illnormall) 0e too un/leasant to vie#.:suall) a com/osite colour video in/ut is /rovided 0ut on some monitors a J4C or 2u/er V-2 in/ut #ill0e /rovided. 'lternativel)1 an in/ut is /rovided #$ere all t$ree colour si%nals are 0rou%$t in se/aratel).T$is is 8no#n as an .5> 6red1 %reen1 0lue7 in/ut. T$e advanta%e of eit$er J4C or .5> in/uts is t$att$ere is no filterin% as associated #it$ colour com/osite video. T$e 0and#idt$ availa0le is $i%$er1 and 41. conse@uentl) $i%$er resolution is availa0le if t$e J4C or .5> in/uts are used. T$at is1 /rovided ofcourse t$at J4C or .5> $as 0een used t$rou%$out t$e s)stem.:nderstandin% monitor /erformance s/ecifications.esolution's #it$ cameras1 t$e vertical resolution of a monitor is t$e num0er of 0lac8 to #$ite transitions or linest$at can 0e distin%uis$ed from t$e to/ to t$e 0ottom of t$e /icture. In addition1 as #it$ cameras t$elimitin% factor is t$e & lines t$at ma8e u/ t$e /icture. T$e fi%ure for resolution t$at is normall) %iven inmonitor data s$eets is1 as for cameras1 t$e $ori;ontal resolution. T$at is to sa)1 t$e num0er of 0lac8 to#$ite transitions or lines t$at can 0e resolved alon% one $ori;ontal line of t$e /icture.T$e ma=or difference 0et#een resolution /erformance fi%ures for monitors and resolution for CCDcameras is t$at t$e fi%ure for monitors is %iven for t$e centre of t$e /icture. T$is is #$ere t$e resolutionis $i%$est.Dia%ram . 4 T$e Effect ?f 2cannin% Coils ?n .esolution 'nd Linearit)T$e reason for t$is is t$at t$e /icture is made 0) "2 $ori;ontal lines /roduced 0) t$e scannin% coilsusin% a ma%netic field to drive t$e 0eam of electrons across t$e /$os/$or screen. -o#ever1 it is ver)difficult to %et a ma%netic field to $ave an even or linear effect across t$e entire surface of t$e screen.'t t$e ed%es of t$e screen1 t$e ma%netic field tends to 0e non4linear and 0ot$ t$e $ori;ontal and verticallines seen on t$e screen #ill a//ear 0ent. T$e electron 0eam also tends to defocus to#ards t$e ed%es.T$is reduces t$e a0ilit) to distin%uis$ fine lines at t$e corners and sides of t$e screen and reducesresolution at t$ese areas. For e3am/le1 a monitor #it$ a resolution at t$e centre of ",, lines mi%$t onl)$ave a resolution of 4,, lines at t$e corners. T$is is a ver) im/ortant /oint to remem0er in c$oosin% amonitor and in /ositionin% a camera on t$e screen to see t$e most detail. T$e o0=ect to 0e vie#ed must0e /laced in t$e centre of t$e screen to %et t$e s$ar/est /icture.T$e /ro0lems of non4linearit) 0ecame

#orse #it$ t$e advent of flatter and s@uarer tu0es1 0ecause t$escannin% 0eam1 #$ic$ is linear $ad to travel furt$er to t$e ed%es of t$e screen t$an it did to t$e centre.T$is /ro0lem #as is overcome #it$ a com/ensation circuit called D2E correction. T$is causes t$e 0eam1no# non4linear to move slo#er to#ards t$e ed%e and faster in t$e centre.!onoc$rome monitor $ori;ontal resolution is normall) @uite $i%$1 0et#een & , and (,, lines for a nine4inc$ monitor. T$e reason is 0ecause t$e coatin% of /$os/$or on t$e inside of t$e screen is continuous 42. and t$e s/ot si;e is determined 0) t$e electron 0eam focus. Conse@uentl)1 in monoc$rome s)stems t$emonitor is not t$e limitin% factor for t$e resolution of t$e s)stem. T$e resolution tends to decreasesli%$tl) as t$e monitor si;e increases 0ecause it is more difficult to manufacture lar%e TV tu0es #it$ afine /$os/$or coatin%.In colour monitors1 $o#ever1 0ecause t$ere are t$ree s/ots to ma8e eac$ /oint1 red1 %reen and 0lue1t$e resolution is ver) muc$ lo#er t)/icall) 33, to 3 , lines. T$e $i%$est resolution t$at is 0ein%ac$ieved at t$is time is a0out 4 , lines. T$is is assumin% t$at t$e J4C in/ut of t$e monitor is used. T$at1of course1 $as t$e /roviso t$at all t$e ot$er /arts of t$e s)stem are J4C and $ave t$e same or $i%$erresolution fi%ures.>and#idt$ is also lin8ed to resolution 6see C$a/ter 3 and t$e section on camera resolution7 T$e %reatert$e 0and#idt$ t$e $i%$er t$e /ossi0le resolution of t$e monitor and t$e s$ar/er t$e /ictures #ill 0e. Fora & ,4line monitor t$e 0and#idt$ mi%$t t)/icall) 0e a0out 1,!-;. 43. ".Video s#itc$in%IntroductionT$ere are fe# CCTV s)stems t$at $ave onl) a sin%le camera a/art from door entr) or ve$icle rear vie#s)stems1 etc. !ost s)stems incor/orate more t$an one camera and t$erefore $ave t$e need to selectt$e vie# from an) camera on to a monitor. T$is c$a/ter covers t$e main t)/es of video s#itc$er andt$eir a//lications.+rinci/les of Video 2#itc$in%It #ould 0e /ossi0le to s#itc$ video si%nals usin% sim/le to%%le s#itc$es 0ut t$is #ould introduceseveral undesira0le results. T$e s#itc$in% could cause severe interference on t$e screen due to t$einduced noise on to t$e si%nal. T$ere #ould 0e a lot of /icture roll until t$e monitor 0ecames)nc$ronised to t$e ne3t camera. T$e /icture mi%$t 0e unsta0le until t$e monitor is s)nc$ronisedcorrectl).!odern video s#itc$ers incor/orate electronic s#itc$es and a tec$ni@ue 8no#n as Dvertical intervalEs#itc$in%. A$en a ne# camera is selected1 t$e electronic circuits #ait a fraction of a second until t$efield s)nc /ulse of t$e video si%nal is detected and t$en s#itc$ over. T$is allo#s t$e monitor to loc8immediatel) on to t$e ne# line s)nc /ulse and t$e ne# /icture is dis/la)ed #it$out an) rollin%. T$isassumes t$at all t$e cameras in t$e s)stem are com/ati0le and on t$e same /$ase of t$e su//l). T$eelimination of /icture 0ounce is t$e main reason for s/ecif)in% t$at

all cameras are on t$e same /$aseof t$e su//l). T$ere are cases #$ere it is not /ossi0le to connect all cameras to t$e same /$ase suc$as lar%e industrial sites or s)stems $avin% cameras in several 0uildin%s. T$ere are cameras availa0le#it$ D/$ase ad=ustmentE controls. T$is allo#s t$e video si%nal to 0e transmitted out of /$ase from t$elocal su//l) and in /$ase #it$ t$e ot$er cameras. In man) cases1 t$e ad=ustment is too coarse foraccurate ali%nment and t$e result #ould 0e a small amount of D0ounceE 0ut not a com/lete roll of t$e/icture. T$e measurement s$ould 0e carried out at t$e monitor usin% a dual trace oscillosco/e. ?netrace #ould s$o# t$e local mains sine #ave. T$e ot$er #ould s$o# t$e camera out/ut and itsrelations$i/ to t$e su//l).T$e >asic Video 2#itc$erT$e sim/lest s#itc$er is one t$at includes t$e features mentioned /reviousl) and #$ere t$e coa3ialca0les are connected directl) into t$e rear via >NC /lu%s. T$ese s#itc$ers usuall) $ave a num0er of0uttons accordin% to t$e num0er of cameras in t$e s)stem. T$e) are mainl) 21 41 "1 and ( #a) units.T$is t)/e of s#itc$er is usuall) 8no#n as a manual s#itc$er #$ere t$e 8e)s directl) s#itc$ t$e cameras. 44. 2#itc$ers are usuall) terminated #it$ a & 4o$m resistor1 as is t$e monitor. In t$e case of t$e s)stems$o#n in dia%ram ".1 t$e terminations at 0ot$ t$e s#itc$er and t$e monitor s$ould 0e left at & o$ms.!ost s#itc$ers $ave t#o ot$er controls1 one to set t$e cameras to se@uence automaticall)1 t$e ot$er toad=ust t$e d#ell time 0et#een s#itc$in% from one camera to t$e ne3t. T$e d#ell time #ill 0e t$e samefor eac$ camera in t$e s)stem.Dia%ram ".1 2)stem #it$ 2im/le !anual 2#itc$erLoo/in% 2#itc$ers?n occasions1 it ma) 0e re@uired to loo/ one or more cameras to /art of t$e s)stem or anot$ers#itc$er1 for dual control. -ere a s#itc$er #it$ loo/ t$rou%$ facilit) #ould 0e used. T$is t)/e of s#itc$er 4 . #ill $ave t#o ro#s of >NC connectors1 one a0ove t$e ot$er. T$ere #ill also 0e a s#itc$ ad=acent toeac$ camera in/ut1 t$e /ur/ose of #$ic$ is to set t$e & 4o$m termination on or off. ?ne /osition of t$es#itc$ #ill usuall) 0e mar8ed D$i%$1E t$e ot$er Dlo#E or & o$m. T$e camera in/uts are normall) t$e to/ro# of connectors #it$ a corres/ondin% loo/ t$rou%$ connector 0elo#. T$e camera si%nals t$at arere@uired to carr) on to anot$er location #ould 0e ta8en off t$e out/ut connectors via >NC /lu%s. T$etermination s#itc$ ne3t to eac$ loo/ed t$rou%$ camera s$ould 0e set to D$i%$.E T$e si%nal s$ould t$en0e terminated at & o$ms at its destination. 2ome s#itc$ers #it$ loo/in% out/uts do not $ave atermination s#itc$. Instead t$e resistance is set to D$i%$E and /lu%s #it$ a 0uilt4in & 4o$m resistor are/rovided to fit in unused out/uts.It is not acce/ta0le to loo/ t$rou%$ a video si%nal 0) usin% a >NC DteeE connector. If t$is is t$e onl) #a)availa0le t$en t$e internal & 4o$m resistor inside t$e unit s$ould 0e sni//ed out1 T$e

correcttermination at t$e end of t$e line s$ould 0e ensured.Dia%ram ".2 .ear +anel of Loo/in% 2#itc$er.2#itc$ers #it$ 'dditional Features2#itc$ers are availa0le #it$ t#o monitor out/uts. Normall) one monitor can 0e set to se@uence t$rou%$t$e cameras and t$e ot$er used as a selecta0le s/ot monitor.'not$er feature availa0le on man) s#itc$ers is t$e ca/a0ilit) to acce/t alarm in/uts. T$ere is usuall)one alarm in/ut to eac$ camera in/ut. If t$ere is an in/ut from an alarm1 t$e s#itc$er #ill automaticall)s#itc$ t$e monitor to t$e associated camera. 'n alarm in/ut #ill override a se@uence if it is set u/ and$old t$e selected camera on t$e monitor. In t$e case of a s#itc$er #it$ dual monitor out/uts onemonitor #ill s#itc$ to t$e alarmed camera #$ile t$e ot$er continues to se@uence..emote 2#itc$ers?ften it ma) 0e inconvenient or difficult to route all t$e coa3ial ca0les to a des8to/ s#itc$er. T$is ises/eciall) t$e case if t$ere are ei%$t1 si3teen or more cameras in t$e s)stem. ' remote s#itc$er is one#$ere t$e camera ca0les are connected into a /anel containin% all t$e s#itc$in% electronics. T$is 0o3can 0e situated an)#$ere convenient for routin% t$e ca0les. T$e des8to/ control unit is t$en connected 4". to t$e remote /anel 0) a small t#o or four core ca0le or sometimes a sin%le coa3ial ca0le. T$e coa3ialca0le to t$e monitor6s7 is connected to t$e remote /anel.Dia%ram ".3 2)stem #it$ .emote 2#itc$er..emote s#itc$ers can %enerall) 0e more so/$isticated t$an t$e des8to/ t)/e and can incor/orate morefeatures. T$ere can 0e u/ to si3 or ei%$t monitor out/uts and more versatile $andlin% of alarm in/uts. Inaddition1 several 8e)0oards ma) 0e incor/orated into one s)stem. T$is allo#s selection of camerasfrom more t$an one control /osition. T$e controls in t$is t)/e of s)stem are %enerall) of t$e master andslave t)/e1 #$ic$ means t$at t$e controls are not totall) inde/endent. A$ere %reater fle3i0ilit) isre@uired t$en t$e c$oice #ould 0e to use a matri3 s#itc$er as descri0ed in t$e follo#in% section.For a s)stem #it$ more t$an four cameras1 remote s#itc$ers can ac$ieve si%nificant savin%s ininstallation costs. 4&. & 'nalo%ue video recordin%'nalo%ue Video .ecordin%T$e $uman e)e is an incredi0l) ada/ta0le device t$at can focus on distant o0=ects and immediatel)refocus on somet$in% close 0). It can loo8 into t$e distance or at a #ide an%le near0). It can see in0ri%$t li%$t or at dus81 ad=ustin% automaticall) as it does so. It also $as a lon% de/t$ of fieldB t$erefore1scenes over a lon% distance can 0e in focus simultaneousl). It sees colour #$en t$ere is sufficient li%$t10ut s#itc$es to monoc$rome vision #$en t$ere is not. It is also connected to a 0rain t$at $as a fasteru/datin% and retentive memor) t$an an) com/uter. T$erefore1 t$e e)es can s#ivel from side to sideand u/ and do#n1 retainin% a clear /icture of #$at #as scanned. T$e 0rain acce/ts all t$e data andma8es an immediate decision to move to a /articular ima%e of interest1 select

t$e a//ro/riate an%le ofvie# and refocus. T$e e)e $as anot$er clever tric8 in t$at it can vie# a scene of %reat contrast andad=ust onl) to t$e /art of it t$at is of interest.IntroductionT$e /redominant met$od of recordin% video /ictures at t$e time of /u0lication of t$is 0oo8 is 0)analo%ue video recordin%. In analo%ue recordin%1 t$e volta%es t$at ma8e t$e com/osite video si%nal arerecorded on to ma%netic ta/eB t$e c$an%es in volta%e ma%netise and dema%netise t$e ta/e. To /la)0ac8 t$e recordin% t$e c$an%es in ma%netism on t$e ta/e are converted 0ac8 in to volta%es and t$ecom/osite video si%nal is re4created for connection to a video monitor.' video ta/e recorder is a com/le3 inte%ration of electronics and e3tremel) $i%$ /recision mec$anics.T$ere $ave 0een several t)/es of recordin% s)stems in recent )ears1 t$e main contenders 0ein%>etama3 from 2on)1 Video 2,,, from +$ili/s and V-2 from !atsus$ita. T$e) are all 0ased around ata/e contained in a cassette #it$ a su//l) s/ool and a ta8e u/ s/ool. -o#ever1 t$ere #ere 0ot$electronic and mec$anical differences t$at /revented one ta/e 0ein% used on anot$er ma8e. T$e one toemer%e as t$e standard t$rou%$out t$e #orld is t$e V-2 s)stem. V-2 means Video -ome 2)stem and#as develo/ed 0) t$e CVC Com/an) in Ca/an.T$e V-2 Video .ecorder'll video ta/e recorders follo# t$e same /rinci/les as an audiocassette recorder. T$at is1 a ta/econtainin% t$ousands of tin) ma%nets1 eac$ #it$ a nort$ and a sout$ /ole is /assed t$rou%$ a var)in%ma%netic field. T$e ma%netic field is %enerated in a revolvin% drum from t$e video si%nal. T$isre/roduces t$e video si%nal onto t$e ta/e. 4(. T$e ta/e is stored in a sealed cassette #it$ a fla/ at t$e front /rotectin% t$e ta/e. A$en t$e ta/e isloaded into t$e recorder1 a mec$anism dra#s t$e cassette into and do#n t$e mac$ine.T$e catc$ $oldin% t$e front cover is released and t$e cover o/ened. T$e cassette dro/s over t#ot$readin% /osts as s$o#n in t$e first dia%ram. A$en one of t$e functions suc$ as /la) or record iso/erated t$e ta/e is dra#n around t$e $ead drum as s$o#n in t$e second dia%ram.Dia%ram &. 1 V-2 Ta/e Cassette.+rinci/les of Video .ecordin%T$e descri/tions %ive $ere are of necessit) over sim/lified and are intended to illustrate t$e 0asic/rinci/les of recordin%. 's stated 0efore1 t$e t#o essential elements of a video ta/e recorder are arotatin% $ead assem0l) and t$e ta/e /assin% around a drum and $ead. T$e $ead consists of a ferriterin% #it$ its continuit) 0ro8en 0) a small %a/. ' coil is #ound round t$e rin% #$ic$1 #$en ener%ised1creates a ma%netic field. T$e ma%netic field in t$e rin% concentrates in t$e %a/. 'n essential as/ect ofdesi%n is t$at $ead %a/ is in t$e order of ,.3 microns. ' micron is one4milliont$ of a metre. T$erefore1,.3 microns is a0out one4$undredt$ t$e t$ic8ness of a $uman $air.T$e video si%nal is fed to t$e ma%netic coil and creates an analo%ue version in t$e form of a ma%neticfield. 's t$e ta/e /asses t$e

%a/ in t$e $ead t$e ma%netic field causes t$e internal ma%nets to ali%naccordin% to t$e si%nal /assin% t$rou%$ t$e $ead.T$is ma8es a ma%netic co/) of t$e si%nal on t$e ta/e. T$e ta/e /asses t$e drum at a fi3ed s/eed1t$erefore lo# fre@uencies #ill create lon% ma%nets in t$e ta/e1 and $i%$ fre@uencies #ill create s$ortma%nets. 4*. Trac8s ?n Ta/eT$e ta/e consists of an insulated 0ase material #it$ a fine o3ide coatin%. For various reasons1 t$e $eadis dis/laced at an an%le to t$e ta/e. T$is is 8no#n as $elical scannin% and is standard for all recorders.T$e ma%netic information is recorded at an an%le across t$e ta/e.Dia%ram &. 2 Trac8s on Video Ta/eT$e #idt$ of ta/e for standard V-2 is 12." mm 61F2K7. T$e s/eed for standard real time recordin% is23.3* mmFsec. Earl) video recorders and some domestic V-2 recorders still availa0le toda) $ad t#ocoils1 or $eads1 on eac$ $ead c)linder. T$is #or8ed #ell #$ile t$e ta/e #as movin%1 /roducin% movin%/ictures on /la)0ac8. -o#ever1 #$en t$e /ause function on t$e recorder #as activated to vie# a sin%lestill /icture $ori;ontal noise 0ars #ould a//ear on t$e /icture 0ecause t$e $ead #as not movin% fastenou%$ to ca/ture t$e sin%le /icture from t$e ta/e accuratel).T$e solution to t$is /ro0lem #as introduced #$en t$e first four4$ead video recorders #ere made. T$eseuse four coils or $eads1 t#o eac$ on o//osite sides of t$e $ead c)linder. >) usin% four $eads instead oft#o t#ice t$e amount of information could 0e #ritten to or read from t$e ta/e. Four $ead videorecorders can re/la) still ima%es #it$out an) noise 0ars and t$is $as led to t$eir %eneral use indomestic and CCTV video recorders1 re/lacin% t$e older t#o4$ead desi%n.T$e $eads are s/aced " microns a/art for a standard V-2 time4la/se recorder and t$ese la) do#ntrac8s on to t$e ta/e1 #$ic$ are ( microns #ide. -ead c)linders of t$is desi%n are 8no#n as t)/e 2+$eads. ,. (.Di%ital Tec$nolo%) and .ecordin%Introduction.ecent develo/ments $ave made it /ossi0le to store video ima%es on ma%netic discs1 as on acom/uter $ard disc. T$is is done 0) convertin% t$e ima%e to a di%ital form to store it. T$e earl) /ro0lem#as t$at to o0tain reasona0le resolution re@uired storin% a massive amount of data. T$e result is t$atonl) a limited num0er of ima%es could 0e stored. ' reasona0le @ualit) colour /icture #it$ a resolution of"(1 3 (2 /i3els $as 3*"1,,, /icture elements. T$is #ould need a0out 1F3 me%a0)te 6!07 of discstora%e.!odern di%ital com/ression tec$nolo%) no# means t$at man) more ima%es can 0e stored. T$ere areno# s)stems t$at can store t$ousands of ima%es. Even t$is must 0e considered in t$e li%$t of t$e@ualit) of ima%e and t$e amount t$at can 0e stored. For instance1 real time video is /resented at t$erate of 2 frames /er second1 i.e. *,1,,, frames /er $our. ' 1,,4!0 $ard disc #ould store 33, frames1#$ic$ is onl) 13 seconds of video at normal densit). ' com/ression of 2I1 still onl) stores a0out 2"seconds of live video.

