Sos 203

SOS 203
INTRODUCTION TO AGRO-CLIMATOLOGY
SOS 203
Course Code Course Title
SOS 203 Introduction to Agro-Cli !tolog"
Course #riter$De%elo&er S' D' Mus! De&t' o( Geogr&!)" *ogi St!te Uni%ersti" An"ig+! Course Coordin!tor Dr' N' ,' Mundi Sc)ool o( Science - Tec)nolog" N!tion!l O&en Uni%ersit" o( Nigeri! L!gos Dr' T' ,' Ologunoris! .ro(essor A' Ade+!n/o Sc)ool o( Science - Tec)nolog" N!tion!l O&en Uni%ersit" o( Nigeri! L!gos
Course ,ditor .rogr! e Le!der
'
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
ii
SOS 203
N!tion!l O&en Uni%ersit" o( Nigeri! 0e!d1u!ters 23$24 A) !du 5ello #!" 6ictori! Isl!nd L!gos A+u/! O((ice No' 7 D!r es S!l!! Street O(( A inu *!no Crescent #use II8 A+u/! Nigeri! ,- !il9 centr!lin(o:nou'edu'ng URL9 ;;;'nou'edu'ng .u+lis)ed +"9 N!tion!l O&en Uni%ersit" o( Nigeri! 200< =irst .rinted 200< IS5N9 >?<-07<-233-> All Rig)ts Reser%ed
iii
SOS 203
CONTENTS
PAGE
Module 1 1 Unit 2 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 3 Unit 7 T)e .rinci&les8 Ai s !nd Sco&e@@@@@'' ,le ents o( Cli !te !nd #e!t)er I @@@' ,le ents o( Cli !te !nd #e!t)er II@@@' D"n! ics o( ,!rt)As At os&)ere@@@@@ R!di!tion !nd 0e!ting o( t)e At os&)eric S"ste @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ 2-7 4-22 23-2< 2>-23 27-30 31
Module 2.. Unit 2 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 3 Unit 7
At os&)eric Moisture@@@@@@@@@ 32-34 T)e D"n! ics o( .ressure !nd #ind S"ste ''' 3?-30 Condens!tion !nd .reci&it!tion .rocess@@' 32-3< Se!son!l 6!ri!tions in Te &er!ture D!"lig)t8 R!di!tion@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ 3>-73 Se!son!l 6!ri!tions in R!in(!ll !nd ,%!&or!tion 77-40
Module 3. 61 Unit 2 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 3 Unit 7 ,1ui& ent !nd M!inten!nce o( ! St!nd!rd Meteorologic!l St!tion@@@@@@@'''''''' 42-4> Me!sure ent o( Air .ressure8 #ind S&eed8 #ind Direction8 R!di!tion !nd Suns)ine Dur!tion@' ?0-?? Me!sure ent o( ,%!&or!tion !nd ,%!&otr!ns&ir!tion !nd t)e M!inten!nce o( ! St!nd!rd Meteorologic!l St!tion@@@@@' ?<-<3 Cli !te !nd Agriculture in t)e Tro&ics I@'' <7->0 Cli !te !nd Agriculture in t)e Tro&ics II@' >2->?
i%
SOS 203
MODULE 1
Unit 2 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 3 Unit 7 T)e .rinci&les8 Ai s !nd Sco&e ,le ents o( Cli !te !nd #e!t)er I ,le ents o( Cli !te !nd #e!t)er II D"n! ics o( ,!rt)As At os&)ere R!di!tion !nd 0e!ting o( t)e At os&)eric S"ste
UNIT 1
CONTENTS 2'0 2'0 3'0 3'0 7'0 4'0 ?'0
PRINCIPLES, AIMS AND SCOPE OF CLIMATOLOGY
Introduction O+/ecti%es M!in Content 3'2 #e!t)er !nd Cli !te 3'2 .rinci&les !nd Sco&e o( Cli !tolog" Conclusion Su !r" Tutor- M!rBed Assign ent Re(erences$=urt)er Re!dings
1.
INTRODUCTION
T)e %!rious !cti%ities o( !n !re in(luenced in nu erous ;!"s +" t)e ;e!t)er' T)e stud" o( t)e ;e!t)er Cst!te o( t)e !t os&)ere !t ! gi%en ti e !nd &l!ceD is t)ere(ore !s !ncient !s !nAs curiosit" !+out )is en%iron ent' T)e ;!" !n li%es8 t)e !ir )e +re!t)es8 t)e (ood )e e!ts !nd t)e ;!ter )e drinBs !re !ll ;e!t)er rel!ted' #e!t)er &)eno en! ;!s t)oug)t to +e controlled +" t)e gods until !+out 300 5C ;)en 0i&&ocr!tes !nd Aristotle &u+lis)ed t)eir ;orBsE Air8 Waters and Places8 !nd Meteorological res&ecti%el"' T)e ;orBs re&resented t)e su o( Bno;ledge on ;e!t)er !nd cli !te !t t)!t ti e' Tr!dition!l cli !tolog" is &ri !ril" concerned ;it) descri+ing t)e distri+ution &!ttern o( ;e!t)er ele ents o%er s&!ce !nd ti e ;it)in !re!s r!nging in siFe (ro 2 or 2 B 2 to t)e ;)ole e!rt)' T)is descri&ti%e !&&ro!c) to t)e stud" o( ;e!t)er !nd cli !te )!s se%er!l de(iciencies ;)ic) led to isconce&tions !+out )o; !t os&)eric &rocesses o&er!te' Modern cli !tolog" )!s )o;e%er tried to re o%e t)ese de(iciencies' ,G&l!n!tion !nd descri&tion o( !t os&)eric &)eno en! is no; +eing e &)!sised' ,((orts !re no; +eing !de to underst!nd t)e &rocesses !nd inter!ctions t!Bing &l!ce ;it)in t)e !t os&)ere !nd !t t)e e!rt)As !t os&)ere inter(!ce' Modern cli !tolog" e erged (ro t)e c)!llenges
2
SOS 203
&osed +" t)e needs o( societ" !nd t)e i &ro%e ent in d!t! collection !nd !n!l"sis' T)is unit eG! ines t)e &rinci&les8 !i s !nd sco&e o( cli !tolog"'
2.