2am/lin% ever) ot$er frame #ould dou0le t$is a%ain 0ut it can 0e seen t$at di%italstora%e $as a lon% #a) to %o 0efore re/lacin% t$e video recorder. -avin% said t$is1 tec$nolo%) in t$isfield is advancin% at a ver) fast rate and is t$e o0vious #a) for#ard.Di%ital recorders are availa0le 0ut t$eir use is a tin) fraction of t$at of analo%ue video recorders. T$is isno sur/rise as a videota/e costin% a fe# /ounds can store over 4321,,, $i%$ @ualit) colour ima%es1usin% a recorder costin% a fe# $undred /ounds. To store t$e same num0er of /ictures di%itall) is ver)costl) 0ot$ in stora%e media and $ard#are re@uired to #rite to it.T$e /rimar) successes of di%ital recorders $ave 0een in event recordin%1 #$ere fast recordin% andsearc$ ma8es di%ital recorders most attractive. !an) di%ital recorders include multi/le3ers as t$etime0ase corrector re@uired for di%itisin% means t$at com/arativel) little e3tra circuitr) is needed to addt$is feature1 #$ic$ $el/s to ma8e t$em cost effective. 1. T$is #as t$e ori%inal introduction to di%ital recordin% in t$e second edition /u0lis$ed in 2,,, and #ould$ave 0een #ritten in a0out 1***. Tec$nolo%) $as moved on at a fast /ace since t$en. In fact it is no# att$e sta%e #$ere di%ital recordin% is virtuall) t$e norm #it$ t$e use of analo%ue VC.s declinin% ra/idl).'lon% side t$is massive develo/ment is t$e %ro#t$ of I+ tec$nolo%)1 #$ic$ no# $as t$e follo#in%com/lete c$a/ter 6*7 devoted to t$is latest trend.T$e Di%ital Video .ecorder 6DV.7T$e essential elements of an) di%ital video recorder are s$o#n in t$e sim/lified 0loc8 dia%ram (.1.!an) DV.s $ave more com/onents to add additional features li8e motion detection or videotransmission. T$e s#itc$er selects #$ic$ camera is to 0e recorded at an) moment and routes it to atime0ase corrector. T$e time0ase corrector ensures t$at /ictures can 0e recorded ra/idl) in se@uence#it$out $avin% to s)nc$ronise t$e cameras 0) %en loc8 or ot$er means.T$e analo%ue to di%ital converter 6'DC7 turns t$e volta%es re/resentin% luminance and into an arra) of0inar) di%ital num0ers #$ic$ re/resent t$e 0ri%$tness and colour at ever) /oint on t$e video /icture. 'di%ital si%nal /rocessor ta8es t$is $u%e amount of ra# data and com/resses it so t$at an acce/ta0lenum0er of /ictures can 0e stored on t$e limited s/ace availa0le in t$e di%ital store. T$e store ta8es t$isinformation and $olds it1 usuall) under a reference related to t$e time and date of recordin%. 2. Dia%ram (. 1 2im/lified >loc8 Dia%ram Di%ital Video .ecorder't an) time t$is arc$ived information can 0e retrieved and routed via a di%ital to analo%ue converter tore4create t$e video si%nal re@uired to /la) 0ac8 t$e recordin% on a conventional video monitor.'lternativel)1 if a +ersonal Com/uter is 0ein% used as a di%ital recorder t$e /la)0ac8 /ictures ma) sta)in di%ital form for dis/la) on t$e +C monitor.:nits of measure for di%ital stora%e2tora%e and file si;es are measured in 0)tes #$ere one 0)te is t$e 0asic unit of stora%e t$at #ouldre/resent a sin%le

letter or num0er. ' 0)te com/rises ei%$t 0its. ?ne 0it is a sin%le 0inar) num0er eit$er1 or ,. 3. ?ne Pilo0)te Q 11,24 0)tes1 621,7 not 11,,, as is commonl) used.?ne !e%a0)te Q 11,24 Pilo0)tes Q 11,4(1 &" 0)tes 622,7.?ne 5i%a0)te Q 11,24 !e%a0)tes Q 11,4(1 &" Pilo0)tes Q 11,&31&411(24 0)tes 623,7?n Tera0)te Q 11,24 5i%a0)tes1 624,0)tes7.T$e a0ove relations$i/s 0et#een units are strictl) correct1 $o#ever it is common /ractice to use a factorof 11,,, as t$e ratio 0et#een units.+rinci/les of Di%ital Video .ecordin%In di%ital recordin% eac$ field is divided in to an arra) of individual /oints or /i3els. 't eac$ one of t$ese/oints1 analo%ue to di%ital converters convert volta%es re/resentin% t$e colour and 0ri%$tness at t$at/oint to a 0inar) di%ital num0er. T$is arra) of 0inar) di%ital num0ers can t$en 0e stored di%itall) in a file#it$ a name cross referenced a%ainst time and date. ' sin%le frame of monoc$rome video needs a0out4 ,80 6Pilo0)tes7 of s/ace for stora%e and sin%le frame of colour needs a0out " ,80. T$is is t$euncom/ressed si;e t$at #ould 0e needed for stora%e on $ard disc or ot$er stora%e medium.Conse@uentl) to store t$e same num0er of ima%es as a video ta/e a total stora%e ca/acit) of a0out121. 50 65i%a0)tes7 #ould 0e needed for monoc$rome and 1& . 50 for colour. T$is is considera0l)lar%er t$an $ard discs and ot$er media %enerall) availa0le and #ould also 0e ver) e3/ensive.Conse@uentl) some means is re@uired of reducin% t$e amount of s/ace re@uired #it$out adversel)affectin% /icture @ualit). T$e tec$ni@ue of reducin% t$e amount of s/ace re@uired is %enerall) referred toas com/ression.T$e video frame contains a lar%e amount of redundant information t$at can 0e eliminated #it$out a%reat loss in /erceived /icture @ualit). Conse@uentl)1 common t)/es of com/ression used are 8no#n asGloss) com/ressionH 0ecause t$e redundant information is discarded. !ost com/ression met$ods areeffective u/ to a certain /oint1 or GPneeH1 0e)ond #$ic$ t$e ima%e @ualit) @uic8l) de%rades.To assist in reducin% t$e amount of si;e re@uired for stora%e t$e video si%nal can 0e re/resented in aform 8no#n as J:V. T$e J:V format consists of t$e J 6luminance7 and :V 6colour difference7 si%nals6for furt$er descri/tions of luminance and video si%nal com/onents see c$a/ter 27. T$e advanta%e ofusin% J:V format is t$at fe#er 0)tes are needed to di%itise t$e video. Normall)1 recordin% all of t$ecolour com/onentsB red1 %reen1 0lue 6.5> recordin%7 #ould need t$ree 0)tes1 one 0)te for eac$ colour.>) usin% J:V format t$e luminance can 0e di%itised as one 0)te and t$e colour difference si%nal asone 0)te. Conse@uentl) onl) t#o 0)tes are needed rat$er t$an t$ree1 a savin% of one t$ird of t$e 4. stora%e s/ace re@uired. T$is tec$ni@ue can 0e used to%et$er #it$ com/ression to minimise t$e amountof s/ace re@uired for stora%e.T)/es of Com/ressionT$e tec$nolo%) for com/ressin% video

/ictures ori%inated in t$e stora%e of still /$oto%ra/$s oncom/uters. T$e most commonl) used standard1 C+E51 ta8es itEs name from t$e Coint +$oto%ra/$icE3/ert 5rou/ 0) #$om it #as develo/ed. :sin% C+E5 com/ression1 t$e 8nee occurs at a0out (I1com/ression. T$e most commonl) used standard is !otion C+E5 for #$ic$ t$e 8nee occurs at a0out1 I1 com/ression. Conse@uentl)1 !4C+E5 reduces a 4 ,80 file to onl) 3,80. A$ile t$is is still too lar%eto fit t$e same num0er of ima%es as a video ta/e on to a $ard dis8 it is small enou%$ to /ermit1 sa)1 2ima%es /er second to 0e recorded for 24 $ours on to a "50 $ard dis81 #$ic$ is a si;e %enerall)availa0le1 costin% a fe# $undred /ounds.'not$er more recent com/ression standard #as devised 0) t$e !otion +icture E3/ert 5rou/s/ecificall) for t$e di%itisation of movin% ima%es. T$is standard is %iven t$e name !+E5. T$is standardma8es use of t$e redundanc) 0et#een ad=acent frames.!+E541 contains t$ree t)/es of encoded frames. Intracoded frames 6I4frames7 contain all of t$e videoinformation re@uired to ma8e a com/lete /icture. +redicted frames 6+4frames7 are %enerated 0)/revious I4frames or +4frames and are used to %enerate future +4frames. >i4directional +redictedframes 6>4frames7 are %enerated usin% 0ot$ /revious and future frames. ' com/lete se@uence offrames is made u/ of a series of t$ese different frame t)/es #it$ more t$an one I4frame for ever) 1, +4or >4frames. T$is /rocess is 8no#n as inter4frame correlation and allo#s com/ression ratios of 1,,I1 to0e ac$ieved.!+E542 is t$e format used in t$e latest Di%ital VideoDis8 6DVD7 tec$nolo%)1 #$ic$ can store a0out *,minutes of V-2 @ualit) video and audio on to onl) " ,!0 of stora%e s/ace1 suc$ as a CD4.?!.-o#ever t$ere are a num0er of disadvanta%es to !+E5 com/ression. Firstl)1 in order for !+E5 toac$ieve $i%$ com/ression it needs t$e video si%nal not to c$an%e a0ru/tl) from frame to frame. 2inceman) video recordin% a//lications re@uire multi/le3in% 0ecause more t$an one camera must 0erecorded1 t$e ra/id c$an%e from frame to frame as cameras are s#itc$ed defeats t$e inter4framecorrelation tec$ni@ue used in !+E5. 2econdl)1 !+E5 re@uires muc$ more electronics t$an C+E5ma8in% it more more e3/ensive for securit) a//lications.!+E544 is t$e latest develo/ment in t$e !+E5 series and is mainl) used in video films. Note1 t$ere#as no !+E543. . F?.!'T PNEE AIT- INTE.4F.'!E C?..EL'TI?NC+E5 4 4 ( I 1 Not 'vaila0le!4C+E5 1, 4 1 I 1 Not 'vaila0le!+E5 1, 4 1 I 1 1,, I 1F.'CT'L 2, 4 3, I 1 R 1,, I 1A'VELET3, I 1 R 1,, I 1T$ere are t#o ot$er met$ods of com/ression #ort$) of mention.-.2"4 standard 0ased video com/ression core tec$nolo%) #it$ su0stantiall) increased codin%efficienc) and en$anced ro0ustness to net#or8 environments in cost effective em0edded /latform. T$istec$nolo%) #ill su//ort TV 0roadcast1 di%ital entertainment1 internet streamin% and visualcommunications over 0road0and and #ireless

net#or8s.A'VELET1 is also seen as offerin% su/erior develo/ment /otential to current !+E5com/ression1 %ivin% a %reater amount of com/ression #it$ e@uivalent @ualit). It transforms t$e#$ole ima%e and not =ust 0loc8s of t$e ima%e1 so as t$e com/ression rates increase1 t$e ima%ede%rades %racefull)1 rat$er t$an into t$e D0loc8)E artefacts seen #it$ some ot$er com/ressionmet$ods. AaveletS a//lications can $ave t$eir /referred level of com/ression selected 0) t$euser T $i%$er or lo#er.T$us1 alt$ou%$ Aavelet is not as esta0lis$ed as some ot$er com/ression tec$ni@ues1 it is %ro#in% in/o/ularit).Com/ression summar)Com/ression tec$nolo%) is develo/ment ra/idl)1 #$ic$ ma8es it ver) dificult to assess t$e true 0enefitsof an) /articular met$od used in securit) a//lications. Eac$ manufacturer1 naturall)1 /us$es t$eir o#n/reference 0ut it still leaves a =un%le for t$e end user to find t$eir #a) t$rou%$. ". Fractal com/ression is not found ver) often in CCTV a//lications 0ut is mentioned $ere forcom/leteness. It is a mat$ematical met$od of encodin% t$at re@uires a %reat deal of com/utin% /o#er toencode t$e ima%es. It is not a Dloss)E com/ression as in C+E5 or !+E5. ?ne advanta%e is t$at t$eima%e can 0e enlar%ed or reduced #it$out t$e D0loc8)E a//earance of ot$er forms of loss) com/ression.2tora%e .ate'not$er factor involved in di%ital recordin% is t$at of stora%e rate. Aor8in% at t$e full 2 frames /ersecond of real time video #ould not onl) re@uire vast amounts of stora%e 64. 50 for =ust one $our U3,80 /er frame7 0ut also ver) fast /rocessin% and stora%e media ca/a0le of di%itisin% and storin% aeac$ frame 6even at 3,807 in under ,.,4 secondsB 4, milliseconds.!an) DV.s currentl) availa0le1 /articularl) t$ose 0ased on $ard disc stora%e %et round t$is /ro0lem 0)sam/lin% and recordin% frames at lo#er t$an t$e full 2 frame /er second rate. T$is is e3/ressed in anum0er of #a)s. For e3am/le1 a DV. ma) record ever) 12t$ frame1 2 frames /er second or V asecond /er frame. 'll of t$ese are t$e same value.T$e com0ination of file si;e and stora%e rate #ill %ive a fi%ure for stora%e ca/acit) /er second. Fore3am/le1 to store a 3,80 file at 3.13 frames /er second re@uires 3, 3 3.13 Q *3.*80 /er second1 or,.3450 /er $our. -o#ever1 t$is is =ust for one camera and most s)stems $ave more t$an one camerat$at must 0e recorded. For ( cameras t$e fi%ure a0ove #ould need to 0e multi/lied 0) ( #$ic$ is2.&250. To record t$ese ( cameras for ( $ours #ould need ( times t$e stora%e s/ace a%ain1 21.&"50.T$ere are currentl) 2350 $ard discs t$at #ould accommodate suc$ stora%e.Conditional .efres$ment' tec$ni@ue is no# 0ein% used 0) #$ic$ t$e first frame of a scene is ca/tured and stored at t$e $i%$est/ossi0le resolution. 2u0se@uent frames are scanned and onl) t$ose /arts of t$e scene t$at $avec$an%ed are stored1 T$ese refres$ed scenes are su/erim/osed onto t$e ori%inal frame and t$ec$an%ed /arts u/dated. T$e refres$ed scenes use onl) a tin) amount of data stora%e

com/ared to t$eori%inal scene. In t$is #a)1 t$e stora%e ca/acit) can 0e increased 0) one $undred or one t$ousandtimes accordin% to t$e amount of movement in t$e scene &. *.I+ Tec$nolo%)IntroductionIt used to 0e t$at CCTV ima%es #ere al#a)s transferred over coa3ial ca0le1 for various reasonsI ran%e10and#idt$1 ease of installation1 lo# attenuation1 and so on. -o#ever1 t$ere is a trend #$ic$ is emer%in%to inte%rate CCTV ima%es into 6or over7 e3istin% di%ital net#or8s #$ic$ are t$ere to /rovide dataservices. T$e reasons for t$is trend #ould a//ear1 on t$e face of it1 to 0e unar%ua0leI most (. or%anisations $ave lar%e data net#or8s alread)B t$ere is often s/are ca/acit) 6alt$ou%$ t$e net#or8mana%er ma) disa%ree #it$ t$at statement7B t#isted /air ca0le e3tends ever)#$ereB it is sim/le to installand maintainB it ma8es ma3imum use of 6or Dlevera%esE7 an e3/ensive asset. T$ere are do#nsides tot$e inte%ration of data and ima%es on a sin%le infrastructure1 usuall) to do #it$ t#o t$in%sI t$e effect ondata /atterns caused 0) streamin% video1 and t$e /ro0lems of relia0ilit) and resilience in a net#or8#$ere 1,,M u/time is usuall) an im/ossi0ilit).T$is c$a/ter acts as a sim/le %uide to net#or8in% #$ic$ $o/efull) #ill cover a lot of #$at )ou #anted to8no# a0out net#or8in%. T$is is not an in4de/t$ tec$nical %uideI t$ere are alread) too man) of t$osearound. .at$er1 it loo8s at an overvie# of net#or8in% from t$e data /ers/ective1 and t$en deals #it$ t$eissues of addin% CCTV to t$e infrastructure.T$e first /art loo8s at #$at a net#or8 is and $o# sim/le net#or8s o/erate. T$is leads on to c$ec8 out/rotocols1 and in /articular1 t$e ?2I & T la)er model. T$en TC+FI+1 I+ addresses and %ate#a)s aredealt #it$. Local 'rea Net#or8s are loo8ed atI $o# t$e) #or81 and #$at to loo8 out for #$en CCTV isadded. Et$ernet #ill 0e descri0ed1 t$e #orldEs most /o/ular L'N1 and t$e difference 0et#een $u0s ands#itc$es #ill 0e e3amined. Later1 t$e Internet is descri0edI #$ere it came from and $o# it #or8sB #$atdomain names are1 and $o# a name1 and its location1 are loo8ed u/ t$rou%$ a service called t$e DN2.T$en routers are e3/lained 4 $o# do t$e) do t$eir =o0W A$at $a//ens if t$e) sto/ #or8in%W A$atEs arouter4s#itc$W T$e ne3t /art of t$e c$a/ter loo8s at t$e circuits used to connect e@ui/ment to%et$er T co//er1 #ireless and o/tical fi0re. Lastl)1 $o# net#or8s are accessed is descri0ed1 and securit) issuesare dealt #it$ reference to Virtual +rivate Net#or8s and Fire#alls.Net#or8s?ver t$e )ears1 man) different definitions $ave emer%ed to cover t$e #ord Net#or8. D' %rou/ of +Csconnected to%et$erE mi%$t 0e oneB Da full) interconnected s)stem of $ard#are #it$ redundant circuits to/rovide resilienceE mi%$t 0e anot$er. In actual fact1 a net#or8 is somet$in% as sim/le as t#o des8to/com/uters s$arin% a sin%le /rinter1 to somet$in% as lar%e as t$e internet. A$at drives a net#or8 is t$e#ord Dinterconnectivit)E.

 *. Dia%ram *.1 Interconnectivit)Can one +C send data to anot$er +C and vice versa1 irres/ective of $o# t$e) are actuall) connectedto%et$erW Can a com/uter in1 sa)1 En%land1 do#nload information from anot$er com/uter in C$inaW Aillt$e t#o com/uters 0e com/ati0leW 2$ould #e need to 8no#W T$e ans#ers to t$ese @uestions are )es1)es1 )es and no1 in t$at order. T$e fact t$at a com/uter made 0) one manufacturer can Dtal8E to acom/uter made 0) a different manufacturer some#$ere else in t$e #orld isnEt somet$in% =ust to do #it$t$e fact t$at 0ot$ mi%$t use !icrosoft o/eratin% s)stemsI t$ereEs a 0it more to it t$an t$at. >uried dee/in t$e $eart of t$e +C is a set of D/rotocolsE #$ic$ ta8e care of an) incom/ati0ilities 0et#een differentcom/uters. It isnEt necessar) to 8no# t$at t$e)Ere t$ere1 0ut it mi%$t 0e $el/ful to e3/lain a little a0out/rotocols and $o# t$e) #or8 0efore continuin%.T)/es of communications ",. Dia%ram *.2 T)/es of communicationsA$enever )ou #rite a letter1 )ou o0serve a /rotocolI DDear 2irE ends #it$ D)ours fait$full)EB DDear !s2mit$E ends D)ours sincerel)E and so on. Ae do it #it$out t$in8in%I itEs #$at #e #ere /ro0a0l) tau%$t atsc$ool. 2imilarl)1 #$en #e rin% someone1 #e $ave a /rotocol for identif)in% #$o is at t$e ot$er end oft$e line1 and $o# lon% #e s/ea8 for 0efore findin% out #$et$er t$e ot$er /art) $as understood. Ae also8no# #$at to do if #e $ave mis$eard or misunderstood #$at #as said T a sort of error detection andcorrection routine usin% t$e #ord D+ardonWE or D2orr)1 I missed t$at1 sa) a%ainE A$at do #e do if #eans#er t$e /$one1 and find someone s/ea8in% a lan%ua%e #e donEt understandW Ae mi%$t 0e a0le tos/ea8 a fe# #ords of t$e forei%n lan%ua%e1 0ut if #e canEt1 t$en t$ere is no /oint in tr)in% tocommunicate.A$at #e need in t$e com/uter field is a 8ind of Dlin%ua francaE or a common lan%ua%e #$ic$ is used 0)ever) com/uter so t$at an) com/uter can communicate #it$ an) ot$er. T$at doesnEt mean t$at if )ou%o to a Ca/anese #e0 site and do#nload some data t$at )ou #ill necessaril) understand #$at it sa)s Tit #ill still 0e in Ca/anese c$aracters1 0ut )our com/uter #ill $ave $ad no /ro0lem understandin% #$at)ou as8ed it to do1 and no /ro0lem in understandin% $o# to as8 t$e com/uter in Ca/an for t$einformation eit$er. T$is is 0ecause all com/uters #or8 to an internationall) a%reed set of D/rotocolsE.>ac8 in t$e 1*&,s1 t$ere #as no need for /rotocolsI all com/uters #ere made 0) I>!. >) t$e 1*(,s1man) ot$er manufacturers $ad entered t$e mar8et1 usin% different internal o/eratin% s)stems1 and it0ecame ver) clear t$at international communications #ere $ere to sta). Ne# email /ac8a%es 0ecame "1. availa0leB for e3am/le ?utloo81 ?utloo8 E3/ress1 Eudora Li%$t1 Eudora +rofessional1 !ail+lus1+e%asus1 Lotus Notes1 and ot$ers. 2o to ena0le an)one an)#$ere to send email to an) ot$er com/uteran)#$ere1 irres/ective of #$et$er1 for e3am/le1 one +C used ?utloo8 to %enerate

an email1 andanot$er used Lotus Notes to do t$e same =o01 some sort of /rotocol #as needed to carr) outDconversionE #or8 0et#een t#o dissimilar elements of soft#are or $ard#are. T$e International2tandards ?r%anisation 6I2?7 %ot involved1 and came u/ #it$ t$e ?/en 2)stems Interconnection &4la)er !odel as t$e 0est #a) of solvin% t$e /ro0lem. T$e code for t$is is em0edded into t$e com/utero/eratin% s)stem1 and #or8s @uietl) in t$e 0ac8%round.?/en s)stems interconnection?ne of t$e sim/lest #a)s of understandin% t$e ?/en 2)stems Interconnection model is to relate it to aset of envelo/es T several envelo/es fit inside one anot$er1 until onl) t$e lar%est is visi0le. T$e lar%estone $ides all t$e ot$ers1 and is t$e onl) one visi0le to t$e e)e. >efore #e see $o# it #or8s1 letEs as8anot$er @uestion. If )ou #ant to 0e a0solutel) sure t$at an) /ostal /ac8et )ou send to anot$er /ersonactuall) %ets t$ere1 #$at #ould )ou doW Jou ou%$t not to dro/ it into a /ost 0o31 even t$ou%$ t$e .o)al!ail $as a %ood trac8 record of deliver)I )ou #ould send it recorded deliver) or re%istered /ost. T$at#a) )ou can 0e sure t$at t$e addressee $as %ot it. Net#or8s use t$e same ideaI if )ou #ant to send1sa)1 an email to some0od)1 and 0e sure t$at 6a7 itEs arrived1 607 itEs not 0een dama%ed in transit and 6c7t$e #$ole email $as 0een delivered1 and no /art is missin%1 t$en )our com/uter #ould automaticall)use a s)stem for recorded deliver) T t$is is called TC+1 or Transmission Control +rotocol. Jou donEtactuall) see t$is $a//enin%I )our +C ta8es t$e a//ro/riate action immediatel) )ou decide to send anemail.LetEs use an e3am/le. AeEll send an email to en@uiriesUtavcom.com. T$is email $as an attac$ment#$ic$ consists of a Aord document of 1,, /a%es of te3t. T$e com/uter #e #ill use $as Lotus Notes asits email /ac8a%e 6or DclientE1 as it is usuall) called7 and it is connected to an internal Local 'reaNet#or81 or L'N. A$en #e clic8 on Dcreate mailE1 and fill in t$e various 0o3es #it$ su0=ect1 addressee1te3t1 attac$ment1 and so on1 t$e ?2I model is alread) #or8in% a#a) on t$is information. T$e email itselfis /laced inside an Denvelo/eE #it$ t$e t)/e of email /ac8a%e T Lotus Notes T on t$e front. T$is in turn is/laced inside anot$er Denvelo/eE #it$ a la0el on t$e front to indicate t$at t$e contents are1 in fact1electronic mail. T$is la0el sa)s D2!T+E T 2im/le !ail Transfer +rotocol. T$is envelo/e in turn is /lacedinside anot$er1 #$ic$ sa)s DTC+E on t$e front. T$is is t$e instruction for t$e reci/ient to ac8no#led%esafe recei/t. 2ince t$is envelo/e isnEt 0i% enou%$ to $old t$e email and t$e 1,, /a%es of te3t 6a TC+envelo/e #ill onl) $old a0out 3,, #ords1 or rou%$l) t$e e@uivalent of a sin%le '4 /a%e of te3t7 t$ecom/uter automaticall) %enerates enou%$ TC+ envelo/es for t$e #$ole messa%e1 and %ives eac$envelo/e a se@uence num0er. 2o1 for e3am/le1 t$e first envelo/e #ould $ave a se@uence num0er of D1 "2. of 1,,E1 t$e second #ould 0e D2 of 1,,E and so on. In t$is #a)1 t$e reci/ientEs com/uter 8no#s $o#man) envelo/es it is su//osed to