O!"ECTIVES
5" t)e end o( t)is unit8 "ou s)ould +e !+le to9 De(ine ;e!t)er !nd cli !teE De(ine cli !tolog"E Underst!nd t)e &rinci&les !nd !i s o( cli !tolog"E Underst!nd t)e sco&e o( cli !tolog"'
3. 3.1
MAIN CONTENT #e$%&e' $(d Cl)*$%e
#)en ;e t!lB !+out ;e!t)er8 ;e re(er to t)e st!te o( t)e !t os&)ere !t ! gi%en &oint in ti e !t ! gi%en &l!ce' #e!t)er is d"n! ic !nd )!s t)e ele ents o(9 !ir te &er!ture8 &ressure8 )u idit"8 clouds8 &reci&it!tion8 %isi+ilit" !nd ;ind' I( ;e e!sure !nd o+ser%e t)ese ;e!t)er ele ents o%er ! s&eci(ied &eriod o( ti e8 ;e ;ould o+t!in t)e !%er!ge ;e!t)er or t)e cli !te o( ! &!rticul!r &l!ce' Cli !te is t)ere(ore t)e !ccu ul!tion o( d!il" !nd se!son!l ;e!t)er e%ents o( ! gi%en loc!tion o%er ! &eriod o( 30-37 "e!rs' T)e conce&t o( cli !te is ore t)!n t)e !%er!ge ;e!t)er condition8 it !lso includes ;e!t)er e%ents8 consider!tions o( %!ri!+ilities Cde&!rture (ro !%er!gesD8 eGtre e conditions8 !nd t)e &ro+!+ilities o( (re1uencies o( occurrences o( gi%en ;e!t)er conditions' In su !r" t)ere(ore8 ;e!t)er de!ls ;it) t)e s&eci(ic ;)ile cli !te de!ls ;it) ! gener!lis!tion o( ;e!t)er e%ents'#e!t)er !nd cli !te &l!" ! !/or role in our li%es' #e!t)er (or eG! &le8 o(ten dict!tes t)e t"&e o( clot)ing ;e ;e!r8 ;)ile cli !te deter ines ;)!t t"&es o( cro&s c!n +e &l!nted !nd ;)en to &l!nt t)e cro&s' #e!t)er deter ines i( t)ese s! e cro&s ;ill gro; to !turit"' T)e ost i edi!te e((ect o( ;e!t)er !nd cli !te is on our co (ort' In order to sur%i%e t)e cold o( ;inter !nd t)e )e!t o( su er8 ;e +uild our )ouses8 )e!t t)e 8 cool t)e 8 onl" to (ind t)!t ;)en ;e le!%e our s)elter ;e !re !t t)e erc" o( t)e ;e!t)er ele ents' ,%en ;)en ;e !re &ro&erl" dressed (or t)e ;e!t)er8 ;ind8 )u idit" !nd &reci&it!tion c!n c)!nge our &erce&tion o( )o; cold or ;!r it (eels' On ! cold8 ;ind" d!" t)e e((ects o( ;ind c)ill tell us t)!t it (eels uc) colder t)!n it re!ll" is8 !nd i( not &ro&erl" dressed8 ;e run t)e risB o( c!tc)ing cold or de%elo&ing c!t!rr)' On ! )ot )u id d!" ;e nor !ll" (eel unco (ort!+l" ;!r !nd +l! e it on t)e )u idit" o( t)e ;e!t)er' I( ;e +eco e too ;!r our +odies o%er)e!t !nd )e!t eG)!ustion !" result'
2
SOS 203
2' 2'
0o; does ;e!t)er di((er (ro cli !teH Descri+e t)e role o( ;e!t)er !nd cli !te in our li%es'
3.2
P')(+),le- $(d S+o,e o. Cl)*$%olo/0
Cli !tolog" is t)e scienti(ic stud" o( cli !te' It de!ls ;it) t)e trend o( ;e!t)er o%er ! long &eriod o( ti e' ,ssenti!ll"8 cli !tolog" is !n !t os&)eric scienceE t)oug) closel" rel!ted +ut di((erent (ro eteorolog"8 it is t)e stud" o( t)e !t os&)ere !nd its &)eno en!' T)e di((erence +!sic!ll" is in t)e et)odolog" !do&ted' #)ere!s t)e eteorologist e &lo"s t)e l!;s o( cl!ssic!l &)"sics !nd !t)e !tic!l tec)ni1ues in t)e stud" o( !t os&)eric &rocesses8 t)e cli !tologist relies on st!tistic!l tec)ni1ues to deri%e in(or !tion !+out cli !te (ro ;e!t)er d!t!' LiBe cli !tolog"8 eteorolog" e +r!ces +ot) ;e!t)er !nd cli !te +ut ele ents o( eteorolog" ust o( necessit" +e incor&or!ted into cli !tolog" to !Be t)e l!ter e!ning(ul !nd scienti(ic' T)e !t os&)ere is not onl" d"n! ic +ut !lso co &leG8 !s e!rlier entioned8 t)ere(ore t)e !i o( cli !tolog" is to descri+e !nd eG&l!in t)e !t os&)eric &)eno en! ;it) ! %ie; to &ro oting ! +etter underst!nding o( t)e &rocesses !nd inter!ctions ;it)in t)e !t os&)ere !nd +et;een t)e !t os&)ere !nd t)e e!rt)As sur(!ce' Cli !tolog" )!s ! ;ide sco&e !nd it c!n +e su+di%ided eit)er on t)e +!sis o( t)e to&ics e &)!sised or on t)e sc!le o( t)e !t os&)eric &)eno en! t)!t !re e &)!sised' A"o!de C2003D identi(ied t)e siG to&ic!l su+di%ision o( cli !tolog" ! ong ot)ers !s (ollo;s9 2' 2' Region!l cli !tolog"9 It is t)e descri&tion o( cli !tes o%er selected !re!s o( t)e e!rt)' S"no&tic cli !tolog"9 It is t)e stud" o( t)e ;e!t)er !nd cli !te o%er !n !re! in rel!tion to t)e &!ttern o( t)e &er%!ding !t os&)eric circul!tion' S"no&tic cli !tolog" is t)us essenti!ll" ! ne; !&&ro!c) to region!l cli !tolog"' .)"sic!l cli !tolog"9 It in%ol%es in%estig!ting t)e +e)!%iour o( ;e!t)er ele ents or &rocesses in t)e !t os&)ere in ter s o( &)"sic!l &rinci&les' , &)!sis is on glo+!l energ" !nd ;!ter +!l!nce regi es o( t)e e!rt) !nd t)e !t os&)ere' D"n! ic cli !tolog"9 It &l!ces e &)!sis on t)e !t os&)eric otions on %!rious sc!les8 &!rticul!rl" t)e gener!l circul!tion o( t)e !t os&)ere' A&&lied cli !tolog"9 It is t)e !&&lic!tion o( cli !tologic!l Bno;ledge !nd &rinci&les to sol%ing &ro+le s (!cing !nBind' 0istoric!l cli !tolog"9 It is t)e stud" o( t)e de%elo& ent o( cli !te t)roug) ti e'