receive1 and it can t$erefore as8 for retransmission of an) missin%ones.Eac$ TC+ envelo/e is t$en /laced inside anot$er envelo/e #it$ t$e source and destination addresseson it. 2ince net#or8s donEt actuall) use email addresses to send information1 t$e destination address Ten@uiriesUtavcom.com 4 $as to 0e c$an%ed into an address format #$ic$ can 0e used. T$is is calledt$e Internet +rotocol address1 or I+ address. T$is is automaticall) done 0) t$e com/uter. Finall)1 t$e I+envelo/es are /ut inside anot$er set of envelo/es #$ic$ are addressed to a device #$ic$ #ill send t$efull messa%e into t$e internet #$ere it #ill 0e routed to en@uiriesUtavcom.com. T$is device is usuall)called a D%ate#a)E T in actual fact it #ill /$)sicall) 0e a router. T$in8 of it as )our /ost room1 #$ereincomin% and out%oin% mail is sorted for deliver).'ssumin% t$e data successfull) arrives at t$e D/ost roomE at Tavcom1 it #ill 0e for#arded to t$e +Cdesi%nated to $andle en@uiries. 't t$is /oint1 envelo/es 0e%in to 0e o/ened. T$e DI+E envelo/e iso/ened to see #$et$er it $as 0een delivered to t$e ri%$t address1 and to see #$ere it $as come from. Ift$at is ?P1 t$en t$e TC+ envelo/es are o/ened one 0) one to c$ec8 if t$e) $ave arrived in t$e ri%$tse@uence and #it$ t$eir contents intact. If so1 t$en t$e envelo/es are /assed to t$e com/uterEs internalDmail roomE #$ere 2!T+ o/ens t$em and uses t$e information to convert #$at it $as received 6LotusNotes7 into t$e email /ac8a%e of t$e com/uter at en@uiriesUtavcom.com T t$is is !icrosoft ?utloo8.?nl) #$en all t$is $as 0een correctl) done1 and an) missin% envelo/es c$ased u/ and c$ec8ed1 #ill t$ereci/ient 0e advised t$at an email $as arrived.?2I model2o letEs translate all t$is into t$e ?2I model. La)ers &1 " and are to do #it$ t$e t)/e of email /ac8a%e6Lotus7 and #$et$er it is indeed an email 62!T+7. La)er 4 ma8es sure t$at TC+ is used for Drecordeddeliver)E La)er 3 contains DtoE and DfromE I+ addresses1 and La)er 2 $as t$e address of )our D/ost roomEor D5ate#a)E. La)er 1 defines $o#1 and at #$at s/eed1 t$e data is sent from )our +C to t$e D5ate#a)Eover t$e L'N. To use t$e correct tec$nical term1 #$en data arrives at La)er 31 t$e I+ la)er1 it is loadedinto an envelo/e #$ic$ is formall) 8no#n as a D+ac8etE1 an DI+ +ac8etE or an DI+ Data%ramE. "3. Dia%ram *.4 T$e la)ers of t$e ?2I-o#ever1 t$ere is a /ro0lem #it$ t$is analo%) #it$ res/ect to t$e transmission of CCTV ima%es. T$esemust 0e sent and received in real time1 so to ac8no#led%e recei/t of eac$ /ac8et of video information#ould introduce an unacce/ta0le dela) from end to end. 2o t$ere must 0e a #a) of sendin% information#it$out t$e need for all t$e c$ec8in% and ac8no#led%in% #$ic$ is an essential /art of TC+. T$e ans#eris to use an alternative /rotocol1 called :D+ 6:ser Data%ram +rotocol7. T$is is sometimes called DFireand For%etE1 and is t$e e@uivalent of t$e /ostal analo%) #$ere letters are sim/l) /osted to t$eiraddressees #it$out t$e need for

ac8no#led%ements. !an) I+ cameras toda) $ave a user4 selecta0leo/tion for TC+ or :D+ to im/rove t$e end4to4end dela) c$aracteristics of a net#or8. "4. 1,.-ousin%sIntroduction!ost cameras are fitted #it$ some form of /rotective cover for several reasons. T$e common e3ce/tionis /ro0a0l) in small retail esta0lis$ments #$ere t$e ris8 of dama%e is sli%$t.Internal -ousin%s-ousin%s are used internall) for a variet) of reasons. 2ometimes it is #$ere t$e need is for t$e camerato 0e discrete. T$is could 0e in certain t)/es of esta0lis$ment #$ere t$e securit) of customers ormem0ers is necessar). It ma) 0e t$at t$e im/ression of intrusion of /rivac) needs to 0e su0tl) avoided.T$ere are $ousin%s desi%ned to 0lend in #it$ t$e decor for aest$etic /ur/oses. T$ese can 0e miniaturecameras secreted in li%$t fittin%s or ventilation %rills. T$is t)/e of $ousin% is often used in $otels1museums and art %alleries1 s$o//in% malls1 etc.'not$er ran%e of $ousin%s is desi%ned for covert surveillance. T$e intention of t$is $ousin% is t$at it isnot a deterrent 0ut deli0eratel) dis%uised as some innocuous common o0=ect. T$e) usuall) incor/oratea miniature camera fitted #it$ a /in$ole lens. T$ese o0=ects $ave 0een as diverse as +I.s1 cloc8s1e3tractor fan controls1 smo8e detectors1 etc. T$ere a//ears no limit to t$e ima%inative met$ods ofconcealin% cameras.Indoor cameras ma) sometimes $ave to 0e /rotected from attac8 and t$erefore fitted in vandal /roof$ousin%s. T$is often ta8es t$e form of a #ed%e s$a/ed $ousin% fitted in a false ceilin% #it$ t$eminimum area /ro=ectin% 0elo#.T$e disadvanta%e of t$e #ed%e s$a/ed $ousin% is t$at it must 0e mounted facin% in t$e correctdirection. ?nce fitted it is not eas) to c$an%e t$e orientation of t$e camera. T$is t)/e of $ousin% is oftenused #$en it is re@uired to vie# alon% a corridor or ot$er /redetermined direction. " . Dia%ram 1,. 1 Camera in Aed%e -ousin% in False Ceilin%T$ere ma) 0e situations #$ere it is needed to $ave more fle3i0ilit) in settin% u/ t$e direction t$e camerais vie#in%. T$is re@uirement often also needs t$e direction 0ein% vie#ed to 0e discreet. T$e solution$ere is to use a t)/e of domed $ousin%. T$e dome can 0e eit$er a $emis/$ere or a com/lete s/$ere.T$e $emis/$erical1 or $alf dome1 can 0e fitted in /lace of a standard ceilin% tile. T$e camera is mountedon an ad=usta0le /latform t$at ma) 0e set for 0ot$ an%les of vie# and direction.Dia%ram 1,. 2 T)/es of Discreet Camera DomeT$ere are t#o main t)/es of /lastic used for t$e domes. ?ne is a 0lac8 acr)lic material #it$ a lessdense slot t$rou%$ #$ic$ t$e camera vie#s. T$e ot$er $as a silvered coatin% on t$e inside and acts int$e same as a one #a) mirror. Ait$ t$is t)/e of enclosure1 t$ere is a %reat deal of fle3i0ilit) in settin%t$e camera vie#. It is also ver) eas) and @uic8 to c$an%e t$e direction of vie# t$rou%$ 3",L.E3ternal -ousin%sT$ese are often called #eat$er/roof or environmental $ousin%s. T$ere are standards t$at s/ecif) t$ede%ree of

/rotection to 0e /rovided 0) enclosures. !ainl) t$ese are1 >2 4*,1 IEC 2*1 DIN 4, , ,.T$e ratin% of /rotection is defined 0) t#o di%its /refi3ed 0) t$e a%reed letters I+. 6In some countriest$ree di%its are used.7 T$e letters stand for In%ress +rotection1 and t$e si%nificance of t$e di%its is asfollo#sIFirst di%itI T$e de%ree of /rotection t$at is /rovided #it$ res/ect to /ersons and to e@ui/ment inside t$eenclosure. "". 2econd di%itI T$e de%ree of /rotection t$at is /rovided #it$ res/ect to t$e $armful in%ress of #ater.T$ird di%itI T$e de%ree of mec$anical /rotection.For e3am/le1 a ratin% of I+ 4 indicates class /rotection a%ainst t$e in%ress of dust and class 4a%ainst t$e entr) of moisture. Camera $ousin%s used in t$e :P #ill usuall) $ave a ratin% of I+ " or I+"".Note t$at t$ese ratin%s onl) a//l) to normal environmental conditions. 2/ecial /rotection is re@uired forareas suc$ as refineries1 mines1 flour mills1 etc. If t$ere is an) dou0t t$e customer #ill 0e a#are ofs/ecial conditions a//l)in% to /articular /arts of t$e site.Ta0les 1,.1and 1,.2 at t$e end of t$is c$a/ter list all t$e inde3 num0ers.2election of E3ternal -ousin%sAeat$er/roof $ousin%s must 0e a0out t$e most mundane as/ect of a CCTV installation. ?r so itseems1 0ecause man) en%ineers sim/l) consider t$e $ousin% as a /rotection a%ainst t$e elements.-o#ever1 t$ere are man) as/ects to consider and man) su//liers of $ousin%s. It is a0out t$e c$ea/estelement of an e3ternal s)stem )et /rice a//ears to 0e t$e main factor in selectin% #$ic$ to use.Im/ortant considerations s$ould 0eI9 Ease of access for /re4assem0l) in t$e #or8s$o/.9 Ease of access durin% installation.9 Ease of access for future service needs.9 Is t$e camera mountin% /late insulated from t$e caseW9 Can t$e mec$anical focusin% scre# on t$e camera 0e reac$edW 2ome are at t$e 0ac81 some att$e side and some on to/.9 Can t$e lens 0e focused and t$e /ea8Favera%e settin%s ad=usted on siteW9 Can one man remove t$e cover and #or8 on t$e insideW9 If t$ere is a telemetr) 0oard fitted1 can it 0e accessed #it$out removin% t$e cameraW "&. 11..emote +ositionin% DevicesIntroductionT$ere are t#o main t)/es of remote /ositionin% device1 t$ose t$at move onl) in a $ori;ontal /lane1 andt$ose t$at can move in t#o /lanes. !ovement in a $ori;ontal /lane is 8no#n as /annin% or scannin%.!ovement in t$e vertical /lane is 8no#n as tiltin%. T$e device t$at /rovides movement in 0ot$ /lanes iscalled a /an1 tilt unit or /an1 tilt drive.>ot$ scanners and /an1 tilt units are made for indoor and outdoor use. T$e construction isfundamentall) t$e same e3ce/t t$at t$ose units for e3ternal use are desi%ned for t$e a//ro/riate I+ratin%. 62ee C$a/ter * for descri/tion of I+ ratin%s7. +an1 tilt units are also /roduced for t$e ran%e of$a;ardous environments mentioned in C$a/ter 1,.2canners' common t)/e of scanner is s$o#n in Dia%ram 11.11 #$ic$ ma) 0e desi%ned for eit$er internal ore3ternal a//lications.

"(. Dia%ram 11. 1 T)/ical 2canner :nitT$e camera ma) 0e mounted directl) on t$e /latform in usual indoor situations. T$e camera mountin%/latform is ad=usta0le to a fi3ed /osition of tilt 0) a 0olt t$rou%$ t$e /ivot. T$e de%ree of rotation is set0) t#o mova0le stri8ers t$at o/erate limit s#itc$es at eac$ end of t$e re@uired travel. T$ese units can0e set to automaticall) reverse #$en a limit s#itc$ is o/erated and t$erefore continuousl) scan 0et#eent$e set limits. T$is is called auto4/an and re@uires an additional sim/le 0oard in t$e control unit. T$e#irin% is ver) sim/le and telemetr) #ould not %enerall) 0e used for controllin% t$is t)/e of device.For e3ternal use t$e units are lar%er and made #eat$er/roof to t$e a//ro/riate standard. T$e) are alsomore /o#erful t$an indoor models 0ecause t$e) need to su//ort a #eat$er/roof $ousin%. T$e camerasu//l) and coa3ial ca0les must 0e left #it$ sufficient slac8 to eliminate strain t$rou%$ t$e movement oft$e scanner. T$ere s$ould 0e enou%$ slac8 ca0le to allo# for t$e ma3imum travel of t$e unit. 'lt$ou%$ itma) 0e initiall) installed #it$ a small de%ree of scannin%1 re@uirements could c$an%e in t$e future.T)/ical scannin% s/eed is "L /er second and ma3imum rotation in t$e order of 34 L. T$ere is usuall) aminimum rotation of L41,L due to t$e si;e of t$e limit sto/s.T$is t)/e of scanner is not ver) attractive in a//earance es/eciall) #it$ t$e slac8 ca0les %oin% to t$ecamera. ?n t$e ot$er $and it is easil) seen and is often used for its deterrent value. A$ere aest$eticsare im/ortant or discrete mountin% is needed t$ere are ot$er t)/es of scanners availa0le. T$e$emis/$eres and domes mentioned in C$a/ter1, could incor/orate scannin% drives.Dia%ram 11. 2 -ousin%s for Discreet 2canners "*. +an1 Tilt :nits's #it$ scanners1 /an1 tilt units ma) 0e desi%ned for eit$er internal or e3ternal use. T$ere are t#o maint)/es of /an1 tilt unit. T$e first is a unit #$ere t$e camera or $ousin% is mounted directl) on a /latformt$at forms /art of t$e construction. T$ere are t#o t)/es of t$is desi%n #$ere t$e /latform is eit$ermounted on t$e side of t$e unit or over t$e to/. T$e second t)/e of /an1 tilt unit is #$ere t$e drivin%com/onents are contained #it$in an enclosed $ousin%.Dia%ram 11. 3 T)/es of +an1 Tilt :nit.atin% of +an1 Tilt :nits+an1 tilt units are rated 0) t$e load carr)in% ca/acit) of t$e /latform. In addition1 over t$e to/ units arerated 0) t$e centre of %ravit) of t$e load 0ein% #it$in a certain distance a0ove t$e to/ of t$e /latform.2ee comments later for load ratin% of over t$e to/ units. &,. 12.Control 2)stems and Ca0lin%IntroductionTelemetr) is t$e automatic measurement and transmission of data from a distant source to a receivin%station.In t$e /revious c$a/ter1 t$e various #a)s in #$ic$ cameras ma) 0e moved so t$at a different field ofvie# ma) 0e o0tained #ere discussed. 2ome means of controllin% t$ese /ositionin% devices must 0eused #$ere mova0le cameras are /resent in a s)stem. T$ese

control s)stems are %enerall) referred toas telemetr) s)stems. T$is name comes from t$e 5ree8 #ord meter1 to measure1 and t$erefore tocontrol1 and tele meanin% at a distance1 in t$e same #a) t$at television means vie#in% an o0=ect at adistance.T$ere are man) t)/es of control s)stems availa0le on t$e mar8et and1 as al#a)s1 eac$ met$od ofcontrollin% a mova0le camera $as its 0enefits and dra#0ac8s. T$e /ur/ose of t$is c$a/ter is to e3/laint$e /rinci/les of t$e various t)/es of control s)stems availa0le and to discuss t$eir advanta%es anddisadvanta%es. &1. T$ere are t#o main #a)s of confi%urin% t$e ca0lin% from a controller to remote locations. ?ne is 8no#nas dais) c$ain in #$ic$ t$e ca0le is loo/ed from one unit onto t$e ne3t and so on. T$e ot$er is a starconfi%uration in #$ic$ a se/arate ca0le is run from t$e controller to eac$ location. T$ese t)/es ofconnection onl) a//l) to t$e control ca0le. T$e video ca0le must al#a)s 0e run from eac$ cameralocation 0ac8 to t$e main control. In ot$er #ords1 t$e video ca0le is al#a)s in a star confi%uration.Dia%ram 12. 1 .emote Control Airin% 2)stemsT$e dais) c$ain confi%uration does not need t$e last unit to 0e loo/ed 0ac8 to t$e controller. T$e controls)stem 0ein% considered s$ould 0e c$ec8ed to ascertain #$ic$ met$od of ca0lin% is re@uired. In a lar%eindustrial CCTV s)stem1 t$e la)out of t$e site #ill dictate #$ic$ t)/e of ca0lin% #ill 0e t$e mosteconomical.-ard Aired Control 2)stems-ard4#ired control s)stems are t$e sim/lest #a) of controllin% mova0le cameras. 's t$e name #ouldsu%%est t$e connection 0et#een t$e control /anel and t$e scannerF/an4tilt and motorised lens is directconnection 0) a len%t$ of multicore ca0le. T$e cost 0enefits of suc$ an a//roac$ are t$at no form oftelemetr) receiver is re@uired at t$e camera location1 neit$er is a local /o#er su//l) /oint necessar) att$e camera site as all t$e /o#er for t$e camera1 lens and /an4tilt ma) 0e sent over t$e same ca0le. T$elens functions re@uire a " or 12 volt DC su//l)1 #$ic$ #ill 0e /rovided 0) t$e controller. T$e /an1 tiltfunctions ma) 0e 12 volt DC or 24 volt 'C. &2. ' t)/ical $ard4#ired camera installation mi%$t 0e as s$o#n in Dia%ram 12.2.Dia%ram 12. 2 T)/ical -ard Aired Camera InstallationT$e video s#itc$in% in a s)stem li8e t$is #ould 0e done #it$ a sim/le video s#itc$er on to one or t#omonitors. 's t$ere is onl) one mova0le camera in t$e s)stem1 it is a sim/le matter to select t$e /icturefrom t$e mova0le camera on to one of t$e monitors1 and t$en to control t$e /osition and lens of t$atcamera #it$ t$e $ard4#ired control /anel. T)/icall)1 t$e ca0le re@uired for connection from t$e control/anel to t$e mova0le camera must consist of 12 individual #ires1 or cores1 covered 0) an overalls$eat$. T$is num0er of cores is needed1 as all t$e functions of t$e mova0le camera must 0e individuall)sent alon% t$e ca0le.' t)/ical sc$edule for suc$ a ca0le mi%$t #ell 0e as follo#sIC?.E F:NCTI?N1 +an Left2 +an .i%$t

&3. 3 Tilt :/4 Tilt Do#n +anFTilt Common" Noom in& Noom out( Focus near* Focus far1, -ousin% #as$er11 -ousin% #i/er12 CommonTa0le 12.1 T)/ical telemetr) connectionsT$ere are t#o im/ortant factors to 0e considered in res/ect of $ard#ired s)stems. T$ese areB t$e safet)and cost of installin% t$is multicore ca0le1 t$e ma3imum distance at #$ic$ $ard#ired /an4tilts ma) 0esited from t$e controller.It is o0vious to see t$at t$e cost /er metre of a 12 cored ca0le #ill 0e $i%$er t$an t$e sin%le or dou0le/air ca0le re@uired 0) ot$er forms of telemetr) s)stem. T$is t$ou%$ is offset 0) t$e savin% in su//l)in%telemetr) receivers and transmitters. In a site #$ere t$ere are several $ard#ired mova0le cameras atsome distance a/art1 t$e cost of t$e ca0le ma) 0e noticea0le in t$e total /rice of t$e s)stem. T$esecond /art of t$is concern is t$at t$ere are t#o main t)/es of /an4tilt unit availa0le1 244volt 'C t)/esand 24, volt 'C t)/es. T$e IEE #irin% re%ulations state t$at 24,4volt ca0les must 0e run in /rotectiveconduit or trun8in%1 for safet) reasons. T$ese re%ulations furt$er state t$at lo# volta%e ca0les1 suc$ as &4. t$ose conductors used for lens control must not 0e run in t$e same conduit. If 24,4volt 'C /an4tilts areused t$en all t$e e3/ense of /rovidin% t$is /rotection must 0e considered.T$e ot$er limitation of $ard4#ired controllers is im/osed 0) t$e volta%e dro/ caused 0) t$e resistance oft$e ca0le. T$e current dra#n 0) t$e /an4tilt unit causes t$e ca0le to $eat and resist t$at current. T$es)m/tom of t$is resistance is a dro/ in t$e volta%e availa0le at t$e /an tilt. T$e %reater t$e currentdra#n 0) t$e /an4tilt t$e %reater t$e volta%e dro/1 t$erefore t$e smaller t$e distance t$at t$e /anFtilt can0e from t$e controller 0efore t$e remainin% volta%e to t$e /anFtilt is too small for t$e /an4tilt motors to#or8< T$e limitin% volta%e dro/ is a0out 1,M of t$e total1 I.e. 2.4 volts for a 244volt /an4tilt and 24 voltsfor a 24,4Volt /an4tilt.?$ms la# ena0les t$e effect of t$e resistance of t$e ca0le to 0e calculated. T$is is %iven 0) t$efollo#in% sim/le formula IVolta%e dro/ Q Current 3 .esistance 6I. dro/7From ca0le datas$eets1 t$e amount of resistance /er metre can 0e o0tained. ?nce t$at $as 0een foundt$en t$e resistance of t$e ca0le can 0e calculated. T$e overall resistance #ill 0e for t#ice t$e len%t$ oft$e run. T$is is 0ecause t$ere is t$e resistance of t$e core feedin% t$e motor and t$e resistance of t$ereturn core to 0e considered. T$e current dra#n 0) t$e /an4tilt can 0e found in t$e datas$eet of t$e/an4 tilt. T$e current and resistance o0tained can t$en 0e /ut into t$e formula a0ove to find t$e volta%edro/. If t$e volta%e dro/ is %reater t$an 1,M of t$e total t$en t$ere #ill 0e /ro0lems and a lar%er core ofca0le #ill $ave to 0e used. T$is #ill $ave a conse@uent effect on t$e cost of t$e installation.'s an e3am/le1 a 2,4'A5 ca0le mi%$t $ave a resistance of ,., 3 ?$ms /er metre. ' /an4tilt #it$ acurrent consum/tion of ,.* 'm/s is /lanned for sitin% 2 metres from t$e controller.T$e total len%t$ of t$e conductor #ill 0e t#ice 2 metres1 0ecause of t$e effect of t$e

su//l) and returncores. T$e total resistance #ould 0e , times ,., 3 ?$ms Q 2."" ?$ms.T$e volta%e dro/ #ill t$erefore 0e ,.* 3 2."" Q 2.4 volts. T$is is t$e ma3imum t$at ma) 0e tolerated.T$erefore1 t$e ma3imum ca0le run for $ard#ired control is @uite small for 244volt 'C /an4tilts. ?neo/tion is1 of course1 to use 24,4volt 'C /an4tilts. T$e 0enefits of suc$ a c$oice are t#o fold. First1 t$e24,4volt /an tilt uses muc$ less current t$at a 244volt /an tilt and so t$e volta%e dro/ #ill 0e smaller.Furt$ermore1 t$e 1,M ma3imum volta%e dro/ is 24 volts rat$er t$an 2.4 volts and so t$e effect of an)volta%e dro/ is less. -o#ever1 due to t$e #irin% re%ulations mentioned earlier1 t$e additional cost of & . installin% conduit or trun8in% for t$e 24,4volt ca0les must 0e incurred. 2ome e@ui/ment manufacturers$ave a//roac$ed t$is /ro0lem 0) develo/in% rela) 0o3es t$at are installed at t$e /an4tilt location. 'rela) 0o3 consists of several lo# volta%e rela)s1 one for eac$ function. T$e lo# volta%e is /rovided fromt$e controller t$at o/erates a rela) t$at s#itc$es t$e mains volta%e to t$e a//ro/riate function.2uc$ a s)stem #ould 0e as s$o#n in Dia%ram 12.3.T$e rela) 0o3es %ive several advanta%esI1. T$e rela)s use muc$ less current t$an /an4tilts and so t$e volta%e dro/ is muc$ less. T$e/a)off is in o/eratin% ran%e1 u/ to 4,,, metres< 'lternativel) a muc$ smaller %au%e1 andconse@uentl) c$ea/er1 ca0le ma) 0e used.2. Eit$er t)/e of /an4tilt1 #$et$er 24 volt or 24, volt1 ma) 0e used at an) one camera location.-o#ever1 t$ere are also t#o disadvanta%esI1. 24,4volt mains su//l) /oints are needed at eac$ mova0le camera location to /o#er t$e rela)0o3es. It is im/ortant to remem0er1 t$ou%$1 t$at t$ese su//l) /oints #ould also 0e needed #it$an) ot$er form of telemetr).2. T$ere is a cost involved in 0u)in% t$e rela) 0o3es1 0ut t$ese are noticea0l) less e3/ensive t$ana telemetr) receiver of an) ot$er t)/e of s)stem. &". Dia%ram 12. 3 -ard Aired Control 2)stem #it$ .ela) >o3esT$e limitin% factor for $ard #ire s)stems is t$e num0er of mova0le cameras. It can 0e confusin% for t$e/erson usin% t$e s)stem if t$ere are1 sa)1 more t$an t$ree =o)stic8s for camera control. T$ere arecontrollers availa0le #$ere several mova0le cameras1 t)/icall) si31 can 0e controlled from a sin%lecontroller. In suc$ a controller1 t$e o/erator /us$es a 0utton to select #$ic$ camera is to 0e controlledand t$e control volta%es are s#itc$ed to t$e corres/ondin% multicore ca0le. T$e o/eration of suc$s)stems is sli%$tl) a#8#ard1 as t$e o/erator must remem0er to select t$e same camera on t$e videos#itc$er as $as 0een selected on t$e $ard #ire controller. T$e effective limit1 t$en1 for $ard4 #ireds)stems is reall) one or t#o mova0le cameras. &&. 13.!ulti/le 2creen Dis/la)sIntroduction'n) s)stem t$at com0ines more t$an one video si%nal is tec$nicall) a multi/le3er. T$ese da)s it iscustomar) to refer to multi/le3ers as e@ui/ment t$at can

simultaneousl) com0ine ei%$t or more si%nals1ot$er#ise t$e) are 8no#n as screen s/litters or @uad s/litters.T$ere #ill 0e man) occasions #$en it #ill 0e advanta%eous to dis/la) more t$an one camera on t$emonitor at once. ?ne e3am/le is if an incident occurs 0ut it is not certain =ust #$ere it ori%inated. Ait$ asim/le s#itc$in% device1 it #ould 0e a tedious 0usiness to revie# all t$e cameras recorded in se@uence.In addition1 as stated /reviousl)1 essential information ma) 0e lost. -o#ever1 if all t$e cameras #ererecorded simultaneousl) and could 0e dis/la)ed simultaneousl) t$en revie#in% and findin% t$ese@uence of events #ould 0e ver) muc$ easier. In addition1 virtuall) no information #ould 0e lost andt$e relevant scenes can t$en 0e anal)sed #it$ full screen /ictures.T$e essential 0enefit t$erefore of recordin% in t$e various multi/le screen formats is t$at no informationis lost due to d#ells in s#itc$in%.'nalo%ue and Di%ital Dis/la)sT$e /icture received directl) from a camera and dis/la)ed on a monitor is an analo%ue re/resentationof t$e scene. T$e /icture information $as 0een converted directl) to a video si%nal and reconverted tot$e same scene on t$e monitor. T$e clarit) of t$e /icture is de/endent on t$e @ualit) of t$e camera1 t$elens1 t$e transmission s)stem and t$e monitor.To dis/la) or record more t$an one /icture at a time it is necessar) on most s)stems to convert t$eanalo%ue si%nal to a di%ital form. T$is is 8no#n as analo%ue to di%ital conversion. 'fter /rocessin%1 t$esi%nal t$en $as to 0e converted 0ac8 to analo%ue form to 0e dis/la)ed on a monitor. T$is /rocessintroduces t$e /ossi0ilit) of de%radation to t$e ori%inal /icture. Definition can 0e lost t$rou%$ t$ecom/licated conversion /rocesses and noise can 0e added to t$e si%nal. 'lso1 t$e final @ualit) isde/endent on t$e resolution in terms of t$e num0er of /i3els com/risin% t$e di%ital information.+icture In +ictureT$is is a sim/le s)stem 0) #$ic$ one scene can 0e inserted in anot$er. T$e camera out/uts areconnected to a controller t$at allo#s one camera to 0e desi%nated as t$e main /icture. T$e ot$ercamera is desi%nated as t$e inserted /icture. T$e inserted /icture ma) 0e /ositioned and si;edan)#$ere on t$e screen as s$o#n in Dia%ram 13.1. :suall) eit$er camera ma) 0e dis/la)ed as a fullscreen /icture. &(. T$e normal controls for t$e inserted /icture areI -ori;ontal si;e1 vertical si;e1 $ori;ontal /osition andvertical /osition. Note t$at onl) t$e inserted /icture ma) 0e altered1 t$e 0ac8%round camera is al#a)ss$o#n full screen. Note t$at1 #$ere t$e inserted /icture is analo%ue t$e cameras need to 0es)nc$ronised. T$is can 0e from an e3ternal s)nc %enerator or one camera can 0e s)nc$ronised fromt$e ot$er.Dia%ram 13. 1 E3am/le of +icture in +icture2creen 2/littersT$is is similar to a /icture in /icture inserter e3ce/t t$at 0ot$ camera scenes can 0e ad=usted tocom/ose t$e most useful com0ination. ' screen s/litter refers to a com0ination of t#o cameras. T$es/lit can 0e

arran%ed eit$er $ori;ontall) or verticall). T$e de%ree of overla/ of eit$er camera can also0e ad=usted. 2creen s/litters also re@uire t$e cameras to 0e s)nc$ronised.Xuad 2creen 2/litters's t$e name im/lies1 t$is s)stem allo#s t$e /resentation of four cameras on t$e one screen. T$ema=orit) of @uad s/litters no# incor/orate di%ital ima%e /rocessin%. T$is means t$at it is not necessar)to s)nc$ronise t$e cameras and t$e /icture is di%itall) com/ressed to a @uarter of its si;e. T$e fourima%es are t$en dis/la)ed on a sin%le screen. Note t$at eac$ /icture #ill onl) 0e 2 M of t$e screenresolution. &*. T$ere are man) features t$at ma) 0e availa0le #it$ @uad screen s/litters and it is essential to c$ec8#it$ manufacturersE literature for /articular models. 's al#a)s1 t$e more features it /rovides t$e moree3/ensive a unit is li8el) to 0e. It is /ossi0le to s/end more t$an necessar) if /oor selection of a /ieceof e@ui/ment includes more features t$an are re@uired. 'not$er factor to c$ec8 out is t$e resolution oft$e dis/la)ed /ictures.Dia%ram 13. 2 Illustration of Xuad 2creen Dis/la)2ome features t$at ma) or ma) not 0e included are as follo#s.Camera In/uts>) definition1 @uad s/litters #ill $ave four in/uts 0ut t$ere are units availa0le t$at can $ave ei%$t in/uts.T$ese usuall) dis/la) 0loc8s of four cameras in se@uence.Electronic NoomA$en a camera is s$o#n in full screen t$is is a met$od of electronicall) enlar%in% a @uarter of t$escreen to a full screen vie#. T$e area in vie# ma) 0e D/annedE around an) /art of t$e ori%inal /icture.Note t$ou%$ t$at t$is #ill /roduce a ver) %rain) loo8in% /icture. T$is is 0ecause eac$ /i3el in t$eenlar%ed vie# #ill 0e four times as lar%e as in t$e full screen scene.For instance1 if t$e full screen /icture is made u/ of 12 3 12 /i3els t$en a @uarter screen #ill contain2 " 3 2 " /i3els. A$en D;oomedE t$e ne# full screen /icture #ill 0e made u/ of t$e 2 " 3 2 " /i3els. (,. 2e@uential 2#itc$in%T$is is t$e ca/a0ilit) to /rovide eit$er a @uad dis/la) or se@uencin% t$rou%$ eac$ full screen /icture.Dual ?ut/utT$e ca/a0ilit) of /rovidin% dual monitor out/uts1 one #it$ a @uad dis/la)1 t$e ot$er a se@uence dis/la).'larm In/uts2ome @uad s/litters offer t$e ca/a0ilit) to acce/t alarm in/uts. T$e treatment on recei/t of an alarm canvar). For instance1 it can $old t$e associated camera on full screen until deactivated or it could overridea se@uence and s#itc$ to @uad dis/la).'larm ?ut/uts'larm out/uts are sometimes /rovided. T$ese can 0e used to s#itc$ a video recorder to real time oro/erate an) ot$er ancillar) e@ui/ment.Camera Titlin%'not$er o/tion sometimes availa0le is t$e facilit) to insert camera num0ers and titles on t$e screen.T$ese can usuall) 0e moved around t$e screen to /revent o0scurin% an im/ortant /art of t$e scene.Not all s)stems allo# t$e /ositionin% of individual camera titles. 2ome onl) /rovide a fi3ed /osition forall cameras. T$e num0er of c$aracters availa0le for titles varies 0et#een models.Loo/ T$rou%$'s #it$ s#itc$ers1 some models /rovide loo/

t$rou%$ facilities #it$ s#itc$a0le termination. T$e samecomments a//l) to ensure correct termination #$en loo/in% t$rou%$ video si%nals.?n 2creen !enu2ome of t$e s)stems #it$ more facilities /rovide t$e ca/a0ilit) of settin% u/ t$e various functions fromon screen /rom/ts.Video Loss 'larmT$is feature can /rovide a #arnin%1 0ot$ visi0le and audi0le1 if t$ere is a loss of video si%nal from an) oft$e cameras (1. 14.Li%$t and IlluminationIntroductionT$e su0=ect of t$e science of illumination is com/le3 and is not a//ro/riate to t$is 0oo8. T$is section isintended to /rovide %eneral %uidance to t$ose as/ects t$at affect t$e /erformance of CCTV s)stems.'n understandin% of t$e /rinci/les of li%$t is im/ortant to t$e desi%n of CCTV s)stems 0ecause #it$outade@uate li%$t t$ere can 0e no /ictures. A$at is Dade@uate li%$tE is de/endent on man) factors1 some of#$ic$ $ave alread) 0een mentioned in t$e s/ecification of cameras and lens. T$e most im/ortantas/ects of li%$t affectin% t$e desi%n of CCTV s)stems areI Li%$t level in lu3I .eflectanceI T$e#avelen%t$ of t$e li%$t source. T$e li%$t level and reflectance are interrelated and decide t$e camerasensitivit). T$e #avelen%t$ must 0e related to t$e s/ectral res/onse of t$e camera.+rinci/les of Li%$tElectroma%netic .adiationLi%$t is ener%) in t$e form of electroma%netic radiation. T$e different forms of electroma%netic radiationall s$are t$e same /ro/erties of transmission alt$ou%$ t$e) 0e$ave @uite differentl) #$en t$e) interact#it$ matter.Dia%ram 14. 1 Electroma%netic 2/ectrumLi%$t is t$at /art of t$e electroma%netic s/ectrum t$at can 0e detected 0) t$e $uman e)e. T$is is a ver)narro# 0and #it$in t$e total s/ectrum as s$o#n in Dia%ram 14.1. T$e #avelen%t$s used for CCTV (2. li%$tin% are s$o#n and are discussed later in t$is c$a/ter. ?ne metre is 11,,,1,,,1,,, nanometres6nm7.Electroma%netic AavesT$e Transmission of li%$t ener%) can 0e convenientl) descri0ed as a #ave motion and $avin% t$efollo#in% /ro/ertiesI9 Electroma%netic #aves re@uire no medium and t$erefore can travel in a vacuum.9 It $as 0een s$o#n t$at different t)/es of electroma%netic radiation $ave different #avelen%t$sor fre@uencies.9 'll electroma%netic #aves travel at t$e same velocit)1 #$ic$ is a//ro3imatel) 3,,1,,,1,,,metres /er second in a vacuum.9 T$e #aves travel in a strai%$t line 0ut can 0e affected 0)I9 .eflectance. A$ic$ is t$e reversal of direction t$at occurs at t$e surface of an o0=ect.9 .efraction. ' c$an%e of t$e an%le t$at occurs at t$e 0oundaries of different surfaces.Different #avelen%t$s $ave different an%les of refraction.9 Diffraction. A$ic$ is a deflection t$at occurs at a/ertures or ed%es of o0=ects.Visi0le .adiationT$ese are t$e #avelen%t$s of li%$t t$at are visi0le to t$e $uman e)e and are from a//ro3imatel) 3(,nm to &", nm. A$en all t$ese #avelen%t$s are seen simultaneousl) t$e e)e cannot distin%uis$ t$eindividual #avelen%t$s

and t$e result is seen as #$ite li%$t. T$erefore1 #$ite li%$t is not one #avelen%t$0ut a com0ination of t$em all. T$is effect can 0e demonstrated in reverse 0) /assin% #$ite li%$t t$rou%$a /rism. 's stated /reviousl)1 different #avelen%t$s $ave different an%les of refraction1 t$erefore #$ent$e li%$t is /assed t$rou%$ a /rism it is dis/ersed into its constituent s/ectra 0ecause eac$ #avelen%t$is refracted differentl). T$e result is t$at if a #$ite screen is /laced to s$o# t$e li%$t /assin% out of t$eot$er side of t$e /rism it #ill s$o# all t$e individual colours. T$is effect is s$o#n in Dia%ram 14.2. T$eresult is to s$o# t$e s/ectrum of li%$t and t$e seven si%nificant colours of t$e rain0o#. In realit)1 t$ereis a continuous ran%e of $ues 0ut t$e e)e sees mainl) t$e main colours. ' real rain0o# is created in t$esame #a) 0) t$e li%$t 0ein% reflected and refracted 0) dro/lets of moisture in t$e atmos/$ere. (3. Dia%ram 14. 2 .efraction of A$ite Li%$t2/ectral 2ensitivit)T$e s/ectral sensitivit) of cameras is descri0ed in C$a/ter 4 and t$is section 0rin%s t$is to%et$er #it$considerations of t$e li%$t and t$e nature of t$e li%$t. It s$ould 0e em/$asised t$at t$e c$arts /lotrelative sensitivit). T$e vertical scale re/resents t$e /ercenta%e of t$e rated sensitivit) at different#avelen%t$s. It is not a measure of t$e camera sensitivit) in lu3. T$ere are man) installations t$at $ave0een disa//ointin% in /erformance. T$is is due to a lac8 of understandin% of t$e relations$i/ 0et#eent$e li%$t source and t$e s/ecification of t$e camera. !ost manufacturers #ill /rovide a s/ectralsensitivit) dia%ram for t$eir /roducts on re@uest. -o#ever1 t$e) are not all to t$e same scale on eac$a3is and so can 0e confusin% to ma8e a realistic com/arison of /erformance. It is a %ood idea tore/roduce different dia%rams to one common scale t$at %ives a muc$ 0etter im/ression of relativesensitivit). 'n e3am/le is s$o#n in Dia%ram 14.3 of t#o different sensitivit) dia%rams. T$e one on t$eri%$t could easil) %ive t$e im/ression t$at it covers a #ide ran%e of #avelen%t$s1 #$ereas t$e one ont$e left could conve) t$e idea of ver) $i%$ sensitivit). T$e) are in fact for identical s/ecifications. (4. Dia%ram 14. 3 2ensitivit) Dia%rams1 .Transmission of Video 2i%nals 0) Ca0leIntroductionT$is is not meant to 0e a te3t0oo8 on transmission 0ut is intended to remove some of t$e m)ster)associated #it$ various met$ods of transmission. !an) a//ro3imations and sim/lifications $ave 0eenused in #ritin% t$is %uide. T$is is to ma8e t$e su0=ect more understanda0le to t$ose /eo/le not familiar#it$ t$e t$eories. For %eneral a//lication in t$e desi%n of CCTV s)stems it s$ould 0e more t$anade@uate and at least /oint t$e #a) to t$e main @uestions t$at must 0e addressed. T$e manufacturersof transmission e@ui/ment #ill usuall) 0e onl) too 8een to $el/ in final desi%n.T$is first /art deals #it$ t$e transmission of video si%nals 0) ca0les. +art 2 deals

#it$ t$e transmissionof video si%nals 0) ot$er met$ods suc$ as micro#ave1 tele/$one s)stems1 etc. 2ee c$a/ter * fortransmission over net#or8s in more detail. ( . Dia%ram 1 .1 !et$ods of Transmittin% a Video 2i%nalDia%ram 1 .1 illustrates t$e man) met$ods of %ettin% a /icture from a camera to a monitor. T$e c$oice#ill often 0e dictated 0) circumstances on t$e location of cameras and controls. ?ften t$ere #ill 0emore t$an one o/tion for t)/es of transmission. In t$ese cases t$ere #ill /ossi0l) 0e trade offs 0et#een@ualit) and securit) of si%nal a%ainst cost. T$is dia%ram could no# include transmission 0) I+met#or8s.5eneral +rinci/lesVideo 2i%nalT$e essential com/onents of t$e video si%nal are covered in C$a/ters t#o and t$ree. Certain as/ectst$at are related to t$e effective transmission of t$ose si%nals are re/eated in t$is c$a/ter #$ere it isnecessar) to save continuous cross4 reference.2)nc$ronisin%T$e video si%nal from a TV camera $as to /rovide a variet) of information at t$e monitor for a correctTV /icture to 0e dis/la)ed. T$is information can 0e divided intoI 2)nc$ronisin% /ulses t$at tell t$emonitor #$en to start a line and a fieldB video information t$at tells t$e monitor $o# 0ri%$t a /articular/oint in t$e /icture s$ould 0eB c$rominance t$at tells t$e monitor #$at colours a /articular /art of t$e/icture s$ould 0e 6colour cameras onl)7. (". >and#idt$T$e com/osite video out/ut from t$e avera%e CCTV camera covers a 0and#idt$ ran%in% from 2 -; to !-;. T$e u//er fre@uenc) is /rimaril) determined 0) t$e resolution of t$e camera and #$et$er it ismonoc$rome or colour. For ever) 1,, lines of resolution1 a 0and#idt$ of 1!-; a//ro3imatel) isre@uired. T$erefore1 a camera #it$ ",, lines resolution %ives out a video si%nal #it$ a 0and#idt$ ofa//ro3imatel) "!-;. T$is /rinci/le a//lies to 0ot$ colour and monoc$rome cameras. -o#ever1 colourcameras also $ave to /roduce a colour si%nal 6c$rominance71 as #ell as a monoc$rome out/ut6luminance7. T$e c$rominance si%nal is modulated on a 4.43!-; carrier #ave in t$e +'L s)stemt$erefore a colour si%nal1 re%ardless of definition1 $as a 0and#idt$ of at least !-;..e@uirements to +roduce ' 5ood Xualit) +ictureFrom t$e a0ove it #ill 0e o0vious t$at to /roduce a %ood @ualit) /icture on a monitor1 t$e video si%nalmust 0e a//lied to t$e monitor #it$ little or no distortion of an) of its elements1 i.e. t$e time relations$i/of t$e various si%nals and am/litude of t$ese si%nals. -o#ever in CCTV s)stems1 t$e camera $as to 0econnected to a monitor 0) a ca0le or anot$er means1 suc$ as Fi0re ?/tic or micro#ave lin8. T$isinterconnection re@uires s/ecial e@ui/ment to interface t$e video si%nal to t$e transmission medium. Inca0le transmission1 s/ecial am/lifiers ma) 0e re@uired to com/ensate for t$e ca0le losses t$at arefre@uenc) de/endent.Ca0le Transmission'll ca0les1 no matter #$at t$eir len%t$ or @ualit)1 cause attenuation #$en used for t$e