3
3'
3' 7' 4'
SOS 203
Se%er!l ot)er su+di%isions !re recognised in t)e liter!ture' T)ese !re8 (or inst!nce8 !gricultur!l cli !tolog"8 +iocli !tolog"8 +uilding cli !tolog"8 ur+!n cli !tolog"8 st!tistic!l cli !tolog"8 etc' T)ese su+di%isions c!n )o;e%er8 +e su+su ed under one or ore o( t)e siG su+di%isions recognised !+o%e' Agricultur!l cli !tolog"8 +iocli !tolog" !nd +uilding cli !tolog" !re8 (or eG! &le8 !s&ects o( !&&lied cli !tolog"' An !ltern!ti%e !&&ro!c) to t)e su+di%ision o( cli !tolog" is +!sed on sc!les o( eteorologic!l otion s"ste s CT!+le 2D' It ust +e e &)!sised8 )o;e%er8 t)!t t)e %!rious !t os&)eric &)eno en! r!nging (ro &l!net!r" ;!%es to loc!l ;ind s"ste s constitute ! single continuous s&ectru o( ;e!t)er s"ste s' Using t)e sc!l!r s"ste in T!+le 28 t)e (ollo;ing t)ree su+di%isions o( cli !tolog" c!n +e recognised' 2' 2' M!cro cli !tolog"9 It is concerned ;it) (e!tures o( cli !tes o( l!rge !re!s o( t)e e!rt) !nd t)e l!rge sc!le !t os&)eric otions t)!t c!use t)e cli !teE Meso cli !tolog"9 It is concerned ;it) t)e stud" o( cli !te o%er rel!ti%el" s !ll !re!s o( +et;een 20-200B !cross Ce'g' t)e stud" o( ur+!n cli !te or se%ere loc!l ;e!t)er s"ste s liBe torn!does !nd t)understor sDE !nd Microcli !tolog"9 It is concerned ;it) t)e stud" o( t)e cli !te close to t)e groundAs sur(!ce or %er" s !ll !re!s less t)!n 200 etres !cross' eteorologic!l otion s"ste s 6ertic!l Ti e sc!le sc!le CB D C)oursD
3'
T!+le 29 Sc!les o( Motion s"ste
0oriFont!l sc!le CB D
M!cro 1. Planetary waves 2. Synoptic Perturbations Meso sc!le .)eno en! Micro sc!le .)eno en! CSource9 A"o!de8 2003D 2' 2'
7 G 203 20 2G203 to 2 3 2 7G20 to 2G20 20 3G20 2 2- 20 20-2 -2 Less t)!n 20 2-20 Less t)!n 2-20 20-2 20-2 I 20-2
De(ine cli !tolog"' 0o; is it di((erent (ro ,G&l!in t)e sco&e o( cli !tolog"'
eteorolog"H
SOS 203
1.
CONCLUSION
T)e stud" o( cli !tolog" is essenti!ll" )inged on t)e Bno;ledge o( ;e!t)er !nd cli !te8 t)e &rocesses ;)ic) t!Be &l!ce in t)e !t os&)ere !t s&eci(ied ti es !nd &l!ces'
2.
SUMMARY
In t)is unit ;e )!%e le!rnt t)!t9 2' 2' 3' T)e !cti%ities o( !n !re in(luenced +" t)e ;e!t)erE #e!t)er is t)e st!te o( t)e !t os&)ere !t ! gi%en ti e !nd &l!ceE Cli !te is t)e !%er!ge ;e!t)er situ!tion o( ! &l!ce o%er ! &eriod o( 30-37 "e!rsE 3' Cli !tolog" is t)e scienti(ic stud" o( cli !teE 3' Meteorolog" is t)e stud" o( t)e !t os&)ere !nd its &)eno en!E 7' Cli !tolog" )!s ! ;ide sco&e !nd c!n +e su+di%ided into region!l8 s"no&tic8 &)"sic!l8 d"n! ic8 !&&lied !nd )istoric!l cli !tolog" ! ong ot)ers'
6.
TUTOR 3MAR4ED ASSIGNMENT
#it)out t)e !t os&)ere t)ere c!nnot +e cli !tolog"' Discuss t)e !+o%e st!ted !ssertion'
5.
REFERENCES6FURT7ER READINGS
A"o!de8 J'O' C2003D Introduction to Climatology for t e !ropics. I+!d!n9S&ectru 5ooBs Li ited' Don!ld A)ren C'C2>>3D' Meteorology !oday" An Introduction to Weat er# Climate and t e $nvironment C7t) edD' U'S'A9 #est .u+lis)ing Co &!n"'
SOS 203
UNIT 2
ELEMENTS AND CONTROLS OF CLIMATE AND #EAT7ER8 TEMPERATURE AND SOLAR RADIATION
CONTENTS 2'0 2'0 3'0 Introduction O+/ecti%es M!in Content 3'2 Te &er!ture 3'2'2 =!ctors In(luencing Te &er!ture 3'2'2 Cli !tic ,le ents 3'2 Sol!r R!di!tion 3'2'2 =!ctors o( Sol!r R!di!tion Conclusion Su !r" Tutor M!rBed Assign ent Re(erences$=urt)er Re!dings
3'0 7'0 4'0 ?'0
1.
INTRODUCTION
As e!rlier entioned8 li(e is de&endent on t)e !t os&)ere8 !nd t)ere ;ould +e no ;e!t)er !nd cli !te ;it)out t)e !t os&)ere' To collect %!rious d!t! on cli !te cert!in ele ents !re nor !ll" o+ser%ed !nd e!sured using ;e!t)er instru ents' T)ese ele ents include te &er!ture8 &reci&it!tion8 &ressure !nd ;inds8 sol!r r!di!tion8 cloud co%er !nd )u idit"' T)ese ele ents !nd t)eir s&!ti!l distri+ution !re controlled +" one or !ll t)e cli !tic (!ctors CcontrolsD9 l!titude8 !ltitude8 continent!lit"8 oce!n currents8 insol!tion8 &re%!iling ;inds8 n!tur!l %eget!tion !nd soil' T)e c)!r!cteristics o( sol!r r!di!tion !nd te &er!ture !nd t)eir control ;ill +e discussed in t)is unit'
2.