transmission ofvideo si%nals1 t$e main /ro0lem 0ein% related to t$e #ide 0and#idt$ re@uirements of a video si%nal. 'llca0les /roduce a loss of si%nal t$at is de/endent /rimaril) on t$e fre@uenc)1 t$e $i%$er t$e fre@uenc)1t$e $i%$er t$e loss. T$is means t$at as a video si%nal travels alon% a ca0le it loses its $i%$ fre@uenc)com/onents faster t$an its lo# fre@uenc) com/onents. T$e result of t$is is a loss of t$e fine detail6definition7 in t$e /icture.T$e $uman e)e is ver) tolerant of errors of t$is t)/eB a si%nificant loss of detail is not usuall)o0=ectiona0le unless t$e loss is ver) lar%e. T$is is fortunate1 as t$e losses of t$e $i%$ fre@uenc)com/onents are ver) $i%$ on t$e t)/es of ca0les usuall) used in CCTV s)stems. For instance1 usin%t$e common coa3ial ca0les :.!&, or .5 *1 ,M of t$e si%nal at !-; is lost in 2,, metres of ca0le.To com/ensate for t$ese losses1 s/ecial am/lifiers ma) 0e used. T$ese /rovide t$e a0ilit) to am/lif)selectivel) t$e $i%$ fre@uenc) com/onents of t$e video si%nal to overcome t$e ca0le losses.Ca0le T)/esT$ere are t#o main t)/es of ca0le used for transmittin% video si%nals1 #$ic$ areI :n0alanced 6coa3ial7and 0alanced 6t#isted /air7. T$e construction of eac$ is s$o#n in dia%rams 1 .2 and 1 .3. 'n (&. un0alanced si%nal is one in #$ic$ t$e si%nal level is a volta%e referenced to %round. For instance1 avideo si%nal from t$e camera is 0et#een ,.3 and 1., volts a0ove ;ero 6%round level7. T$e s$ield is t$e%round level.' 0alanced si%nal is a video si%nal t$at $as 0een converted for transmission alon% a medium ot$er t$ancoa3ial ca0le. -ere t$e si%nal volta%e is t$e difference 0et#een t$e volta%e in eac$ conductor.E3ternal interference is /ic8ed u/ 0) all t)/es of ca0le. .e=ection of t$is interference is effected indifferent #a)s. Coa3ial ca0le relies on t$e centre conductor 0ein% #ell screened 0) t$e outer co//er0raid. T$ere are man) t)/es of coa3ial ca0le and care s$ould 0e ta8en to select one #it$ a * M 0raid.In t$e case of a t#isted /air ca0le1 interference is /ic8ed u/ 0) 0ot$ conductors in t$e same directione@uall). T$e video si%nal is travellin% in o//osite directions in t$e t#o conductors. T$e interference cant$en 0e 0alanced out 0) usin% t$e correct t)/e of am/lifier. T$is onl) res/onds to t$e si%nal differencein t$e t#o conductors and is 8no#n as a differential am/lifier.:n0alanced 6Coa3ial7 Ca0lesT$is t)/e of ca0le is made in man) different im/edances. In t$is case im/edance is measured 0et#eent$e inner conductor and t$e outer s$eat$. & 4?$m im/edance ca0le is t$e standard used in CCTVs)stems. !ost video e@ui/ment is desi%ned to o/erate at t$is im/edance. Coa3ial ca0les #it$ anim/edance of & ?$ms are availa0le in man) different mec$anical formats1 includin% sin%le #irearmoured and irradiated +VC s$eat$ed ca0le for direct 0urial. T$e ca0les availa0le ran%e in/erformance from relativel) /oor to e3cellent. +erformance is normall) measured in $i%$ fre@uenc) loss/er 1,, metres. T$e lo#er t$is loss fi%ure1 t$e less t$e

distortion to t$e video si%nal. T$erefore1 $i%$er@ualit) ca0les s$ould 0e used #$en transmittin% t$e si%nal over lon% distances.'not$er factor t$at s$ould 0e considered carefull) #$en selectin% coa3ial ca0les is t$e @ualit) of t$eca0le screen. T$is1 as its name su%%ests1 /rovides /rotection from interference for t$e centre core1 asonce interference enters t$e ca0le it is almost im/ossi0le to remove.Dia%ram 1 .2 :n0alanced Ca0le ((. >alanced 6T#isted +air7 Ca0lesIn a t#isted /air eac$ /air of ca0les is t#isted #it$ a slo# t#ist of a0out one to t#o t#ists /er metre.T$ese ca0les are made in man) different im/edances1 1,, to 1 , ?$ms 0ein% t$e most common.>alanced ca0les $ave 0een used for man) )ears in t$e lar%est ca0le net#or8s in t$e #orld. A$ere t$ecircumstances demand1 t$ese $ave advanta%es over coa3ial ca0les of similar si;e. T#isted /air ca0lesare fre@uentl) used #$ere t$ere #ould 0e an unacce/ta0le loss due to a lon% run of coa3ial ca0le.Dia%ram 1 .3 >alanced Ca0leT$e main advanta%es areI1. T$e a0ilit) to re=ect un#anted interference.2. Lo#er losses at $i%$ fre@uencies /er unit len%t$.3. 2maller si;e.4. 'vaila0ilit) of multi/air ca0les. . Lo#er cost.T$e advanta%es must 0e considered in relation to t$e cost of t$e e@ui/ment re@uired for t$is t)/e oftransmission. ' launc$ am/lifier to convert t$e video si%nal is needed at t$e camera end and ane@ualisin% am/lifier to reconstruct t$e si%nal at t$e control end.Im/edanceIt is e3tremel) im/ortant t$at t$e im/edances of t$e si%nal source1 ca0le1 and load are all e@ual. 'n)mismatc$ in t$ese #ill /roduce un/leasant and unacce/ta0le effects in t$e dis/la)ed /icture. T$eseeffects can include t$e /roduction of %$ost ima%es and rin%in% on s$ar/ ed%es1 also t$e loss orincrease in a discrete section of t$e fre@uenc) 0and #it$in t$e video si%nal. (*. T$e im/edance of a ca0le is /rimaril) determined 0) its /$)sical construction1 t$e t$ic8ness of t$econductors and t$e s/acin% 0et#een t$em 0ein% t$e most im/ortant factors. T$e materials used asinsulators #it$in t$e ca0le also affect t$is c$aracteristic. 'lt$ou%$ t$e si%nal currents are ver) lo#1 t$esi;es of t$e conductors #it$in t$e ca0le are ver) im/ortant. T$e $i%$er fre@uenc) com/onents of t$evideo si%nal travel onl) in t$e surface la)er of t$e conductors.Dia%ram 1 .4 Transmission Im/edance.For ma3imum /o#er transfer1 t$e load1 ca0le and source im/edance must 0e e@ual. If t$ere is an)mismatc$1 some of t$e si%nal #ill not 0e a0sor0ed 0) t$e load. Instead1 it #ill 0e reflected 0ac8 alon%t$e ca0le to /roduce #$at is commonl) 8no#n as a %$ost ima%e.1".Transmission of Video 2i%nals 0) .emote !et$odsIntroductionT$e /revious c$a/ter dealt #it$ t$e transmission of video si%nals 0) various t)/es of ca0le. T$ere areman) instances #$ere it is not /ossi0le or desira0le to use ca0le and ot$er met$ods need to 0eem/lo)ed. T$ese can 0eI9 Infrared 0eams.9 !icro#ave.

*,. 9 +u0lic tele/$one net#or8s.9 -i%$ 2/eed Data Lin8s9 Local 'rea Net#or8s 6L'N79 Aide 'rea Net#or8s 6A'N79 ?/tical fi0re ca0les.T$e c$oice #ill de/end on t$e final s)stem re@uirements. T$is ma) fre@uentl) 0e cou/led #it$ t$edifferent cost of several o/tions. In addition1 t$e level of securit) and continuit) of use #ill $ave a0earin% on t$e final selection.Ait$ all t$ese s)stems1 it is im/erative to stud) t$e su//lierEs information e3tremel) carefull). Forinstance1 t$ere #as a slo# scan s)stem t$at descri0ed t$e /icture u/date time as 2, seconds full/icture1 seconds @uad dis/la). A$at t$is reall) meant #as t$at in @uad dis/la) one /icture #asu/dated ever) seconds. It still too8 2, seconds until t$e first /icture #as refres$ed< A$erever /ossi0lesee a demonstration of a s)stem on a customerEs /remises. Loo8 carefull) at t$e resolution versus t$erefres$ time.Free s/ace transmissionT$ere are fre@uent situations #$ere t$ere is no /ossi0ilit) of ma8in% a direct ca0le connection 0et#eent$e camera6s7 and t$e control /osition. T$is /articularl) a//lies #$en real time continuous monitorin% isre@uired. ' situation needin% t$is a//roac$ #ould 0e #$ere1 for instance1 t$ere is a main road 0et#eent$e cameras and t$e control.'not$er situation #ould 0e #$en t$e t#o ends of t$e s)stem are se/arated 0) a #ide river suc$ as inLondon. It could 0e a lar%e industrial site #$ere t$e cost of ca0lin% #ould 0e /ro$i0itive.Free s/ace transmission consists of a transmitter at t$e camera end and a receiver at t$e control end.'ll free s/ace transmission s)stems re@uire t$at t$ere 0e a direct line of si%$t 0et#een t$e transmitterand t$e receiver. Normall) t$ere are one transmitter and one receiver for eac$ camera. ' t)/icala//lication is s$o#n in Dia%ram 1".1.'ll t)/es of free s/ace transmission e@ui/ment must 0e ver) ri%idl) mounted. T$is is es/eciall)im/ortant if t$e transmitters or receivers are to 0e mounted on masts or /oles. *1. T$e distance 0et#een t$e t#o locations is critical to t$e c$oice of e@ui/ment. T$e manufacturerEss/ecification must al#a)s 0e res/ected. +erformance can deteriorate e3/onentiall) if t$eirrecommendations are e3ceeded. ' 1,M increase in distance could result in a 3,M fall off in/erformance.Dia%ram 1". 1 '//lication For Free 2/ace Lin8T$ere #ill 0e situations #$ere t$ere are several units re@uirin% surveillance all controlled from a centralsource. 5reat care s$ould 0e e3ercised in /ositionin% receivers so t$at t$ere is suita0le se/aration0et#een t$e 0eams from transmitters.Dia%ram 1". 2 :nsuita0le Location of .eceiversIf t$e e3am/le site in Dia%ram 1".1 re@uired a second camera to 0e incor/orated1 t$is #ould needanot$er transmitter and receiver. If t$e) #ere sim/l) added as s$o#n in Dia%ram 1".2 t$ere is a stron%/ro0a0ilit) t$at t$e 0eams #ould overla/ at t$e receivers. T$is #ould cause /ro0lems #it$ t$e rece/tionof t$e se/arate video si%nals. T$ere are #a)s in #$ic$ different s)stems can overcome t$is. -o#ever1 alittle t$ou%$t can /revent t$e need for s/ecial considerations. 'n

alternative met$od of sitin% t$ereceivers is s$o#n in Dia%ram 1".3.If t$e receivers are located as s$o#n t$ere #ill 0e no c$ance of cross interference 0et#een t$e t#osi%nals. *2. Dia%ram 1". 3 +referred !et$od of Locatin% .eceiversT$ere is one ver) im/ortant /oint to consider #$en settin% u/ an) t)/e of free s/ace transmissions)stem. T$e manufacturers recommended test e@ui/ment must 0e used to ali%n t$e /airs of units. If t$e#idt$ of t$e 0eam is onl) 1 de%ree1 t$is is a #idt$ of over 1& metres at a distance of one 8ilometre.!an) installers $ave mista8enl) t$ou%$t t$at since t$e receiver is #it$in t$is 0and t$en t$e rece/tion #ill0e satisfactor).!ost s)stems #ill 0e ali%ned on a clear da) #$en it is not rainin% and durin% da)li%$t. T$erefore1 t$erece/tion #ill seem fine. ' sli%$t deterioration in t$e #eat$er could reduce t$e /erformanceconsidera0l) after t$e en%ineers $ave left site. Irres/ective of t$e 0eam #idt$1 it s$ould 0e em/$asisedt$at t$e main si%nal stren%t$ is in t$e centre /art. ?nl) t$e correct test e@ui/ment #ill ensure t$at t$es)stem #ill 0e set u/ to its o/timum for all conditions.Infrared >eamsAit$ t$is t)/e of s)stem1 t$e video is su/erim/osed onto an infrared 0eam 0) a transmitter. T$e 0eamis ali%ned to stri8e a receiver #$ere t$e si%nal is transmitted as a conventional com/osite video si%nal.T$e infrared 0eam is at a #avelen%t$ of (", nanometres #$ic$1 from C$a/ter 141 can 0e seen to 0e0e)ond t$e visi0le /art of t$e s/ectrum. T$e s)stem ma) 0e confi%ured as a full du/le3 set u/. T$en itis /ossi0le to transmit telemetr) control si%nals in t$e reverse direction to control /an1 tilt units. T$es)stem can also carr) s/eec$ in 0ot$ directions. T$e actual confi%uration must 0e s/ecified at t$e timeof o0tainin% @uotations or orderin%.T$e /erformance of infrared 0eams can 0e affected 0) #eat$er and environmental conditions. It isim/ortant to c$ec8 t$e ca/a0ilit) of t$e lin8 #it$ t$e manufacturer if an a0solute %uarantee of rece/tionin all conditions is essential.T$e infrared 0eam is com/letel) $armless and re@uires no licence or o/eratin% restrictions. 2electin%t$e correct 0eam /o#er for a %iven ran%e re@uires some consideration. T$ere is al#a)s a trade off0et#een ran%e and @ualit). ?ne manufacturer1 for e3am/le1 %ives t$e follo#in% %uidelines. 6Ta0le 1".17 *3. :nder eac$ model t$e ran%e is %iven in metres for eac$ re@uirement..e@uirement !odel ' !odel > !odel C !odel D !odel E617 Econom) @ualit) 1*, &1, 122, 23 , 31,,627 Full @ualit) 12, 32, "2, 12,, 21,,637 -i%$ /enetration 3, 1", 3,, & , 12,,647 -i%$ resolution (, 2 , 3*, * , 1(2,637 Y 647 to%et$er 4 12, 2 , ",, *,,Ta0le 1". 1 .an%e ?f Infrared Lin8sT$is ta0le illustrates t$e /ro0lem of selectin% t$e most a//ro/riate model for a /articular a//lication.For instance1 t$e model s/ecified as $avin% a ran%e of 311,, metres onl) /rovides Deconom) @ualit)E att$is ran%e. If $i%$ resolution and $i%$ /enetration are re@uired t$en t$e ran%e dro/s dramaticall) to onl)*,, metres. Ait$out t$is

information1 it is ver) difficult for a customer to com/are com/etin% @uotationsall s/ecif)in% Dinfrared lin8sE. T$ere is a si%nificant /rice =um/ from one model to t$e ne3t.It can also 0e seen from t$e ta0le t$at infrared lin8s are susce/ti0le to /oor #eat$er conditions. It isim/ortant t$erefore t$at 0ot$ t$e installer and t$e customer are a#are of t$e limitations of t$is t)/e oflin8. ?ne ar%ument is t$at if t$e cameras are installed outdoors t$en 0) t$e time t$e lin8 $as failed dueto 0ad #eat$er t$e camera /icture $as also failed. T$is is a dou0tful 0asis on #$ic$ to s/ecif) a s)stem.T$ere are t#o factors t$at $ave caused /ro0lems in t$e /ast #it$ t$is t)/e of lin8. >ot$ #ere intermittentand difficult to fi%ure out t$e cause of lost /ictures in a//arentl) %ood #eat$er conditions. ?ne #as asteam vent outlet t$at caused t$e steam to carr) t$rou%$ t$e 0eam in certain #ind conditions. T$e ot$er#as smo8e from a c$imne)stac8 t$at o0scured t$e 0eams also onl) in certain #ind conditions. Neit$erof t$ese effects #as in t$e si%$t of t$e cameras.'not$er im/ortant /oint is t$at t$e 0eam #idt$ of infra4red lin8s is ver) small1 in order to ensure t$atenou%$ of t$e infrared 0eam falls on receiver to %ive a %ood si%nal to noise ratio. T)/icall)1 at a *4. distance of 1 ,,m t$e s/ot of infrared li%$t s$one on to t$e receiver ma) onl) 0e a cou/le of metres indiameter. Conse@uentl)1 over lon%er distances a0ove ,,m1 minute c$an%es in t$e /osition of t$etransmitter ma) cause t$e 0eam to 0e t$ro#n com/letel) off t$e receiver and transmission #ill 0e lost.T$is is /articularl) im/ortant if t$e transmitter is mounted on a steel fa0ricated 0uildin% suc$ as a#are$ouse or $an%er. 2teel 0uildin%s #ill e3/and and contract #it$ tem/erature c$an%e and t$ese tin)c$an%es ma) 0e enou%$ to adversel) affect t$e /osition of a transmitter mounted on a steel 0uildin%.Infrared lin8s1 $o#ever1 do offer a cost4effective solution to free s/ace transmission. T$e full 8no#led%eof t$eir /ossi0le limitations s$ould 0e considered. T$ere is no re@uirement for an) form of licence for aninfrared lin8.!icro#ave Transmission!icro#ave lin8s carr) t$e video and telemetr) alon% a lin8 from a transmitter to a receiver. T$e) areca/a0le of muc$ fart$er transmission distances from 1 8ilometre to (, 8ilometres. T$e fre@uencies t$atcan 0e used in t$e :P are allocated 0) T$e .adiocommunications '%enc)1 t$e) also determine t$ema3imum /o#er t$at ma) 0e transmitted1 #$ic$ limits t$e o/erational distance. T$e) are lar%el)unaffected 0) #eat$er conditions. ?n t$e ot$er $and1 t$e) are more e3/ensive t$an infrared lin8s.2imilar comments a//l) t$at mountin%s must 0e ri%id and t$e correct test e@ui/ment must 0e used forinstallation. >eam #idt$ is #ider t$an infrared s)stems and so 0uildin% movement is not normall) a/ro0lem.Du/le3 s)stems can 0e /rovided #$ere it is re@uired to o/erate telemetr) controls in t$e reversedirection. T$is must 0e s/ecified at t$e time of @uotation or order.T$e re@uirement for licences s$ould 0e c$ec8ed #it$ t$e

manufacturer to find t$e total cost of a s)stemand an) recurrin% costs. Investi%ation #ill need to 0e carried out if micro#ave lin8s are to 0e used closeto ot$er micro#ave e@ui/ment suc$ as radar at air/orts as it #ill 0e vital t$at no interference affects t$e/erformance of eit$er s)stem.1&.Transmission of Video 2i%nals 0) Fi0re ?/tics+rinci/les of Fi0re ?/tic Transmission * . !ost /eo/le are familiar #it$ t$e ever)da) use of li%$t1 X4ra)s1 radio #aves1 micro#aves1 and .adar. 'llof t$ese are actuall) e3am/les of electroma%netic radiation1 #$ic$ is c$aracterised 0) a radiation#avelen%t$ or oscillation fre@uenc). Dia%ram 1&.1 s$o#s t$e electroma%netic s/ectrum #it$ a//licationareas identified. T$e 4,, 4 & , nm re%ion of t$e s/ectrum is t$e re%ion of visi0le li%$tB t$is re%ion ise3/anded in t$e lo#er /art. T$e area of interest for fi0re o/tic transmission e3tends from t$e red re%ionof t$e s/ectrum out into t$e #avelen%t$s muc$ lon%er t$an t$ose visi0le to t$e $uman e)e1 t$e infrared.2/ecific #avelen%t$s used $ave 0een driven 0) t$e re@uirements of t$e fi0re tec$nolo%) and 0) sourceand detector tec$nolo%ies. +articular #avelen%t$s used are nominall) &(,nm1 ( ,nm1 131,nm1 and1 ,nm.Dia%ram 1&. 1 T$e electroma%netic s/ectrumT$e different /arts of t$e s/ectrum $ave /reviousl) 0een descri0ed in terms of t$e #avelen%t$. 'nalternative measurement is t$e fre@uenc) of t$e /art 0ein% considered. Fre@uenc) is t$e num0er ofcrests of a #ave t$at move /ast a %iven /oint in a %iven unit of time. T$e most common unit offre@uenc) is t$e $ert; 6-;71 corres/ondin% to one c)cle /er second. T$e fre@uenc) of a #ave can 0ecalculated 0) dividin% t$e s/eed of t$e #ave 0) t$e #avelen%t$. T$us1 in t$e electroma%netic s/ectrum1t$e #avelen%t$s decrease as t$e fre@uencies increase1 and vice versa.For e3am/le1 t$e #avelen%t$ of infrared li%$t is ( , nmB t$e e@uivalent fre@uenc) is 3. 3 1,14-;. *". Dia%ram 1&. 2 >and#idt$ at Different Fre@uenciesDifferent fre@uencies $ave different 0and#idt$s and t$e $i%$er t$e fre@uenc) t$e #ider is t$e0and#idt$. T$e #ider t$e 0and#idt$ t$en t$e more information can 0e carried. Fre@uencies a0ove t$evisi0le /art of t$e s/ectrum offer a #ider 0and#idt$1 t$erefore t$e) /rovide more s/ace for t$emulti/licit) of TV si%nals and reams of data t$at need to 0e transmitted.Transmission 0) Li%$tIn fi0re o/tics1 messa%es #$et$er data or video are first converted from electrical im/ulses into /ulsesof li%$t. T$is function is /erformed 0) a minute device t$at incor/orates a laser c$i/ or an LED 6li%$temittin% diode7. T$e infrared li%$t is s#itc$ed on and off at incredi0l) $i%$ s/eeds1 t$ere0) creatin% t$estream of li%$t /ulses. T$ese are t$en focussed onto t$e end of t$e o/tical fi0re. T$e li%$t#aves travelalon% t$e fi0re to t$e receivin% end. -ere t$e li%$t /ulses are converted 0ac8 into electrical /ulses 0) a/$otodiode or avalanc$e /$otodiode.Dia%ram 1&. 3 >asics of Fi0re ?/tic Transmission