O!"ECTIVES
5" t)e end o( t)is unit8 "ou s)ould +e !+le to9 *no; t)e c)!r!cteristics o( t)e %!rious cli !tic ele ents8 &!rticul!rl" te &er!ture !nd sol!r r!di!tion' Underst!nd t)e e((ects o( cli !tic (!ctors on t)e te &er!ture !nd sol!r r!di!tion !nd )o; so e cli !tic ele ents in(luence ot)er ele ents'
SOS 203
3. 3.1
MAIN CONTENT Te*,e'$%u'e
T)e !in source o( t)e energ" (or t)e e!rt)-!t os&)ere s"ste is t)e sol!r r!di!tion' It is !+sor+ed +" eit)er t)e e!rt) or t)e !t os&)ere !nd &!rtl" con%erted into sensi+le )e!t or ot)er (or s o( energ"' T)e degree o( sensi+le )e!t gener!ted re&resents ;)!t is Bno;n !s te &er!ture' Te &er!ture is t)us de(ined !s t)e degree o( )otness or coldness'
3.1.1 F$+%o'- I(.lue(+)(/ Te*,e'$%u'e

T)e !in c!tegories o( (!ctors in(luencing te &er!ture c)!r!cteristics o( ! &!rticul!r sur(!ce !re cli !tic ele ents !cting !s (!ctors' Suc) ele ents include sol!r r!di!tion8 net r!di!tion8 e%!&or!tion8 ;inds8 )u idit" !nd cloud co%er' Non-cli !tic ele ents include t"&e o( sur(!ce8 l!titude !nd continent!lit"'
3.1.2 Cl)*$%)+ Ele*e(%Sol$' $(d Ne% R$d)$%)o( Te &er!tures !re su+st!nti!ll" !((ected +" t)e ! ount o( sol!r or net r!di!tion !%!il!+le on ! &!rticul!r sur(!ce' Te &er!tures !re &!rticul!rl" )ig)er during su er t)!n during ;inter se!son +ec!use o( t)e )ig)er insol!tion recei%ed during su er' During ! d!il" c"cle8 on ! sunn" d!"8 te &er!tures !re )ig)est in t)e !(ternoons ;)en %!lues o( sol!r r!di!tion !nd conse1uentl" net r!di!tion !re )ig)est' Cloud Co9e' Cloud co%er is !not)er cli !tic ele ent t)!t signi(ic!ntl" in(luences t)e &enetr!tion o( sol!r r!di!tion' #it) cloud co%er8 t)e ! ount o( sol!r energ" recei%ed or !+sor+ed !t ! &!rticul!r sur(!ce is reduced' In turn t)is reduces te &er!tures !t t)e sur(!ce !Bing it lo;er t)!n ;)!t ;ould +e i( t)e sBies ;ere cloudless' T)is (!ctor8 (or eG! &le in &!rt !ccounts (or t)e lo;er te &er!tures in t)e )u id !re!s ;it) ! lot o( clouds co &!red ;it) t)e !rid !re!s ;it) little or no cloud co%er' T)e e((ect o( cloud co%er )o;e%er8 !lso o&er!tes in re%erse8 since it ser%es to ret!in uc) o( t)e )e!t t)!t ;ould ot)er;ise +e lost (ro t)e e!rt)As sur(!ce +" r!di!tion (ro ! &!rticul!r sur(!ce t)roug)out t)e d!" or nig)t CGreen)ouse e((ectD' T)e e((ects o( cloud co%er lessen t)e diurn!l te &er!ture r!nges +" &re%enting )ig) !Gi ! +" d!" !nd lo; ini ! +" nig)t' T)is is usu!ll" t)e situ!tion in t)e )u id !re!s o( t)e tro&ic!l
SOS 203
r!in (orests o( #est A(ric!8 co &!red ;it) t)e !rid !re!s suc) !s in t)e S!)!r! Deserts ;)ere t)e r!nges o( te &er!tures !re !l;!"s )ig)'
3.1.3 No(3Cl)*$%)+ Ele*e(%T0,e- o. Su'.$+e6!rious t"&es o( sur(!ces re!ct di((erentl" to sol!r r!di!tion incidence in ter s o( re(lection8 !+sor&tion8 !nd tr!ns ission !nd t)is !ccounts (or t)e %!ri!tion in )e!ting &otenti!ls' 6eget!tion sur(!ce9 !((ect t)e ! ount conse1uentl" t)e ! )e!t is lost t)roug) e%!&otr!ns&ir!tion e%!&otr!ns&ir!tion' 5ot) t)e re(lecti%it" !nd tr!ns ission coe((icient o( sol!r r!di!tion o%er %eget!ted sur(!ces !nd ount o( sensi+le )e!t gener!ted' Also8 &!rt o( t)e e%!&or!tion !nd tr!ns&ir!tion' Sur(!ces ;it) )ig) )e!t ore slo;l" t)!n sur(!ces ;it) less
L!nd !nd ;!ter sur(!ce9 Alt)oug) t)e )e!ting &ro&erties o( t)e !n" Binds o( l!nd !nd %eget!ted sur(!ces %!r" consider!+l"8 t)e gre!test contr!sts !re t)ose +et;een l!nd !nd ;!ter sur(!ces8 ;)ic) re!ct so di((erentl" to sol!r r!di!tion' T)e sur(!ces o( rel!ti%el" dee& +odies o( ;!ter )e!t !nd cool slo;l" co &!red ;it) l!nd sur(!ces' T)e ost i &ort!nt re!son (or t)is slo;ness o( te &er!ture c)!nge is t)!t in ;!ter8 ! )ig)l" o+ile !tter8 redistri+ution o( )e!t occurs !inl" t)roug) tur+ulence' In contr!st to t)is ediu o( )e!t distri+ution8 )e!t in t)e solid e!rt) is distri+uted +" olecul!r )e!t conduction8 !nd so &roceeds +" o%ing (ro &!rticle to &!rticle' In ;!ter8 on t)e ot)er )!nd oce!n currents8 ;!%es8 tides !nd con%ention!l o%erturning s"ste s )el& dis&ersed to !+sor+ed sol!r energ" t)roug)out ! l!rge !ss o( ;!ter' 5ec!use t)ere is no suc) iGing on l!nd8 !nd !ssu ing t)!t e1u!l ! ount o( energ" (!ll on +ot) sur(!ces8 ;!ter sur(!ces ;ould )e!t u& ore slo;l" !nd )!%e lo;er te &er!tures t)!n l!nd sur(!ces' L!titude9As ! result o( t)e e!rt)As inclin!tion8 t)e idd!" sun is !l ost o%er)e!d ;it)in t)e tro&ics +ut t)e sunAs r!"s re!c) t)e e!rt) !t !n !ngle outside t)e tro&ics' T)us t)ere is ! decre!se in te &er!ture (ro t)e e1u!tori!l regions to t)e &oles' T)is is illustr!ted in =igure 2' 5!nd R2 (!lls %ertic!ll" o%er t)e e1u!tori!l l!titudes on sur(!ce ,' 5!nd R2 (!lls o+li1uel" o%er t)e te &er!te l!titudes on sur(!ce T' R2 tr!%els t)roug) ! s)orter dist!nce !nd its concentr!ted sol!r insol!tion )e!ts u& ! s !ller sur(!ce !re!E te &er!ture is t)us )ig)' On t)e ot)er )!nd8 R2 tr!%els t)roug) ! longer dist!nce !nd uc) o( its )e!t is !+sor+ed +" clouds8 ;!ter %!&our !nd dust &!rticles' Its o+li1ue r!"s )!%e to )e!t u& ! l!rger !re!E te &er!ture is t)ere(ore lo;'
<
SOS 203
F)/u'e 18 V$'0)(/ d)-%$(+e )( %&e d)-%'):u%)o( o. )(-ol$%)o( Co(%)(e(%$l)%0 ;D)-%$(+e .'o* %&e Se$< Continent!lit" Cor dist!nce (ro t)e se!D is !not)er (!ctor ;)ic) !((ects t)e c)!r!cteristics o( te &er!ture in ti e !nd s&!ce' =or eG! &le8 ne!r t)e oce!n or ;!ter sur(!ce8 d!il" te &er!ture eGtre es !re s !ller t)!n ;it)in t)e continent!l !re!s' Moreo%er8 t)e %!ri!+ilit" o( te &er!ture is gre!ter in !re!s (!r !;!" (ro t)e se! t)!n !long t)e co!st!l !re!s' T)us !Gi u te &er!tures !re )ig)er !nd ini u te &er!tures !re lo;er o%er continent!l cli !tes t)!n in oce!nic or !rine cli !tes'
3.2
Sol$' R$d)$%)o(
Li(e de&ends su+st!nti!ll" on sol!r r!di!tion +ec!use !ll &)"sic!l !nd +iologic!l &rocesses t!Bing &l!ce on t)e e!rt)As sur(!ce or in t)e !t os&)ere in%ol%e so e (or o( energ" tr!ns(er' Sol!r r!di!tion is !lso ! !/or re1uire ent (or ot)er &rocesses rel!ted to ;!ter8 l!nd8 soil8 %eget!tion !nd !ni !ls' T)e sun &ro%ides o%er >> &er cent o( t)e )e!t energ" re1uired (or t)e &)"sic!l &rocesses t!Bing &l!ce in t)e e!rt) I t)e !t os&)eric s"ste ' As t)e sun r!di!tes its energ"8 t)e ! ount recei%ed !t t)e outer +ound!r" o( t)e e!rt)As !t os&)ere8 !t nor !l incidence !nd !t e!n dist!nce +et;een t)e e!rt) !nd t)e sun is Bno;n !s t)e sol!r const!nt' T)e %!lue o( t)is const!nt is 2 l!ngle"Cl"D'
>
SOS 203
3.2.1 F$+%o'- o. Sol$' R$d)$%)o(

Sol$' I(,u% T)e sol!r const!nt8 ;)ic) is t)e +!sic ! ount o( sol!r in&ut8 is ! !/or (!ctor o( sol!r r!di!tion recei%ed +" t)e e!rt)As sur(!ce8 outside t)e !t os&)ere' In gener!l t)e ! ount o( sol!r r!di!tion recei%ed outside t)e !t os&)ere !lso de&ends on ! nu +er o( ot)er (!ctors8 ;)ic) include sol!r !ltitude !nd t)e dur!tion o( sol!r energ" Clengt) o( d!"D' Sol$' Al%)%ude T)e !ltitude o( t)e sun C!ngle +et;een t)e r!"s o( t)e sun !nd !t t!ngent to t)e e!rt)As sur(!ce !t ! &oint o( o+ser%!tionD is !n i &ort!nt (!ctor ;)ic) !((ects t)e ! ount o( insol!tion recei%ed !t t)e e!rt)As sur(!ce' It de&ends on t)e ti e o( t)e d!"8 t)e l!titude o( t)e loc!tion !nd t)e ti e o( t)e "e!r CsessionD' #)en t)e sunAs !ltitude is gre!t8 t)e sol!r r!di!tion intensit" &er unit !re! is )ig)l" concentr!ted !t t)e e!rt)As sur(!ce C=ig' 2D' (or eG! &le !t noon8 t)e intensit" o( insol!tion is gre!test8 +ut in t)e orning !nd e%ening )ours ;)en t)e sun is !t ! lo; !ngle8 t)e ! ount o( insol!tion is s !ll' T)e s! e &rinci&le )!s ! +ro!der !&&lic!tion ;it) res&ect to l!titude !nd t)e se!sons' In ;inter !nd !t )ig) l!titudes e%en t)e noon sunAs !ngle is lo;' In su er !nd !t lo; l!titudes8 it is ore ne!rl" %ertic!l !nd t)e o+li1ue r!"s o( t)e lo; !ngle sun !re s&re!d o%er ! gre!ter sur(!ce t)!n !re %ertic!l r!"s8 t)us less )e!ting &er unit !re!s is &roduced +" t)e lo;-!ngle sun'