*&. ?/tical Fi0re 2tructure and GLi%$t 5uidin%H'n o/tical fi0re is a com/le3 strand of silica %lass. ' cross section of a t)/ical fi0re is s$o#n in dia%ram1".4.Ver) small units of len%t$ are measured in DmicronsE. ?ne micron is one milliont$ of a metre1 t$erefore11 micron is ,.,,1 mm and 12 microns is ,.12 mm.Dia%ram 1&. 4 Construction of sin%le o/tical fi0reT$e o/tical fi0re is made from a rod of $i%$l) /urified silica called a G/re4formH. T$e /re4form is $eatedand dra#n out into a t$in fi0re usin% $i%$l) s/ecialised and accurate e@ui/ment. 's t$e fi0re is dra#n1 itis coated #it$ a /rotective /ol)mer la)er 8no#n as t$e /rimar) coatin%. 't t$is sta%e t$e coated fi0re isa//ro3imatel) ,.2 mm diameter and is fle3i0le enou%$ to 0e coiled on drums #it$ a 0end radius of notless t$an cm. In most fi0res in use toda) t$e diameter of t$e %lass fi0re itself is 12 micronsF ,.12 mm. T$is /rimar) coated fi0re is t$en used as t$e 0uildin% 0loc8 for assem0l) into o/tical fi0re ca0let$at /rovides t$e ru%%edisation needed for ever)da) use.T$e o/tical fi0re itself $as internal structure #it$ t$e refractive inde3 of t$e fi0re var)in% across itsdiameter #it$ all fi0res $avin% a lo#er refractive inde3 on t$e surface t$an at t$e centre of t$e fi0re. T$isvariation in refractive inde3 across t$e fi0re diameter is t$e 8e) to t$e transmission of li%$t 0) t$e fi0re..emem0erin% sc$ool /$)sics e3/eriments1 #$en li%$t /asses from a $i%$ to lo# refractive inde3 mediae.%. %lass to air1 some of t$e li%$t ra) is reflected and some is refracted out of t$e $i%$ refractive inde3media. 's t$e an%le of t$e li%$t ra) to t$e surface %ets s$allo#er1 t$ere comes a /oint #$ere all of t$eli%$t is reflected and no li%$t is refracted out of t$e media. T$is an%le 6to t$e normal7 is called t$e Critical'n%le a0ove #$ic$ all li%$t is reflectedB o/tical fi0re transmission uses t$is effect to transmit li%$t alon%t$e fi0re. *(. In dia%ram 1&. 1 t$e o/tical fi0re structure is assumed to consist of a $i%$ refractive inde3 %lass coresurrounded 0) a lo# refractive inde3 %lass claddin%. Li%$t ra)s are incident on t$e fi0re end from a li%$tsource enterin% t$e fi0re core over a ran%e of incident an%les. ?nce in t$e fi0re t$ese ra)s can 0econsidered to 0e travellin% in strai%$t lines until t$e) meet a refractive inde3 discontinuit). 't t$is /oint1some of t$e ra) is reflected 0ac8 into t$e fi0re core and t$e rest is refracted out of t$e core into t$ecladdin% %lass. T$e reflected li%$t ra) t$en transits t$e fi0re core until anot$er reflection occurs and t$erefracted ra) $its t$e claddin% %lassF/rotective /ol)mer claddin% interface and is a0sor0ed or dis/ersed.'s t$is is concerned #it$ li%$t /ro/a%ation do#n t$e fi0re len%t$ it is clear t$at t$e reflected ra) is t$eone t$at #e re@uire for si%nal transmission1 #it$ t$e refracted ra) sim/l) reducin% t$e transmitted li%$tsi%nal intensit).Dia%ram 1&. 2te/ inde3 multi4mode fi0reConsider a continuum of li%$t ra)s in t$e fi0re core coverin% all /ossi0le an%les of incidence to t$ecoreFcladdin% discontinuit)1 t$en it can 0e seen t$at all li%$t ra)s #it$ an an%le of incidence a0ove

t$ecritical an%le #ill 0e reflected 0ac8 into t$e fi0re core. T$is is 8no#n as Gtotal internal reflectionH. T$osera)s #it$ an an%le of incidence 0elo# t$e critical an%le #ill 0e /artl) reflected and /artl) refracted in t$emanner e3/lained a0ove. T$e li%$t ra)s transit alon% t$e fi0re 0) 0ein% reflected at eac$ refractive inde3c$an%e t$at t$e) encounterB in effect t$e ra)s 0ounce off of t$e sides of t$e fi0re core.'fter multi/le reflections t$e ra)s #it$ an%les of incidence 0elo# t$e critical an%le #ill $ave 0eenreduced in intensit) 0) refraction losses and do not contri0ute to t$e li%$t1 and $ence si%nal1transmission /rocess. In contrast1 t$e ra)s #it$ an%les of incidence a0ove t$e critical an%le #ill not 0ereduced in intensit) 0) refraction and it is t$ese ra)s t$at ena0le fi0re o/tic transmission to #or8. 's t$ean%le of incidence is measured #it$ res/ect to t$e normal to t$e relevant surface it can 0e seen t$at t$e **. fi0re could 0e 0ent and t#isted and still allo# li%$t to 0e transmitted alon% its len%t$. T$is a0ilit) ofo/tical fi0re to %uide li%$t alon% a non4linear /at$1 =ust li8e and electrical conductor1 is essential for itsuse in real #orld a//lications.T$is ran%e of ra)s ma) 0e traced 0ac8 to t$eir ori%inal cou/lin% to t$e fi0re core and #e find t$at t$etransmitted ra)s are contained in a cone of an%les as s$o#n in dia%ram 1&. . In definin% o/tical fi0re/arameters t$is acce/tance cone is c$aracterised 0) t$e cone $alf an%le and t$e 2ine of t$is $alf an%leis 8no#n as t$e fi0re Numerical '/erture T N.'. 1,,. 1(.Video !otion DetectionIntroductionT$ere are man) met$ods of detectin% intruders into /remises. T$ese include suc$ s)stems asI9 Intruder alarms.9 Fence mounted detectors.9 >uried vi0ration or electric field devices.9 'ctive infrared devices.9 +assive infrared devices.9 !icro#ave devices.9 Video motion detection devices.T$is c$a/ter is concerned #it$ Video !otion Detection devices. 6V!D7. T$ese ma) 0e #it$in or outsidet$e /remises and1 0esides detectin% intruders1 can 0e used as /art of a 0uildin% mana%ement s)stem.V!D ma) often 0e used eit$er as a stand4alone s)stem or inte%rated #it$ ot$er detection s)stems. Inan ideal #orld1 detection devices #ould %ive no false alarms and 1,,M of %enuine alarms.:nfortunatel)1 t$is is not an ideal #orld1 and a certain amount of com/romise is necessar). T$iscom/romise must 0e reduced to t$e most effective and acce/ta0le level to ac$ieve t$e s)stemo0=ectives.T$ere are reall) onl) t#o t)/es of alarm1 %enuine alarms and false alarms. 2ometimes mention is madeof Ds/urious alarmsE1 une3/lained alarms and s)stem failures. T$ese must onl) 0e considered as falsealarms 0ecause t$e s)stem $as alarmed for no a//arent reason. ' %enuine alarm is one created 0)deli0erate nefarious $uman action1 e.%. 0) movement of a /erson or ve$icle into t$e detection field ordistur0ance of t$e alarm s)stem. ' false alarm is one t$at $as no deli0erate $uman in/ut1 suc$ as t$osecaused 0) animals1 0irds or an) malfunction of e@ui/ment. ?ne measure of t$e

efficienc) of a s)stem is 1,1. t$e DFalse 'larm .ateE 6F'.7. T$is is t$e ratio of false alarms to a time scale1 i.e. five /er da). T$e F'.level #ill de/end on man) local site considerations. T$e o0=ective is to reduce t$is to t$e minimum#it$out missin% an) real alarms. 'not$er measure is t$e D/ro0a0ilit) of detectionE 6+D7 rate1 #$ic$ is t$eratio of detections to t$e num0er of attem/ts in controlled tests. T$e ideal for +D is 1,,M.:ses ?f V!DT$e /rimar) function of a V!D s)stem is to relieve CCTV o/erators from t$e stress of monitorin% one orman) screens of information t$at ma) not c$an%e for lon% /eriods. T$e V!D s)stem #ill 0e monitorin%all t$e cameras in its s)stem1 and onl) reactin% #$en t$ere is sus/icious activit) in one of t$e scenes.Durin% t$e lon% /eriods of inactivit) t$e o/erator can continue #it$ ot$er tas8s1 secure in t$e 8no#led%et$at #$en somet$in% occurs t$e s)stem #ill immediatel) res/ond. Even a moderate si;ed s)stem1 #it$ei%$t cameras1 #ould /rove im/ossi0le for an o/erator to monitor. Ei%$t monitors could not 0e vie#ed#it$ an) de%ree of concentration for more t$an a0out t#ent) minutes. If t$e monitors #ere set tose@uence1 t$en activit) on seven cameras is lost for most of t$e time and #ould 0e totall) ineffective todetect intruders. Ait$ more cameras in a s)stem1 t$e tas8 of detectin% intruders 0ecomes im/ossi0leand tec$nolo%) must ta8e over t$e strain.T$e idea of V!D s)stems is t$at t$e /rocessor is continuousl) monitorin% all t$e cameras in t$es)stem. Durin% t$is time1 t$e1 o/erator ma) select or se@uence cameras usin% t$e conventionals#itc$in% s)stem. T$e s)stem ma) include an additional monitor connected to t$e V!D s)stem t$at #illnormall) s$o# a 0lan8 screen. A$en activit) in an) camera occurs t$at t$e V!D s)stem inter/rets asan intruder1 t$e alarmed camera is immediatel) s#itc$ed to t$e 0lan8 monitor and a #arnin% sounded toalert t$e o/erator. T$e o/eratorEs attention1 is t$erefore1 immediatel) focused on t$e camera coverin%t$e alarm. T$e detection of an intruder can also set off furt$er events1 suc$ as settin% a video recorderto real time recordin%1 settin% a matri3 s#itc$in% s)stem to se@uence t$rou%$ a s/ecific series ofcameras1 etc. T$e o/erator can anal)se t$e scene and ta8e t$e a//ro/riate course of action.'n intruder could %enerate an alarm and 0e out of vie# of t$e camera 0efore it is dis/la)ed. T$eo/erator #ould t$erefore see =ust a 0lan8 screen and 0e unsure a0out #$at to do ne3t. To overcomet$is1 at t$e time of detection1 man) V!D s)stems #ill ca/ture an alarm ima%e se@uence containin% oneor more free;e frames. T$is ma) 0e dis/la)ed as t$e first vie# on t$e /reviousl) 0lan8 screen. T$eo/erator ma) t$en e3amine t$e scene at t$e instant of alarm in more detail.+rinci/le of o/erationIn t$e descri/tions t$at follo# reference is made to a DframeE of video. 2ome s)stems use frames andsome use fields1 some s)stems can select 0et#een t$e t#o. T$is also a//lies to stora%e devices. For

1,2. ease of descri/tion1 t$e term frame is used for consistenc) 0ut t$e actual met$od used s$ould 0ec$ec8ed for t$e s)stem 0ein% considered.Video !otion Detection is an electronic met$od of detectin% a c$an%e in t$e field of vie# of a camera. Inits sim/lest form1 t$is is ac$ieved 0) storin% one frame of t$e video information and t$en com/arin% t$ene3t frame #it$ t$is to decide #$et$er t$ere $as 0een a c$an%e. T$e c$an%e detected #ould 0e adifference in t$e video volta%e1 indicatin% a c$an%e of 0ri%$tness #it$in t$e scene. T$is #ould 0e initiall)i%nored as an alarm until a furt$er frame confirmed t$e c$an%e1 or not. If confirmed as a c$an%e of0ri%$tness in t$e scene1 t$en an alarm #ould 0e %enerated. T$is could cause a contact to close andactivate some #arnin% device suc$ as a 0u;;er1 or cause t$e s#itc$er to select t$e camera t$atdetected t$e motion. T$e sam/lin% /rocess ma) ta8e some#$ere 0et#een one fiftiet$ of a second andone second to detect a c$an%e1 de/endin% on t$e met$od of sam/lin%. T$is sim/le detector could 0eused in an environment #$ere all conditions #ere a0solutel) sta0le and t$e onl) /ossi0le c$an%e in0ri%$tness #ould 0e due to an intruder. -o#ever1 t$e intruder could 0e a mouse or a /erson. T$es)stem couldnEt differentiate 0et#een t$e t#o. In addition1 0) t$e time t$e alarm is dis/la)ed on amonitor1 t$e cause of it could 0e out of vie#. If t$e scene #ere 0ein% continuousl) recorded1 t$e eventcould 0e revie#ed 0ut t$is ma) 0e too late to ta8e effective action.Dia%ram 1(.1 +rinci/les of video motion detectionDetection CellsFor t$e /ur/oses of t$is c$a/ter t$e follo#in% definitions are used alt$ou%$ t$ere are no standard termsused at /resent. ' CELL is a sin%le detection 0loc8 t$at is anal)sed electronicall) for 0ri%$tnessc$an%es. ' cell ma) 0e a sin%le /i3el1 a 0loc8 of /i3els1 or t$e #$ole screen. ' N?NE is a %rou/ of cells 1,3. t$at $ave 0een defined as an active area. T$e e3act meanin% of D;oneE must 0e c$ec8ed #it$ amanufacturerEs s/ecification 0efore assumin% #$at area is covered and to #$at de%ree of definition.T$is met$od of com/arin% com/lete frames t$erefore $as severe dra#0ac8s. T$e ne3t develo/ment#as to divide t$e /icture into a num0er of se/arate areas or cells. T$is #as refined 0) 0ein% a0le tos#itc$ cells on or off to define t$e area of t$e scene t$at is of interest. Dia%ram 1(.4 illustrates a V!Ds)stem t$at divides t$e /icture into cells1 and $o# onl) a selected /art of t$e scene can 0e set formotion detection. T$e s$aded areas are inactive and t$e clear /arts are t$e active cells. In t$is case1onl) activit) in t$e area of t$e car #ill create an alarm. T$e cells are onl) dis/la)ed as suc$ durin%settin% u/ t$e s)stem. ?nce t$e set4 u/ mode is e3ited1 t$e com/lete /icture is dis/la)ed as normal andit is not /ossi0le to see an) of t$e cells.T$e sensitivit) of t$e cells can 0e ad=usted to ta8e into account local conditions. T$is control t$ou%$ isa//lied across all cells to t$e same e3tent. 2ome s)stems can 0e /re4

set to different sensitivit) levels1for instance1 to ma8e allo#ance for da) or ni%$t o/eration #$en t$e li%$tin% levels ma) 0e different.Dia%ram 1(. 2 Frame Divided Into CellsT$is t)/e of s)stem #ould not 0e suita0le in t$e scene s$o#n out of doors. T$is is 0ecause e3ternalli%$t conditions are c$an%in% fre@uentl). Clouds movin% across t$e s8) #ould cause c$an%es in0ri%$tness and create alarms. T$is t)/e is used in sim/le indoor situations1 #$ere t$e li%$tin% conditionsare constant and an)t$in% 0rea8in% t$e cells could 0e considered an alarm. T$e set4u/ can 0e refinedto reduce un#anted activations. For instance1 t$ere ma) 0e t#o doors in t$e scene1 onl) one of #$ic$needs to 0e monitored. In t$is case1 t$e /art of t$e scene of interest could 0e ad=usted accordin%l).Note t$at #it$ t$is t)/e of s)stem an) c$an%e in an) one or all t$e cells #ill create an alarm.Intelli%ent CellsT$e ne3t move to#ards reducin% false alarms is to 0uild in t$e com/utin% /o#er to /rocess eac$ cellindividuall) and create al%orit$ms t$at #ill intelli%entl) anal)se certain situations. In t$is #a)1 decisions 1,4. can 0e made accordin% to t$e direction of movement. For instance1 one cell ma) 0e declared as a /re4alarm cell and anot$er as a detection cell. +re4alarm cells do not create alarms. Instead1 t$e) instructt$e s)stem to associate detection in t$is area #it$ detection in anot$er. 'ctivation of detection cellsalone #ill not create an alarm. ' com0ination of successive detection in ad=acent cells #ill tri%%er alo%ical action de/endant on t$e /ro%ram. For e3am/le1 if a detection cell is activated after a /re4alarmcell an alarm #ill 0e created. -o#ever1 movement in t$e reverse direction1 detection 0efore /re4alarm1#ill not create an alarm. In t$is #a)1 all /ersons leavin% a 0uildin% #ill not create an alarm 0ut /ersonsa//roac$in% it #ill do so. 'lso1 /ersons movin% do#n t$e ri%$t of t$e /erimeter #ill not create an alarm.Cell Count'not$er factor t$at could 0e calculated in t$e /rocessor is t$e num0er of cells caused to c$an%esimultaneousl). T$is #ould t$en 0e used as a furt$er /art of t$e e@uation1 so t$at an alarm #ould onl)0e created if more t$an D3E cells c$an%e contrast simultaneousl). T$is 0rin%s in attendant /ro0lems insome situations. T$ree do%s in t$e scene could activate t$e same num0er of cells as one /erson. 'ma=or /ro0lem #it$ cell count is t$at of t$e different num0er of cells a certain si;e of o0=ect occu/ies inrelation to t$e /osition of t$e camera.Dia%ram 1(. 3 Intelli%ent cells 1, . Dia%ram 1(. 4 +ro0lems of +ers/ectiveDia%ram 1(.4 s$o#s t$at a /erson in t$e fore%round occu/ies ei%$t cells #$ile one in t$e 0ac8%round isless t$an $alf a cell. 2imilarl)1 a cat close to t$e camera #ould activate far more cells t$an a /erson int$e 0ac8%round. 2im/le cell count s)stems ma) offer some im/rovement in false alarms 0ut do not offeraccurate si;e discrimination.Contrast LevelsIt #as stated t$at t$e detection of movement #as o0tained 0) measurin% t$e c$an%es in

video level60ri%$tness7 0et#een successive frames. T$is is fine if a /erson in a dar8 suit /asses t$rou%$ a ver)0ri%$t scene. T$e c$an%e in 0ri%$tness #ill 0e dramatic and immediatel) evident to t$e /rocessor.-o#ever1 a /erson in a %re) suit in a %re) scene1 #it$ little contrast1 #ill cause onl) a small c$an%e int$e 0ri%$tness levels. If t$e sensitivit) of t$e s)stem #ere set to detect t$e latter event1 it #ould 0e overres/onsive to insi%nificant c$an%es in a 0ri%$t scene. T$is is less im/ortant for indoor s)stems1 0ut asi%nificant factor in e3ternal s)stems #$ere t$e li%$t c$an%es fre@uentl) and %reatl). In addition1 #$eret$e o0=ect is smaller t$an t$e cell1 t$e 0ri%$tness c$an%e #ill 0e a function of 0ot$ t$e si;e of t$e o0=ectand t$e contrast 0et#een t$e o0=ect and t$e 0ac8%round. T$is 0ecomes es/eciall) critical #$endetectin% a /erson in t$e 0ac8%round #$en t$e) ma) 0e onl) 1,M of t$e screen $ei%$t. T$is can 0eonl) ,.2 M of t$e screen area. If t$e /erson is su0stantiall) smaller t$an t$e cell1 t$e sensitivit) #ould$ave to 0e ver) $i%$ to detect t$is c$an%e1 0ut #ould cause man) false alarms for lar%er su0=ects/rovidin% %reater contrast1 alt$ou%$ muc$ smaller t$an a /erson. 1,". 'not$er /ro0lem #it$ measurin% 0ri%$tness usin% lar%e cells is t$at a small dar8 o0=ect suc$ as a catcould cause t$e same 0ri%$tness c$an%e as a lar%e lo# contrast o0=ect suc$ as a /erson.Camera 2$a8eIn e3ternal s)stems1 cameras are mounted on 0rac8ets or to#ers. It is often im/ractical to ensure t$att$e) are a0solutel) ri%id #it$ no movement. T$e camera #ould onl) $ave to move a small amount1 suc$as can $a//en in t$e #ind1 to cause a %lo0al c$an%e and re%ister an alarm.C$an%es In Li%$t Levels>) /rocessin% se/arate cells and $avin% t$e /o#er to define 0etter al%orit$ms1 ot$er /ro0lems can 0eovercome. For instance1 li%$t c$an%es ma) 0e i%nored if all cells are affected to t$e same e3tent.'not$er met$od to allo# for %lo0al li%$t c$an%es is to ma8e one reference cell in #$ic$ movement isunli8el). T$e ot$er cells are t$en referenced to t$is to com/ensate for li%$t levels. T$is latter met$odcan im/ose limitations on t$e s)stem set4u/ and is no# infre@uentl) used.Cell 2ensitivit)'ll t$e s)stems descri0ed so far $ave onl) 0een a0le to set t$e overall sensitivit) of all cells. T$isrenders t$em @uite unsuita0le for outdoor use. T$e ne3t need t$erefore is to 0e a0le to ad=ust t$esensitivit) of eac$ cell individuall). T$is o0viousl) re@uires muc$ more com/utin% /o#er 0ut is ana0solute /rere@uisite for an) V!D to 0e used e3ternall).+rocessin% 2/eed!ost sim/le V!D s)stems $ave one /rocessor irres/ective of t$e num0er of cameras. If it re@uirest$ree frames to anal)se a scene t$en t$e /rocessin% time for one camera #ill 0e a0out ,.12 seconds.T$is must 0e multi/lied 0) t$e num0er of cameras in t$e s)stem. T$erefore1 #it$ ei%$t cameras t$e/rocessin% s/eed for eac$ #ill 0e a0out one second. For e3am/le1 a 1F2H camera #it$ a 2 mm lens $asa #idt$ of vie# of

a0out m at 2,m from t$e camera. ' /erson could run across t$is field of vie# in lesst$an t$e /rocessin% time and not 0e detected.Limitations of 2im/le V!D 2)stemsT$e /revious e3am/les $ave served to s$o# t$e /rinci/les of sim/le video motion detectors. Variationsof t$ese t)/es are still availa0le 0ut t$eir use is limited1 and t$e) s$ould 0e used #it$ %reat caution inan)t$in% 0ut t$e most 0asic a//lications. -o#ever1 t$e) do $ave uses and can /rovide a ver) cost4effective met$od of motion detection #$en t$e situation is a//ro/riate.T$e limitations of t$e t)/es descri0ed for demandin% e3ternal situations are as follo#s.9 Aill not co/e #it$ moderate c$an%es in li%$t levels. 1,&. 9 2/oradic %eneration of alarms in $i%$ contrast scenes.9 Aill not co/e #it$ c$an%in% #eat$er conditions.9 Lac8 of si;e discrimination means com/romise in settin% u/.9 Non4uniform sensitivit) #it$ ran%e.9 Aill not co/e #it$ si;e variation due to /ers/ective.9 2lo# /rocessin% s/eed can miss movin% action.9 Ina0ilit) to discriminate 0et#een small $i%$ contrast dar8 and lar%e lo# contrast o0=ects.9 +rone to false alarm due to camera s$a8e.9 Cell measurements /revent accurate area discrimination.9 .estricted to small areas of vie#.9 :nli8el) to detect a /erson at 1,M of screen $ei%$t.9 ?nl) sim/le al%orit$ms can 0e com/uted.9 Cannot distin%uis$ 0et#een a /erson movin% in a line and a #avin% o0=ect.9 2in%le /rocessor increases time 0et#een frame com/arisons. 1,(. 1*.Interfacin% #it$ ?t$er 2)stemsIntroductionCCTV 2)stems are rarel) used as t$e sin%le means of securit) at an) site. T$is is a #ise a//roac$1 asCCTV cannot on its o#n /rovide total securit) for an) location. T$ere is ver) little /oint in $avin% as)stem t$at ena0les intruders to 0e o0served or miscreants identified if t$is does not actuall) /reventloss or dama%e to t$e /ro/ert) of t$e o#ner of t$e site. 't t$e ver) minimum t$ere must 0e %oodmec$anical securit) #it$ %ood @ualit) doors1 loc8s1 fences and ot$er 0arriers to /$)sicall) /reventundesira0les from %ainin% access to secure areas.For insurance /ur/oses1 t$ere must nearl) al#a)s 0e some form of intruder detection and alarms)stem. Ait$ t$e %ro#t$ and reduction in relative cost of tele/$one lines t$ese intruder alarms arenormall) connected to some 8ind of central monitorin% facilit)1 called a central station1 #$ere res/onsesto alarms are co4ordinated and from #$ere t$e +olice or ot$er securit) a%encies are summoned.Intruder alarm s)stems form t$e 0ac80one of electronic securit)1 from t$e smallest retail site to t$elar%est industrial1 commercial or %overnmental esta0lis$ments.' second mandator) electronic s)stem /resent on sites is t$e fire alarm s)stem. Fire alarm s)stems areinstalled for 0ot$ insurance and 0uildin% re%ulations /ur/oses. Increasin% use of electronics in t$econtrols of t$ese s)stems $as meant t$at t$e) $ave 0ecome more so/$isticated and more relia0le #$ileat t$e same time offerin% man) more