F)/. 28 Su(=- A(/le T)e !ngle !t ;)ic) t)e sol!r r!di!tion striBes t)e e!rt)As sur(!ce )o;e%er8 !lso de&ends u&on t)e sur(!ce con(igur!tion o( t)e l!nd' =or eG! &le8 in t)e iddle !nd )ig) l!titudes o( t)e nort)ern )e is&)ere8 sout)ern slo&es recei%e ore direct r!"s ;)ile nort)ern slo&es !" +e
20
SOS 203
entirel" in t)e s)!de' Also t)e &ossi+le )ours o( suns)ine in ! dee& %!lle" !" +e gre!tl" reduced +" surrounding )ills' T&e Le(/%& o. D$0 T)e longer t)e ti e o( d!" during ;)ic) t)e sun s)ines8 t)e gre!ter t)e 1u!ntit" o( r!di!tion ;)ic) ! gi%en &ortion o( t)e e!rt) ;ill +e !+le to recei%e' T!+le 2 s)o;s t)e l!titudin!l %!ri!tions o( suns)ine )ours during t)e solstices !nd t)e e1uinoGes' Note t)!t t)ere !re s)orter d!"s during ;inter solstice o( e%er" l!titude to t)e nort) or sout) o( t)e e1u!tor' During e1uinoGes t)e lengt) o( d!"s !nd nig)ts !re e1u!l (or e!c) l!titude' Also note t)!t t)ere !re siG ont)s o( d!"lig)t )ours during t)e su er solstice !t t)e &ole !nd Fero )ours o( d!"lig)t )ours CsiG ont)s o( d!rBnessD during t)e ;inter solstice' T)e %!ri!tion in t)e lengt) o( d!" is !s ! result o( t)e re%olution o( t)e e!rt) !round t)e sun !nd its rot!tion on its !Gis' #)ere!s t)e e!rt)As rot!tion on its o;n !Gis c!uses d!" !nd nig)t8 its or+it round t)e sun eG&l!ins t)e se!sons' A co &lete rot!tion t!Bes 23 )ours resulting in t)e !ltern!tion o( d!" !nd nig)t8 ;)ile ! co &lete re%olution t!Bes 347 K d!"s !t ! %!ri!+le s&eed ;)ic) !%er!ges !+out 24B &er second' T)e e((ect o( t)e !t os&)ere slig)tl" !((ects t)e r!di!tion recei%ed on t)e e!rt)As sur(!ce' T)e !t os&)ere !+sor+s8 re(lects8 sc!tters !nd rer!di!tes sol!r energ"' A ong t)e !t os&)eric constituents in%ol%ed in t)e !+sor&tion !re ;!ter %!&our8 li1uid ;!ter c!r+on dioGide !nd oFone' .!rt o( t)e inco ing sol!r r!di!tion is !lso sc!ttered or re(lected +!cB to s&!ce' A+out <0L o( t)e inco ing sol!r r!di!tions !re re(lected +" cloudsE clouds !re &o;er(ul re(lectors o( s)ort;!%e r!di!tion' T!+le 2 L!titudin!l %!ri!tions o( suns)ine )ours L!titude >0o <0o ?0o 40o 70o 30o 30o 20o 20o 0o #inter Solstice 6ern!l or ,1uinoG 22 )ours 0 22 )ours 0 22 )ours 0 22 )ours 0 22 )ours 0 22 )ours 0 22 )ours 0 22 )ours 0 22 )ours 0 22 )ours 0 Autu !l Su er Solstice in 4 ont)s in 3 ont)s in 2 ont)s in 2< )ours 2? in in 24 )ours 2< in in 23 )ours 72 in in 23 )ours 74 in in 23 )ours 22 in in 22 )ours 3< in in 22 )ours o in
0 0 0 7 )ours 33 in ? )ours 32 in > )ours < in 20 )ours 3 in 20 )ours 3< in 22 )ours 27 in 22 )ours 0 in CSource9 O/o8 2>??D
22
SOS 203
1.
CONCLUSION
T)e s&!ti!l distri+utions o( cli !tic ele ents !re not onl" !((ected +" (!ctors o( cli !te +ut !lso +" ot)er cli !tic ele ents'
2.
SUMMARY
In t)is unit8 ;e )!%e le!rnt t)!t9 2'' 2'' 3'' T)e !in source o( energ" in t)e !t os&)eric s"ste is sol!r r!di!tion Te &er!ture8 t)e degree o( )otness or coldness8 is in(luenced +" cli !tic !nd non cli !tic ele ents' Sol!r in&ut8 sol!r !ltitude !nd t)e lengt) o( d!" !re so e o( t)e (!ctors ;)ic) !((ect sol!r r!di!tion'
6.
TUTOR3 MAR4ED ASSIGNMENT
,G&l!in t)e %!rious (!ctors in(luencing te &er!ture !s !n ele ent o( cli !te'
5.
Areol!8 O' et al C2>>2D' Certificate P ysical and %uman &eograp y for Senior Secondary Sc ools' I+!d!n9Uni%ersit" .ress .lc' O/o8O' C2>??D' ! e Climates of West Africa. I+!d!n90eine !nn ,duc!tion!l 5ooBs' O/o8O'et al C2002D' 'undamentals Climatology' Sedec .u+lis)ers' of P ysical and (ynamic
22
SOS 203
UNIT 3
ELEMENTS AND CONTROL OF CLIMATE AND #EAT7ER8 PRECIPITATION AND PRESSURE AND #INDS
CONTENTS 2'0 2'0 3'0 Introduction O+/ecti%es M!in Content 3'2 .reci&it!tion 3'2'2 =or s o( Condens!tion 3'2'2 =or s o( .reci&it!tion 3'2 .ressure !nd #inds Conclusion Su !r" Tutor- M!rBed Assign ent Re(erences$=urt)er Re!dings
3'0 7'0 4'0 ?'0
1.
INTRODUCTION
.reci&it!tion8 &ressure !nd ;ind !re so e o( t)e cli !tic ele ents t)!t )!%e su+st!nti!l in(luence on ;e!t)er !nd cli !te' T)e" !re e1u!ll" !((ected +" t)e cli !tic (!ctors e!rlier entioned'
2.
O!"ECTIVES
5" t)e end o( t)is unit8 "ou s)ould +e !+le to9 *no; t)e c)!r!cteristics !nd (or s o( &reci&it!tion Recognise t)e %!rious (or s o( condens!tion !nd t"&es o( clouds De(ine !t os&)eric &ressure !nd ;ind'
3. 3.1
MAIN CONTENT P'e+),)%$%)o(
.reci&it!tion is usu!ll" in li1uid or solid (or ' T)e co on &reci&it!tion (or s include r!in8 driFFle8 sno;8 sleet !nd )!il' T)e" !re !l;!"s &receded +" condens!tion or su+li !tion or ! co +in!tion o( t)e t;o' Let us no; looB !t +ot) (or s o( condens!tion !nd &reci&it!tion
3.1.1 Fo'*- o. Co(de(-$%)o(

T)e !Gi u c!&!cit" o( !ir (or )olding oisture !" +e re!c)ed i( ! &!rcel o( !ir is cooled !t const!nt &ressure' T)us8 t)e s!tur!tion &oint c!n
23
SOS 203
+e re!c)ed !t ! &!rticul!r te &er!ture8 e%en i( t)e ! ount o( t)e oisture content in it )!s not c)!nged' Also t)e critic!l te &er!ture !t ;)ic) s!tur!tion %!&our &ressure is re!c)ed is Bno;n !s t)e de; &oint te &er!ture8 ;)ic) !" +e de(ined !s t)e te &er!ture !t ;)ic) t)e 1u!ntit" o( ;!ter %!&our in t)e !ir re&resents t)e !Gi u )olding c!&!cit" o( t)e !ir !t t)!t te &er!ture' =urt)er cooling +e"ond de; &oint results in condens!tion eit)er in (or o( ;!ter i( te &er!ture is !+o%e 0oc or8 ice i( it is +elo; 0oc' T)us i( t)e !ir is cooled +elo; t)e de; &oint8 t)en t)e eGcess o( ;!ter %!&our o%er ;)!t t)e !ir c!n )old !t t)!t te &er!ture is gi%en o(( in t)e (or o( ;!ter or ice' In t)is reg!rd8 condens!tion )!s t!Ben &l!ce' T)e !in (or s o( condens!tion include de;8 (rost8 (ogs !nd cloud' De> De; is co onl" (or ed on cle!r c!l nig)ts ;)en r!&id r!di!tion reduces t)e te &er!ture o( t)e !ir in cont!ct ;it) t)e ground' #)en t)is l!"er o( !ir is cooled su((icientl" +ut !t ! te &er!ture !+o%e Ooc8 condens!tion o( ;!ter %!&our occurs !s de; on t)e ground' F'o-% =rost !" +e (or ed +" ! r!&id r!di!tion (ro ground sur(!ces !t nig)t ;)en t)e de; &oint o( t)e !ir is +elo; Ooc' As ! result t)e ;!ter %!&our condenses !s ice cr"st!ls on t)e sur(!ce in (or o( )o!r (rost'#)en ;!r oist !ir8 (ro ;)ic) lig)t r!in is (!lling &!sses o%er l!nd sur(!ces ;it) ! te &er!ture ;ell +elo; (reeFing &oint8 gl!Fed (rost results' T)e r!in8 on re!c)ing t)e %er" cold ground8 i edi!tel" turns to ice' Fo/ =og is t)e result o( t)e condens!tion o( ;!ter %!&our ne!r t)e ground Cor o%er t)e se!D on to icrosco&ic &!rticles o( dirt !nd dust in t)e !ir' =og !" +e di%ided into t;o c!tegories9 C2D R!di!tion (og8 C2D Ad%ection (og' R!di!tion =og9 T)is is ! (e!ture o( ;inter t)e conditions necess!r" (or t)e (or !tion !re cold ;e!t)er ;it) cle!r sBies !nd c!l conditions' T)e sBies !llo; r!di!tion o( )e!t !;!" (ro t)e e!rt) into t)e !t os&)ere8 t)us cooling t)e !ir in cont!ct ;it) t)e ground' T)e c!l conditions Bee& t)e !ir in cont!ct ;it) t)e ground long enoug) to !llo; it to +e cooled su((icientl"' T)e (og is (or ed ;)en t)e !ir )!s +een cooled to its de; &oint' T)e dirtier t)e !ir8 t)e t)icBer t)e (og' Indeed industri!l
23
SOS 203
regions8 ;it) t)eir s oB" !t os&)eres8 !re Bno;n (or t)eir dense s oB" (og Cs ogD' T)e ;!r t) o( t)e sun usu!ll" dis&erses t)e (og +e(ore idd!"8 +ut i( sBies !re o%erc!st it !" &ersist (or d!"s' Ad%ection =og9 T)e ;ord !d%ection i &lies ! )oriFont!l o%e ent o( !ir' I( ;!r oist !ir &!sses o%er %er" cold l!nd or o%er se! sur(!ces8 t)en cooling o( t)e lo;er l!"ers o( t)e ;!r !ir !" result in condens!tion !nd t)e (or !tion o( (og' In #est A(ric!8 !d%ection (ogs !re ost co on o%er t)e oce!ns8 es&eci!ll" o%er cool currents' So eti es8 t)e ter se! (og is used ;)en (ogs result (ro t)e o%e ent o( ;!r 8 oist !ir o%er suc) cold ;!ters' CloudClouds !re (or s o( condens!tion8 (or ed ;)en !ir is o%ed !;!" (ro t)e l!nd ;!ter sur(!ce' In &!rticul!r8 ost clouds !re condens!tion (or s ;)ic) )!%e resulted (ro ! li(ting &rocess !;!" (ro t)e sur(!ce' T)ose !ssoci!ted ;it) strong rising !ir currents )!%e %ertic!l de%elo& ent !nd ! &u((" !&&e!r!nce' T)ose resulting (ro ! gentle li(ting or ot)er et)ods o( cooling tend to s&re!d into l!"ers' T)us t)e et)od o( t)eir (or !tion is l!rgel" !ccount!+le (or t)eir !&&e!r!nce' Clouds !re cl!ssi(ied on t)e +!sis o( t)eir )eig)t8 gener!l !&&e!r!nce !nd ;)et)er t)e" !re co &osed o( ;!ter dro&lets or ice cr"st!ls' =our !/or cloud t"&es !nd t)eir %!ri!tions c!n +e recognised' 2'' 0ig) Clouds9 M!inl" cirrus 4200-228200 !+o%e ground' !' CciD o( (e!t)er" (or !t
2'
3'
Cirrus CciD' T)is looBs (i+rous !nd !&&e!rs liBe ;is&s in t)e +lue sB"E it is o(ten c!lled M;!resN t!ils' It indic!tes (!ir ;e!t)er8 !nd o(ten gi%es ! +rilli!nt sunset' +' Cirrocu ulus CCcD' T)is !&&e!rs !s ;)ite glo+ul!r !sses8 (or ing ri&&les in ! M !cBerel sB"N' c' Cirrostr!tus CCsD' T)is rese +les ! t)in ;)ite s)eet or %eilE t)e sB" looBs ilB" !nd t)e sun or oon s)ines t)roug) it ;it) ! c)!r!cteristic )!lo' Middle Clouds9 M!inl" !lto CAltD or iddle )eig)t clouds !t 2200-4000 ' d' Altocu ulus CAcD' T)ese !re ;ool"8 +u &" clouds !rr!nged in l!"ers !nd !&&e!ring liBe ;!%es in t)e +lue sB"' T)e" nor !ll" indic!te (ine ;e!t)er' e' Alto str!tus CAsD' T)ese !re denser8 gr!"is) clouds ;it) ! M;!ter"N looB' T)e" )!%e ! (i+rous or stri!ted structure t)roug) ;)ic) t)e sunAs r!"s s)ine (!intl"' Lo; Clouds9 M!inl" str!tus or s)eet clouds +elo; 2200 '