features.-avin% a site t$at is safe and secure outside 0usiness $ours is vital. -o#ever1 it is of little 0enefit durin%#or8in% $ours1 #$en access control to a 0uildin% or site ma) 0e rela3ed to ena0le t$e em/lo)erEs staffto come and %o. T$ieves or vandals can also come and %o at #ill. It is for t$is reason t$at accesscontrol s)stems $ave started to 0ecome increasin%l) common. T$e sim/lest form of access control is asecurit) %uard c$ec8in% t$e identification /asses of t$ose #$o are enterin% and leavin% t$e site. In t$e 1,*. $i%$est securit) sites1 t$is met$od is still used1 due to t$e efficac) of $uman 0ein%s in reco%nisin%/eo/le and determinin% #$et$er t$e) s$ould 0e allo#ed entr).-o#ever1 due to t$e cost of manned %uardin% and t$e dramatic reduction in t$e real cost ofmicro/rocessor 0ased electronic s)stems over t$e last fe# )ears electronic access control s)stems are0ecomin% more common. In t$ese s)stems1 t$e individuals #$o are /ermitted to enter various areas ofa site carr) some 8ind of to8en t$at is /resented to an electronic reader. T$e control electronics t$enidentifies t$is to8en and loo8s into electronic memor) devices. If t$e individualEs to8en is valid for t$atentr) /oint t$en an electric loc8 #ill 0e released for a s$ort time to allo# entr). ?t$er#ise1 access #ill 0edenied and an alarm messa%e ma) 0e dis/la)ed on t$e s)stem control terminal. T$e tec$nolo%iesavaila0le for t$e to8ens are m)riadB from sim/le ma%netic stri/e cards similar to 0an8ersE cards t$rou%$to s/ecialised $i%$ securit) cards1 s/ecial 8e)s1 8e)/ads1 and even /alm /rint readers.?n lar%e sites t$ere ma) 0e a ver) lon% len%t$ of fencin% #$ic$ can 0e a /ro0lem to /rotect at all times1#it$in t$e limits t$at are availa0le #it$ manned %uardin%. It is1 $o#ever1 im/ortant to /rotect t$is/erimeter in commercial and industrial sites to /revent t$eft and vandalism1 and in %overnmental sitesto meet t$ese as #ell as terrorist and ot$er t$reats. 's #it$ access control t$e 0est form of /erimeter/rotection is manned %uard /osts. T$is is1 $o#ever1 ver) e3/ensive and conse@uentl) t$is tec$ni@uetends to 0e reserved for t$e $i%$est securit) sites.Due to t$is fact1 various electronic devices $ave 0een develo/ed to detect intruders crossin% t$e/erimeter. ?ne %rou/ is seismic #ires installed in t$e fence material1 #$ic$ detect cuttin% and clim0in%of t$e fence structure. 'not$er %rou/ of seismic detectors are 0uried directl) in t$e %round and detectt$e footste/s of intruders crossin% t$e /erimeter1 t$e alarms 0ein% si%nalled 0) ca0le or radio lin8. Lon%ran%e /assive infrared detectors are also used. T$ese sense t$e 0od) $eat of intruders crossin% t$e/erimeter. Finall)1 video motion detection as descri0ed in t$e /revious c$a/ter is used to senseintruders. In $i%$ securit) sites1 t$ese devices are often used in com0ination to minimise false alarms#$ile ma3imisin% detection. ?n suc$ sites1 re%ular /erimeter /atrols %ive t$e $i%$est level of securit)availa0le.!ore recentl)1 t$e control of environmental and ot$er

s)stems around a site $as 0een centralised intos)stems usin% /ersonal com/uters. T$ese >uildin% !ana%ement 2)stems 6>!27 control $eatin%1li%$tin% and air conditionin% s)stems #$ile also /rovidin% alarms on t$e failure of $eatin% 0oilers1e3cessive sum/ #ater levels1 etc.T$e dis/la) of all t$ese individual s)stems in front of an o/erator can 0e ver) confusin%1 re@uirin% a $i%$level of trainin% for t$e staff to o/erate t$e s)stems individuall). T$e level of #or8 for t$e s)stem 11,. o/erator #$en t$ere are multi/le alarms can also 0e e3cessive1 as several different monitors andcontrol /anels must 0e used. ' 0etter solution is to inte%rate t$ese different s)stems in to a centraldis/la) station1 suc$ as a site/lan %ra/$ics s)stem descri0ed in C$a/ter 12. T$is central /oint t$en%ives t$e o/erator a sin%le screen on #$ic$ to o0serve and ac8no#led%e an) event in t$e s)stemBusin% a com/uter mouse or touc$ screen t$e CCTV ma) 0e controlled at t$e same screen.T$e /ur/ose of t$is c$a/ter is to descri0e t$e #a)s in #$ic$ t$ese ot$er s)stems ma) 0e interfaced#it$ t$e CCTV s)stem to assem0le an inte%rated securit) mana%ement s)stem.2,.2urve)in% for CCTVIntroductionT$is and t$e ne3t t#o c$a/ters can 0e inter/reted from t#o /oints of vie#. First1 t$e installin% com/an)#$en desi%nin% a s)stem. 2econd1 #it$ re%ard to t$e /otential customer #$at to e3/ect from a #ell4/resented /ro/osal.2o far t$is 0oo8 $as defined all t$e elements of a CCTV s)stem and /rovided %uidelines on t$eiro/eration and limitations. 2o no# comes t$e time to visit a site and desi%n a s)stem. T$is c$a/tercannot %ive detailed instruction on $o# to do t$is1 =ust as a 0oo8 on mec$anical en%ineerin% cannots$o# a /erson $o# to desi%n a 0rid%e. -o#ever1 it does illustrate a structured a//roac$ to /roducin% as)stem desi%n t$at #ill ensure a satisfied customer. T$is c$a/ter is intended for t$ose situations #$erea com/an) is invited to ma8e a s)stem /ro/osal from scratc$. T$e #ritin% of s/ecifications is covered inC$a/ter 21.?0tainin% t$e >riefT$e initial meetin% #it$ t$e /ros/ective customer is t$e most im/ortant lin8 in t$e c$ain to /rovidin% afinal acce/ta0le solution. It is essential at t$is sta%e to find out e3actl) #$at t$e user is e3/ectin% toac$ieve. It is also useful at t$is /reliminar) meetin% to e3/lain t$e relations$i/ 0et#een %eneralsurveillance and identification1 #$ic$ is t$at clear identification is a trade off a%ainst t$e #idt$ of t$earea in t$e scene. To start1 tr) to o0tain a definition of t$e fundamental o0=ective of t$e s)stem. T$iscould 0e alon% t$e lines of t$e follo#in% e3am/les.1. To o0tain clear identification of ever) /erson /assin% do#n t$e corridor to t$e #a%es office.2. To vie# t$e %eneral car /ar8in% areas and alert securit) %uards if t$ere are /ersons actin%sus/iciousl). 111. 3. To identif) t$e num0er/late of ever) ve$icle /assin% t$e in#ard 0arrier.4. To cover t$e entire /erimeter of t$e site and 0e alerted automaticall) in t$e event of an intruder. . To act as confirmation of an

alarm created 0) an intruder detection s)stem.". To /rovide %eneral vie#s of t$e site and identification of all /ersons at front and rear entrances.-avin% esta0lis$ed t$e /rime need of t$e s)stem1 use somet$in% li8e t$e follo#in% c$ec8list to esta0lis$t$e 0asic re@uirements and environment. T$e c$ec8lists %iven in t$is c$a/ter are intended as a %uideonl). Eac$ com/an) s$ould create t$eir o#n accordin% to t$e %eneral nature of its 0usiness..e@uirement Notes?nl) a sim/le deterrent.' %eneral vie# of #$at is $a//enin% in s/ecific areas.' detailed vie# of #$at is $a//enin% in s/ecific areas.Da)time onl) use.Ni%$ttime onl) use.Da) and ni%$t use.T$e s)stem is for use indoors onl).T$e s)stem is for outdoor use onl).T$e s)stem is for 0ot$ indoor and outdoor use.Is t$e s)stem to 0e colour1 monoc$rome1 or a mi3tureW 112. To 0e inte%rated #it$ ot$er s)stemsWAill full control of t$e s)stem 0e on t$e siteWIs remote monitorin% re@uired1 i.e. central stationWIs continuous recordin% of all areas necessar)W'utomatic activation of as/ects of t$e s)stem is re@uired in t$e event of analarm.6VC. s#itc$ed to real time1 a camera sent to /re4set /ositions1 etc.7'de@uate li%$tin% is availa0le.2u//lementar) li%$tin% is to 0e /rovided.!ountin% locations are availa0le for all cameras.!ountin% locations are not availa0le for all cameras.Aill t$e s)stem 0e monitored continuousl)WTa0le 2,.1 C$ec8list for 2)stem >riefT$e list can 0e e3tended considera0l) 0ut t$e intention is to o0tain a %eneral im/ression of t$e 0rief. Itis not needed to ans#er s/ecific @uestions at t$is sta%e.2ite Aal8a0outT$e ne3t /$ase is to $ave an informal #al8 around t$e site #it$ t$e customer to 0ecome familiarised#it$ t$e to/o%ra/$). T$is also ena0les t$e names of locations and areas to 0e learned. T$e site in t$ismeanin% could 0e a #$ole estate1 a #are$ouse or a retail store1 etc. T$is initial #al8 around t$e site #ill0e invalua0le in leadin% u/ to t$e more detailed surve) to 0e carried out.2urve)in% t$e 2ite 113. !ost customers #ill /rovide a dra#in% of t$e site. If not1 t$en a second #al8a0out #ill 0e necessar) toma8e a dra#in% #it$ 8e) dimensions on it. T$e main areas of interest #ill no# 0e 8no#n1 t$erefore t$eamount of detail dra#n can reflect t$is.21.2/ecif)in% CCTV 2)stemsIntroductionT$ere are t$ree main t)/es of s/ecification for CCTV s)stems.1. T$e /ro/osal /resented to a /otential customer 0ased on a com/an)Es inter/retation of/reliminar) visits and discussions.2. ' s/ecification /re/ared 0) a customer in #$ic$ t$e o/eratin% /rinci/les and re@uirements of as)stem are outlined and t$e final desi%n left to t$e installation Com/an).3. ' s/ecification /re/ared 0) a customer in #$ic$ t$e /osition and /erformance of ever)com/onent in a s)stem are clearl) defined and s/ecified tec$nicall).T$ere is actuall) a fourt$ t)/e of s/ecification. T$is is #$ere t$e customer /roduces a com0ination of 2and 3 0ut #it$ onl) a la)manEs 8no#led%e of CCTV. T$is is Da little

8no#led%e is dan%erousE t)/e ofs/ecification.T$e first /art of t$is c$a/ter is intended to /rovide %uidance for t$e first t#o t)/es of /ro/osal. T$is isfollo#ed 0) %uidance for end usersT$e si;e and t$ic8ness of a /ro/osal and s/ecification are not necessaril) /ro/ortional to its usefulness.In addition1 t$e structure of t$e /ro/osal s$ould 0e carefull) t$ou%$t out to inform t$e reci/ient. T$eintention s$ould 0e to /rovide a reasoned and /ro%ressive ar%ument for t$e s)stem 0ein% /ro/osed.!an) customers #ill onl) $ave a /assin% 8no#led%e of CCTV. T$erefore1 avoid t$e use of trade =ar%onin an)t$in% ot$er t$an tec$nical s/ecifications #$ere it is necessar). 114. !ost com/anies #ill $ave t$eir o#n /referred la)out for /ro/osals. T$e follo#in% notes s$o# astructured a//roac$ t$at can 0e ad=usted to fit in #it$ an) cor/orate /resentation.Contractual ConsiderationsT$e /ro/osal #ill form t$e 0asis of a 0indin% contract 0et#een t$e installin% com/an) and t$e/urc$aser. It can 0e t$e com/an)Es defence or do#nfall if t$ere is a dis/ute. Ait$ t$e 0est #ill in t$e#orld dis/utes #ill $a//en. In t$e case of CCTV it is invaria0l) t$e @ualit) of /icture or scenes in vie#t$at cause t$e %reatest /ro0lems. It is e@uall) im/ortant to descri0e t$e dra#0ac8s as #ell as t$eadvanta%es of t$e s)stem. T$is ma) come across as ne%ative t$in8in% to t$e sales/erson 0ut it can 0eturned into a /ositive advanta%e. 2tatements of fact can increase t$e credi0ilit) of a com/an) andim/ress t$e customer #it$ t$eir et$ics. T$is is es/eciall) t$e case #$en t$e com/etitors $ave failed to/oint out t$e dra#0ac8s.' common comment from disa//ointed customers is t$at1 GI em/lo)ed )our Com/an) as an e3/ert1too8 )our advice and no# t$e s)stem does not do #$at I e3/ected.H T$is is often follo#ed 0) refusal to/a) t$e invoice. T$ere $ave 0een man) cases #$ere t$is is a smo8e screen 0ecause t$e) no# donEt$ave t$e mone) or are sim/l) 0ein% fraudulent. Fre@uentl) t$e com/laint is a%%ravated 0ecause it is aver) su0=ective =ud%ement. 2uc$ comments asB DI canEt read t$e num0er /lates and see t$e #$ole #idt$of t$e ",4metre entrance.E DI canEt see /eo/le directl) 0elo# t$e camera.E T$e c$a/ter on lenses madet$e /oint t$at man) customers e3/ect to see t$rou%$ a camera lens #$at t$e) see #it$ t$eir o#n e)es.T$erefore1 it is im/ortant to $ave laid out e3actl) #$at t$e s)stem #ill and #ill not do. T$e follo#in%$eadin%s illustrate a structured la)out for a /ro/osal.Contents ?f +ro/osalT$e /ro/osal is t$e main sellin% document t$at #ill 0e /resented to t$e customer. It is an o//ortunit) to/resent t$e com/an) as com/etent and /rofessional. >esides /rovidin% le%al /rotection1 it can/ersuade t$e customer to acce/t t$e /ro/osed s)stem as t$e 0est suited to t$eir needs. T$is is t$edocument t$at remains after t$e sales/erson $as left and is ma)0e for%otten. 'not$er t$ou%$t is t$atman) ot$er /eo/le #ill read t$e document t$an t$ose t$at met t$e sales/erson. T$erefore1 it s$ould

0eeas) to read and set out lo%icall).!an) com/anies no# use #ord /rocessors #it$ a series of standard /ara%ra/$s to construct a/resentation. T$is o0viousl) saves muc$ time and can im/rove t$e a//earance of a document.-o#ever1 it can also %ive t$e a//earance of 0ein% /roduced 0) a mac$ine and not a /erson. It is/ossi0le to devise a #ord4/rocessed document t$at is /ersonalised to eac$ customer and $is or $er/articular needs. For instance1 man) com/anies $ave a standard /ara%ra/$ descri0in% a /an1 tilt1 ;oom 11 . camera mounted on a #all 0rac8et #it$ a 1,I1 ;oom lens1 etc. T$is can often 0e a0out seven or morelines of descri/tion #it$in #$ic$ ma) 0e t$e location and field of vie#. In a s)stem #it$ si3teen cameras1t$is /ara%ra/$ ma) 0e re/eated si3teen times #it$ =ust minor c$an%es for eac$ location. T$is could ta8eu/ a0out five or si3 /a%es of re/etitive information and 0e ver) difficult to com/re$end. It ma) loo8im/ressive in volume 0ut not in communication. In t$ese and similar cases t$e camera locations andfields of vie# could 0e listed as one /art of t$e /ro/osal1 follo#ed 0) a se/arate detailed descri/tion oft$e e@ui/ment /ro/osed. T$is #ould 0e muc$ easier to read and com/re$end.T$ere s$ould 0e t$ree main com/onents in a /ro/osal.1. T$e #ritten /ro/osal and s/ecification.2. ' site dra#in% s$o#in% camera locations and fields of vie#1 t$e latter 0ein% descri0ed in moredetail #it$in t$e s/ecification.3. ' sc$ematic dia%ram of t$e s)stem.Terms ?f .eferenceT$is #ill contain a summar) of t$e invitation to tender and an) documentation and dra#in%s /rovided 0)t$e customer.2ite VisitsDetails of an) site visits made and t$e de%ree of information availa0le. 'lso1 state #$et$er furt$er visits#ill 0e necessar) to finalise site details in t$e event of a contract 0ein% /laced. ' @ualification ises/eciall) im/ortant $ere if a tender document includes dra#in%s and a descri/tion 0ut site visits arenot /ermitted.2ummar) of >riefT$is introductor) section s$ould descri0e t$e 0rief a%reed 0et#een t$e installin% com/an) and t$ecustomer. T$is #ill restate t$e overall o0=ective for t$e s)stem and an) @ualifications to it. T$estatements could 0e ta8en from t$e c$ec8list su%%ested in C$a/ter 2,. T$e /ur/ose of t$is section is toensure t$at 0ot$ /arties understand t$e reasons for t$e s/ecification t$at follo#s.T$ere #ill 0e instances #$ere t$e 0rief $as 0een /rovided 0) t$e customer #it$out /rior discussion. It isstill im/ortant to restate it1 as t$e 0asis for furt$er comments t$at #ill 0e made in t$e /ro/osal.Inter/retation of >riefT$ere #ill 0e occasions #$en furt$er considerations #ill $ave 0ecome 8no#n durin% desi%n of t$es)stem. T$ese could 0e limitations to desired fields of vie# or an e3tra camera needed1 etc. T$ese 11". s$ould 0e noted as an e3tension or restriction of t$e ori%inal 0rief. If comments are omitted t$en t$ecustomer can assume t$at t$e /ro/osal meets t$e 0rief in full. ' ma=or tra/ for t$e un#ar) is

adocument t$at contains a re@uirement t$at t$e s)stem #ill /rovide video recordin%s suita0le forevidential use. In t$ese cases1 it s$ould 0e /erfectl) acce/ta0le to include a @ualification alon% t$efollo#in% lines.:se of Video .ecordin%s for Evidential +ur/osesIt is not /ossi0le to state conclusivel) t$at all video recordin%s #ill 0e suita0le for evidential /ur/oses. Itde/ends u/on man) factors1 mainl) t$e distance t$e sus/ect is from t$e camera and t$e focal len%t$ oft$e lens. Li%$tin%1 @ualit) of t$e camera1 @ualit) of video ta/e and several ot$er factors all contri0ute to#$et$er a recordin% is suita0le for evidence. T$ere is also a difference 0et#een usin% a recordin% foridentification and for evidence. T$e rules of t$um0 for usin% video recordin%s are as follo#s. 6a7 To seet$at it is a D/ersonE rat$er t$an an animal or ot$er o0=ect re@uires t$at t$e su0=ect s$ould 0e at least 1,Mof t$e $ei%$t of t$e screen vie#. T$is onl) infers t$at it is a /erson 0ut #it$ no c$ance of identification.607 T$ere is a /ossi0ilit) of a su0=ect 0ein% identified if t$e) fill ,M of t$e screen and are familiar to t$evie#er. 6c7 To ac$ieve /ositive identification of an un8no#n /erson t$e) need to $ave t$eir $ead ands$oulders fill t$e screen.Ait$ t$e lenses fitted to t$e /ro/osed s)stem1 t$e /erson #ill need to 0e #it$in t$irt) to fift) metres tosee t$at it is a /erson de/endin% on t$e lens fitted. T$e) #ill need to 0e #it$in a0out ten to t#ent)metres to stand a c$ance of identification. T$erefore t$e cameras are %enerall) /ositioned so t$at a/erson is movin% to#ards t$em and at some /oint s$ould 0e of sufficient si;e on t$e screen to 0e ofvalue.Descri/tion of 2)stemT$is s$ould contain a summar) of t$e com/lete s)stem in /lain En%lis$. T$ere is no need at t$is sta%efor an) tec$nical s/ecification. It s$ould 0e as 0rief as /ossi0le1 sim/l) an outline of t$e main features.'n e3am/le could 0e as follo#s. T$e s)stem #ill consist of ei%$t e3ternal monoc$rome cameras. Five#ill 0e full) functional /an1 tilt1 ;oom. T$e ot$ers #ill 0e static units s$o#in% a fi3ed field of vie#. T$ecameras #ill 0e connected 0ac8 to a central control unit in t$e %ate$ouse. T$e main control #ill 0e amulti/le3in% unit t$at also contains t$e control of t$e /an1 tilt1 and ;oom functions. T$e multi/le3er/rovides t$e facilit) to almost simultaneousl) record all t$e cameras in t$e s)stem. T$ere #ill 0e t#omonoc$rome monitors1 one 1&H and one 12H.T$is t)/e of descri/tion is all t$at is necessar) at t$is sta%e. It sim/l) introduces t$e rest of t$e moredetailed s/ecifications. In t$e case of a lar%er1 more com/le3 s)stem1 it ma) 0e necessar) to /rovidesu0 $eadin%s to ma8e a more lo%ical descri/tion suc$ as. 11&. Descri/tion of 2)stem.4 2ite s)stem.4 !ain controls at site 1.4 2lave controls at site 2.4 !icro#ave lin8s.Desi%n ConsiderationsT$ere can 0e several different a//roac$es to t$e final desi%n of a s)stem1 #it$ different com/anies/uttin% for#ard t$eir o#n ideas. It is fre@uentl) useful to /rovide an e3/lanation outlinin% t$e reasonin%0e$ind t$e solution /ro/osed. T$is section #ill /ut t$e /ro/osed solution into

/ers/ective #it$ ot$er/ossi0le com/etin% s)stems. It also $el/s to =ustif) t$e /ro/osal com/ared to ot$er s)stems t$at ma)0e a lot less e3/ensive 0ut do not meet t$e critical o0=ectives. ?ne e3am/le #ould 0e #$ere t$e/ro/osed s)stem includes ca0le e@ualisin% am/lifiers 0ecause t$ere are lar%e variations in ca0le runs.Not all com/anies #ould consider t$is factor to 0e im/ortant1 and conse@uentl) su0mit a lo#er /rice.E3/lainin% t$e reasons for suc$ features can increase confidence in t$e /ro/osal and cast dou0t oncom/etin% su0missions.It is also an o//ortunit) to sell t$e advanta%es of certain ma8es of e@ui/ment #$ere t$ese are im/ortantto t$e final /erformance. For instance1 certain ma8es of camera or video motion detector ma) includefeatures t$at are not in ot$er ma8es.2c$edule ?f CamerasT$e essential information in t$is section is t$e location and field of vie# for eac$ camera. It ma) alsoinclude details of li%$tin% conditions if e3istin% li%$tin% is to 0e used. 's noted /reviousl) it is /referrednot to clutter t$is information #it$ tec$nical detail or =ar%on. It is still /art of descri0in% t$e s)stem to t$ecustomer in terms t$at ever)0od) #ill understand. T$e information #ould 0e ta8en from t$e sc$edule ofcamera locations /re/ared durin% t$e site surve) or /roduced 0) t$e customer. ' t)/ical s/ecificationma) 0e as follo#s.C'!E.' N?. 1 T)/e 'LocationI Corner 0rac8et 2. m $i%$ on corner of 0uildin% 3*.2cene to vie#I 2 metres eit$er side of entrance D'E. 11(. Ca0le distance to controlI * mDistance to vie#I 3,mAidt$ to vie#I 1 mLens focal len%t$I 12. mmLi%$t levels1 0elo# camera *.3 lu3K mid distance 1* lu3K furt$est distance .& lu3-ousin%I Aeat$er/roof #it$ $eaterT)/e of cameraI Fi3ed'n) ot$er relevant information s$ould 0e listed to ensure t$at t$ere is no room for dou0t as to e3actl)#$at is 0ein% su//lied. T$e details of li%$t levels #ould 0e a//ro/riate if e3istin% li%$tin% #ere to 0eusedB in #$ic$ case t$e /ro/osal ma) s/ecif) t$at t$e customer /rovides li%$t to a certain avera%elevel. If infrared li%$tin% #ere to 0e used t$en t$is information #ould not 0e re@uired.If t$e s)stem includes several t)/es of camera1 it is 0etter to sim/l) state t$e t)/e #it$ a se/arate list ofs/ecifications for eac$ t)/e.E@ui/ment 2/ecificationsT$e de%ree of s/ecification #ill var) 0et#een /ro/osals accordin% to t$e t)/e of customer. T$edescri/tions of e@ui/ment s$ould 0e s/ecific and informative. 'void /$rases suc$ as D$i%$ /erformance1lo# li%$t camera.E It is =ar%on and meanin%less in definin% a camera. A$et$er to state t$e ma8e of eac$item is a matter of individual /reference. T$ere are advanta%es #$ere t$e manufacturer is a $ouse$oldname and ins/ires confidence. ?n t$e ot$er $and1 #it$ t$e ra/id develo/ment in tec$nolo%) it ma) 0e 11*. considered 0etter to state t$e s/ecification and select t$e most a//ro/riate and com/etitive ma8e #$ent$e order is /laced. 2ome e3am/les of t)/ical s/ecifications follo#.22. Testin% and

Commissionin% 2)stemsIntroductionIt is assumed t$at an installation $as 0een com/leted accordin% to t$e s/ecification and t$e relevantre%ulations. It is also assumed t$at /re4assem0l) of all t$e s)stemEs com/onents #ill $ave 0een carriedout accordin% to t$e relevant manufacturersE instructions. T$e time $as arrived to test1 commission1 and$and over t$e s)stem to t$e customer. T$ere are four main as/ects to t$is final /$ase.9 Testin% individual com/onents to ensure t$at t$e) o/erate to t$e desi%n s/ecifications.9 Commissionin% all t$e com/onents to function as an inte%rated s)stem.9 Demonstratin% t$e s)stem and its o/eration to t$e customer.9 Trainin% o/erators in t$e use of t$e s)stem.Testin% Com/onents'lt$ou%$ most com/onents s$ould $ave 0een c$ec8ed and1 if necessar)1 /re4 assem0led 0eforedis/atc$ to site1 t$e final settin% u/ can onl) 0e carried out durin% installation. 'lt$ou%$ t$e de%ree ofsettin% u/ #ill var) accordin% to t$e si;e and com/le3it) of t$e s)stem1 t$ere #ill 0e certain /rocedures 12,. t$at #ill 0e common to most s)stems. T$e follo#in% is a ver) 0rief c$ec8list of some 8e) as/ects t$atneed attention.Cameras and LensesC$ec8 t$at t$e correct lens is fitted in line #it$ t$e s/ecification. 2et u/ t$e lens focus and 0ac8 focus oft$e camera. If automatic iris lenses are fitted1 ad=ust t$e /ea8Favera%e and level /otentiometers. C$ec8t$at t$e field of vie# is as re@uired. T$is #ill usuall) 0e ad=usted usin% a $and $eld test monitor. T$ere isalso availa0le a $and $eld focus ad=uster. If t$e camera $as to co/e #it$ a #ide ran%e of li%$tconditions1 fit a neutral densit) filter to set t$e focus at t$e ma3imum lens a/erture.If a ;oom lens is fitted1 c$ec8 t$at t$e scene remains in focus t$rou%$out t$e ;oom ran%e. If t$e focusc$an%es1 it ma) 0e necessar) to rec$ec8 t$e camera 0ac8 focus.TransmissionC$ec8 ever) video ca0le for continuit) and s$orts to eart$. ' common /ro0lem is D#$is8ersE of t$e0raidin% on a coa3ial ca0le touc$in% t$e core conductor. If t#isted /air transmission or video linecorrectors are fitted t$en t$e onl) correct #a) to set u/ t$e s)stem is usin% a /ulse 0ar %enerator.C$ec8 t$rou%$ ever) video line to ensure t$at all terminations are set correctl).2#itc$ersC$ec8 t$e d#ell time and se@uencin% of standard video s#itc$ers. In t$e case of matri3 s#itc$ers setu/ t$e d#ell times and se@uences for eac$ monitor. If t$ere is a masterFslave situation1 ensure t$at t$eunits are correctl) located #it$ t$e master control at t$e main control location. '%ain1 c$ec8 for correctterminations.Telemetr)C$ec8 t$at all functions are o/eratin% correctl) and t$at end sto/s are set as re@uired. !a8e sure t$att$e /an ri%$t and tilt do#n controls corres/ond to t$e ri%$t direction of movement. If /re4set /ositionsare incor/orated1 set t$em u/ accordin% to t$e manufacturersE instructions and to t$e s/ecified fields ofvie#.!ulti/le3ers2et t$e time1 date and camera titles. T$ere #ill

almost certainl) 0e o/tions to set u/ t$e variousmultiscreen dis/la)s. It is al#a)s necessar) to /ro%ram t$e multi/le3er accordin% to t$e video recorderin use. !ost multi/le3ers no# $ave an on screen list of current VC.s availa0le1 in #$ic$ case selectionis strai%$tfor#ard. If t$e VC. installed is not on t$is list t$en it #ill 0e necessar) to c$ec8 #it$ t$emulti/le3er manufacturer to esta0lis$ t$e correct settin%s. 121. Video .ecorders2ome s)stems are su//lied #it$ se/arate ta/es for eac$ da) of t$e #ee8 or mont$. Ensure t$at all t$eta/es and 0o3es are mar8ed accordin%l).'ll time la/se video recorders can dis/la) t$e time and date on t$e screen. If t$e recorder is t$e onl)s)stem com/onent t$at /rovides t$is information t$en set it to dis/la). If t$ere is a multi/le3er ors#itc$er t$at %enerates t$e information t$en set t$e recorder not to dis/la) and use t$e ot$ercom/onent for t$is function.Video !otion Detection'll video motion detection s)stems re@uire a %reat deal of time and care in settin% u/ if t$e) are tofunction efficientl) and not %enerate false alarms. In t$e case of e3ternal s)stems1 it #ill 0e essential tocarr) out t$e main /ro%rammin% at ni%$t under t$e #orst li%$tin% conditions. If t$e s)stem is installed int$e summer t$en it #ill al#a)s 0e advisa0le to return in t$e #inter to finalise t$e settin%s.Free 2/ace Transmission'll t)/es of free s/ace transmission s)stems need ri%id mountin%s #it$ correct 0rac8ets to allo#ali%nment. 'l#a)s use t$e manufacturersE ali%nment test instruments to o0tain t$e o/timum si%nalstren%t$. It is never /ossi0le to assess t$e si%nal sim/l) 0) o0servation of t$e /icture.Interfacin% Ait$ ?t$er 2)stemsIf t$e CCTV s)stem is 0ein% connected to anot$er s)stem it is advisa0le to $ave a re/resentative of t$ecom/an) #$ic$ installed t$at ot$er s)stem visit t$e site and a//rove t$e connections.Commissionin% t$e 2)stem?nce all t$e com/onents in an installation $ave 0een c$ec8ed and set u/ it is t$en necessar) tocommission t$e s)stem to function as set out in t$e s/ecification documents. T$is reall) meanso/eratin% t$e s)stem from t$e controls and ensurin% t$at ever) function and vie# is as ori%inall)desi%ned. T$ere #ill usuall) need to 0e some fine ad=ustments made to cameras1 lenses1 and an%les ofvie#1 etc. 't t$is sta%e1 a record s$ould 0e made of ever) camera and t$e scene in vie#. It is alsoadvisa0le to comment on t$e detail t$at can 0e seen at various distances from t$e camera.Commissionin% #ill often necessitate o/eratin% t$e s)stem t$rou%$ t$e ni%$t if a//ro/riate. +articularnote s$ould 0e made of t$e vie#s and focus of cameras usin% infrared illumination. T$ere ma) 0e areasof flare or dar8 /oc8ets t$at must 0e considered. It is not al#a)s eas) to /redict at t$e desi%n sta%e#$at t$e effect of infrared illumination #ill 0e. T$erefore1 durin% t$e commissionin% sta%e consideration 122. s$ould 0e %iven to reducin% or increasin% t$e /o#er of some of

t$e lam/s if t$e) are not /roducin% t$ee3/ected results.?/eration and !aintenance !anualA$en t$e s)stem is com/lete1 an o/eratin% and maintenance manual must 0e $anded over to t$ecustomer. T$is s$ould contain a co/) of t$e a%reed s/ecification and e@ui/ment sc$edule1 and #ill formt$e 0asis of t$e commissionin% /rocedures and tests to 0e carried out. T$e manual s$ould contain aco/) of all manufacturersE data and installation s/ecifications. T$e aim s$ould 0e to /rovide t$ecustomer #it$ sufficient information to 0e a0le to $ave t$e s)stem maintained 0) an) com/etentcom/an) in t$e future. T$e need to /roduce t$is manual s$ould 0e considered in t$e /rice @uoted fort$e s)stem in t$e first /lace. +roduced effectivel)1 t$e manual #ill re/resent a si%nificant cost t$ats$ould not 0e i%nored.'n im/ortant as/ect of commissionin% t$e s)stem #ill 0e to record all /ro%rammin% and e@ui/ment setu/ /rocedures t$at $ave 0een carried out. T$ese #ill need to 0e included in t$e final o/eration andmaintenance manual t$at #ill 0e $anded over on com/letion. T$ere ma) 0e suc$ items as t$e/ro%rammin% of multi/le3ers1 t$e /ro%rammin% of alarm $andlin%1 se@uences set u/ on matri3 s#itc$in%s)stems1 etc. T$ese s$ould 0e full) documented in t$e s)stem manual.'//endi3 1 4 5lossar) of CCTV terms2I1 INTE.L'CEI T$e /recise com0ination of t#o fields of 312 1F2 lines to create a sin%le frame of "2 lines. 6CCI.7'5CI 'utomatic %ain control4 electronic circuitr) to increase t$e video si%nal in lo# li%$t conditions. T$is 123. usuall) introduces noise in t$e /icture %ivin% a %rain) a//earance. Camera s/ecifications s$ouldal#a)s 0e considered #it$ '5C. off.'L'.! 'CTIV'TED VC.I From selectin% record1 a normal V.C... #ould ta8e from 1 to 21 seconds0efore it actuall) starts recordin% usa0le /ictures. Ait$ t$is t)/e of recorder it can 0e set so t$at t$eta/e is s/ooled u/ and read) to commence recordin% in a0out one second. T$e si%nal to %o intorecordin% can 0e from an alarm or an) ot$er in/ut.'L5?.IT-!I !at$ematics1 a rule or /rocedure for solvin% a /ro0lem'N'L?5:E 2I5N'LI In video1 t$e re/resentation of a camera scene 0) var)in% volta%es in t$e videosi%nal1 t$e volta%e 0ein% directl) /ro/ortional to t$e li%$t level.'+E.T:.EI T$e li%$t %at$erin% area of a lens. T$e iris controls t$e si;e of t$e a/erture.'.!?:.I E3tra /rotection for a ca0le t$at im/roves resistance to cuttin% and crus$in%. T$e mostcommon material used is steel.'2+ECT .'TI?I T$e ratio of t$e vertical to t$e $ori;ontal ima%e si;e. T$is is 3I4.'TTEN:'TI?NI ' term t$at refers to si%nal loss in a transmission s)stem or li%$t loss t$rou%$ a lenss)stem.':T?!'TIC I.I2I ' lens t$at automaticall) ad=usts to allo# t$e correct amount of li%$t to fall on t$eima%in% device. T$ere are a tin) motor and am/lifier 0uilt in #$ic$ %enerall) receives a control si%nalfrom t$e camera to maintain a constant one volt /ea8 to /ea8 6//7 video level. T$ere are t#o manualcontrols on t$e lens to allo#

com/ensation for var)in% conditions of /ea8 and avera%e li%$t.>'CP F?C:2I ' mec$anical ad=ustment in a camera t$at moves t$e ima%in% device relative to t$e 124. lens to com/ensate for different 0ac8 focal len%t$s of lenses. 'n im/ortant ad=ustment #$en a ;oomlens is fitted.>'L'NCED 2I5N'LI ' video si%nal converted to a 0alanced si%nal1 usuall) to ena0le it to 0etransmitted alon% a t#isted /air ca0le. :sed in situations #$ere t$e ca0lin% distance is too %reat and#$ic$ #ould /roduce unacce/ta0le losses in a coa3ial ca0le.>'NDAIDT-I T$e amount of s/ace in a %iven /art of t$e s/ectrum needed to carr) communicationsi%nals.>:FFE.I T$e material surroundin% t$e fi0re to /rotect it from /$)sical dama%e>L'NPIN5 +E.I?DI T$e /eriod of t$e com/osite video at 0lac8 level and 0elo# #$en t$e retraceoccurs1 ma8in% it invisi0le on t$e screen.>L'CP LEVELI T$e dar8 /arts of a video si%nal corres/ondin% to a//ro3imatel) ,.3 volts.>IF:.C'T?.I 'n ada/ter #it$ #$ic$ a loose tu0e containin% t#o o/tical fi0res can 0e s/lit into t#osin%le fi0re ca0les. 62ee loose tu0e7C4!?:NTI T$e standard scre# mountin% for 2F3K and 1K camera lenses. T$e distance from t$e flan%esurface to t$e focal /oint is 1&. 2" mm. ' C4mount lens can 0e used on a camera #it$ a C24 mount 0)addin% an ada/ter rin% to reduce t$is distance to 12. mm. 62ee C24mount 7C'>LE EX:'LI2E.I 'n am/lifier to increase a video si%nal to t$e o/timum value. T$is is usuall) tocom/ensate for ca0le losses.CCDI C$ar%e cou/led device1 a flat t$in #afer t$at is li%$t sensitive and forms t$e ima%in% device of 12 . most modern cameras. 2i;e is measured dia%onall) and can 0e 1F3K11F2K or 2F3K. T$ere are t#o t)/es1frame transfer and interline transfer.CCI.I T$e Euro/ean "2 line standard for t$e video si%nal.C-.?!' >:.2TI T$e reference si%nal included in t$e video si%nal after t$e $ori;ontal s)nc /ulse.T$is ena0les a colour monitor to loc8 on to a colour com/osite video si%nalC-.?!IN'NCEI T$e /art of a colour video si%nal t$at carries t$e colour information.CL'DDIN5I T$e outermost re%ion of an o/tical ca0le1 less dense t$an t$e central core. 'cts as ano/tical 0arrier to /revent transmitted li%$t lea8in% a#a) from t$e core.C?!+?2ITE VIDE?I T$e com/lete video si%nal com/risin% t$e s)nc and video information. T$e s)nc/ulse s$ould 0e .3 volts and t$e video si%nal s$ould 0e .& volts.C?.EI T$e central re%ion of an o/tical fi0re t$rou%$ #$ic$ si%nal carr)in% infrared is transmitted.!anufactured from $i%$ densit) silica %lass.C24!?:NTI ' ne# %eneration of lenses desi%ned for1 1F2K1 1F3K 1 1F4K and 1F(K cameras incor/oratin%C24mounts. T$e distance from t$e flan%e surface to t$e focal /oint is 12. mm. C24mount lensescannot 0e used on cameras #it$ C4mount confi%uration. T$ese lenses are more com/act and c$ea/ert$an t$e C4mount e@uivalents.d>I Deci0el1 a lo%arit$mic ratio 0et#een t#o si%nals.DE+T- ?F FIELDI T$e /ro/ortion of t$e field of

vie# t$at is in correct focus. T$e de/t$ of field in focusDEC.E'2E2 #$enI t$e focal len%t$ is lon%er1 t$e f num0er is smaller1 or t$e o0=ect distance is s$orter. 12". DE2PT?+ 2AITC-E.I ' device for s#itc$in% t$e video si%nal from several cameras to one or moremonitors. T$e ca0les from t$e cameras are connected to t$e 0ac8 of t$e unit.DI5IT'L 2I5N'LI 'n analo%ue si%nal t$at $as 0een converted to a di%ital form so t$at it can 0e/rocessed 0) a micro /rocessor.EI'I T$e 'merican 2 line standard for t$e video si%nal.f 2T?+I T$is is t$e ratio of t$e focal len%t$ to t$e effective diameter of t$e lens. 6fF'7. It is not a measureof t$e efficienc) or t$e transmission value of t$e lens. T$e smaller t$e f num0er t$e more li%$t is/assed.fcI Foot candles used in some :2' s/ecifications to define sensitivit). 1, fc is a//ro3. 1 lu3.FI>.E ?+TICI ' ver) efficient met$od of transmittin% video and telemetr) si%nals over ver) lon%distances usin% fi0re o/tic ca0le. 2i%nals can 0e multi/le3ed and sent alon% a sin%le fi0re.FIELD ?F VIEAI T$e relations$i/ 0et#een t$e an%le of vie# and t$e distance of t$e o0=ect from t$elens.FIELDI ?ne $alf of a frame consistin% of 312 1F2 lines1 , fields are created ever) second.FL'N5E >'CP LEN5T-I T$e distance from t$e 0ac8 flan%e of a lens to t$e sensor face. T$is is1&. 2"mm for C mount and 12. mm for C24mount lenses.F?C'L LEN5T-I T$e distance 0et#een t$e secondar) /rinci/al /oint in t$e lens and t$e /lane of t$eima%in% device. T$e lon%er t$e focal len%t$1 t$e narro#er is t$e an%le of vie#. 12&. F.'!E 2T?.EI 'n electronic met$od of ca/turin% and storin% a sin%le frame of video. 'll slo# scantransmitters include a frame store t$at $olds t$e /icture at t$e moment of alarm1 #$ile t$e control is0ein% dialled u/. A$en t$e lin8 is confirmed1 t$e /icture is transmitted.F.'!E T.'N2FE.I ' t)/e of CCD ima%in% device in #$ic$ t$e entire matri3 of /i3els is read intostora%e 0efore 0ein% /rocessed 0) t$e electronics of t$e camera.F.'!EI T$e com0ination of t#o interlaced fields1 2 frames are created ever) second.5'!!' C?..ECTI?NI 'n electronic correction carried out in t$e camera circuitr) to 0alance t$e0ri%$tness seen 0) t$e camera to t$at of t$e monitor.5EN L?CPI 'lso called e3ternal s)nc. ' se/arate coa3ial ca0le is run to eac$ camera and carries s)nc/ulse information to ensure t$at all cameras are /roducin% fields at e3actl) t$e same time. T$iseliminates /icture 0ounce durin% s#itc$in% and can im/rove @ualit) and u/date time in multi/le3ers.5.'DED INDEXI 65raded inde3 /rofile7. ' measurement s$o#n in t$e form of a dia%ram #$ic$illustrates $o# t$e @ualit) of %lass used in t$is t)/e of o/tical fi0re alters %raduall). From t$e densest att$e core to t$e o/ticall) less dense claddin%.5.?:ND L??+ T.'N2F?.!E.I 'n isolation transformer so t$at t$ere is no direct connection0et#een in/ut and out/ut.5.?:ND L??+I 'n 'C current t$at can 0e /roduced in a ca0le. T$is is usuall) caused 0) /arts of

t$es)stem 0ein% fed from different electrical sources resultin% in different eart$ /otentials at eac$ end. T$eresult is interference on t$e si%nal.-'.DAI.EDI Controllin% remote e@ui/ment 0) direct volta%e transmitted alon% a multicore ca0le from 12(. t$e main controller. T$is is ver) la0our intensive to install and is onl) used in sim/le s)stems #it$ s$ortca0le runs.-E.TN 6-;7I T$e num0er of variations or c)cles /er second.ILL:!IN'NCEI T$e measurement of li%$t in lumens /er s@uare metre1 t$e unit of #$ic$ is t$e lu3.I!+ED'NCEI ' measure of t$e total o//osition to current flo# in an alternatin% current circuit1measured in ?$ms.INF.' .ED LI5-TI T$e #avelen%t$ of li%$t /roduced a0ove t$e visi0le /art of t$e s/ectrum.INF.' .ED T.'N2!I22I?NI ' met$od of transmittin% video and telemetr) si%nals across free s/acealon% an infra red 0eam. T$is o/ens /ossi0ilities for usin% C.C.T.V. #$ere it $ad 0een /reviousl)im/ossi0le to run ca0les. Distance can 0e limited and t$e si%nal can 0e de%raded in adverse #eat$erconditions.INTE.LINE T.'N2FE.I 'not$er t)/e of CCD ima%in% device in #$ic$ t$e ro#s of c$ar%e are ste//eddo#n one at a time and /rocessed strai%$t a#a).INTE.N'L 2JNCI T$e internal %eneration of s)nc /ulses in a camera #it$out reference to e3ternalsources. T$is uses a cr)stal controlled oscillator and is needed on non mains /o#ered cameras.I+ .'TIN5I Inde3 of /rotection1 a num0er com0ination t$at defines t$e /rotection afforded from outsideinfluences 0) an enclosure.I.. 2-IFTI T$e difference in t$e field of vie# in focus 0et#een da)li%$t and infra red li%$t.