27
SOS 203
(' g'
)' 3' i'
/'
Str!tocu ulus CScD' T)is is ! roug)8 +u &" cloud ;it) t)e ;!%es ore &ronounced t)!n in !ltocu ulus' T)ere is ! gre!t contr!st +et;een t)e +rig)t !nd s)!ded &!rts' Str!tus CStD' T)is is ! %er" lo; cloud8 uni(or l" gre" !nd t)icB8 ;)ic) !&&e!rs liBe ! lo; ceiling or )ig)l!nd (og' It +rings dull ;e!t)er ;it) ! lig)t driFFle' It reduces %isi+ilit" o( !ircr!(t !nd is t)us ! d!nger' Ni +o str!tus CNsD' T)is is ! d!rB dull cloud cle!rl" l!"ered !nd is !lso Bno;n !s ! Mr!in cloudN' It +rings continuous r!in8 sno; or s)eet' Clouds o( 6ertic!l De%elo& ent9 M!inl" cu ulus or )e!&s o( clouds not li ited to !n" de(inite )eig)t C4200->000 D' Cu ulus CCuD' T)is is ! %ertic!l cloud ;it) ! rounded to& !nd )oriFont!l +!se8 t"&ic!l o( )u id tro&ic!l regions8 !ssoci!ted ;it) u&-rising con%ection!l currents' Its gre!t ;)ite glo+ul!r !sses !" looB gre" !g!inst t)e sun +ut it is ! (!ir ;e!t)er cloud' Cu uloni +us CC+D' T)ese !re )e!%" !sses o( clouds ;it) gre!t %ertic!l de%elo& ents8 s oot) or (l!ttened !t t)e to&8 !nd (re1uentl" !n%il s)!&ed' T)us t)eir su its gener!ll" looB liBe ount!ins or to;ers' T)e" !re nor !ll" !cco &!nied +" s)!r& s)o;ers8 s1u!ll" t)understor s !nd so eti es )!il'
'
3.1.2
Fo'*- o. P'e+),)%$%)o(
T)e (or s o( &reci&it!tion include r!in8 driFFle8 sno;8 s)eet !nd )!il' D')??le DriFFle is ! r!t)er uni(or &reci&it!tion o( %er" nu erous dro&s' It usu!ll" (!lls (ro (og8 or t)icB l!"ers o( str!tus' R$)( R!in8 ;)ic) is t)e ost co on (or o( &reci&it!tion (!lls (ro rising !ir8 ;)en te &er!ture !t lo;er le%els is !+o%e 0oc' T)e dro&lets8 !s ! rule !re l!rger in siFe t)!n driFFle' T)e !Gi u siFe to ;)ic) ! r!in dro& c!n gro; is !+out 7 in di! eter t)oug) occ!sion!ll" r!in dro&s !" +e !s s !ll in siFe !s t)e driFFle dro&s' inute
24
SOS 203
S(o> Sno; is ! &reci&it!tion o( solid ;!ter !inl" in t)e (or o( +r!nc)ed )eG!gon!l cr"st!ls or st!rs' At te &er!tures not (!r (ro (reeFing &oint8 t)e" !re usu!ll" !lted toget)er in l!rge sno;s (l!Bes' Slee% T)is is &reci&it!tion consisting o( elting sno; or ! iGture o( sno; !nd r!in' Sno; !nd sleet !" elt co &letel" ;)ile (!lling t)roug) t)e !ir' T)e" ;ill t)en !&&e!r !s r!in on t)e ground' 7$)l 0!il is ! &reci&it!tion o( +!lls or irregul!r lu &s o( ice o( di! eters r!nging (ro 7-70 or ore' T)e" !re eit)er tr!ns&!rent or co &osed o( cle!r l!"ers o( ice !ltern!ting ;it) o&!1ue l!"ers o( sno;-liBe structure' 0!il (!lls !l ost eGclusi%el" in %iolent t)understor s !nd is %er" r!re !t te &er!tures +elo; (reeFing !t t)e e!rt)As sur(!ce'
3.2
P'e--u'e $(d #)(d-
.ressure !nd ;inds !re signi(ic!nt in cli !tolog"8 (irst !s ele ents o( cli !te8 +ut !lso %er" i &ort!ntl" !s (!ctors8 es&eci!ll" o( te &er!ture !nd &reci&it!tion' At os&)eric &ressure c!n +e de(ined !s t)e ;eig)t eGerted u&on t)e e!rt) +" t)e !t os&)ere' T)e !%er!ge !ir &ressure !t se!-le%el is !round 2023 illi+!rs +ut it %!ries slig)tl" !ccording to l!titude' T)e !ir &ressure decre!ses ;it) !ltitudeE !t 3700 etres it is onl" 7?2 illi+!rs' T)is is +ec!use !t )ig) !ltitude !ir is less dense' Te &er!ture !lso !((ects &ressure +ec!use ! rise in te &er!ture c!uses t)e !ir to eG&!nd8 reducing t)e !ir &ressure' T)e re%erse is t)e c!se ;)en te &er!ture (!lls8 t)e !ir contr!cts !nd +eco es denser8 c!using incre!se in !ir &ressure' T)ere is ! gener!l %!ri!tion in &ressure o%er t)e e!rt)As sur(!ce' Air (lo; is (ro !re!s o( )ig) &ressure to;!rds !re!s o( lo; &ressure' 0o;e%er8 +ec!use o( t)e e!rt)As rot!tion8 !ir (lo; is de(lected' In t)e nort)ern )e is&)ere it is de(lected to t)e rig)tE in t)e sout)ern )e is&)ere it is de(lected to t)e le(t'
2?
SOS 203
1.
CONCLUSION
.reci&it!tion is &receded +" condens!tion ;)ic) occurs in %!rious (or s' De&ending on te &er!ture8 &reci&it!tion !" occur eit)er in solid or li1uid (or ' .ressure !nd ;ind !lso )!%e signi(ic!nt e((ects on ;e!t)er'
2.
SUMMARY
In t)is unit ;e )!%e le!rnt t)!t9 2' 2' 3' 3' .reci&it!tion is in li1uid or solid (or de&ending on t)e te &er!ture ;)en it is (or ed T)e &rocess o( condens!tion results in &reci&it!tion !nd t)ere !re di((erent (or s o( condens!tion' .ressure is t)e ;eig)t o( !t os&)eric !ir eGerted on t)e e!rt)' Air (lo; is (ro !re!s o( )ig) &ressure to !re!s o( lo; &ressure !nd it is de(lected to eit)er le(t or rig)t'
6.
2' 2' 3' 3' 7' 4'

#)!t is condens!tion !nd in ;)!t (or s does it eGistH ,G&l!in t)e %!rious (or s o( &reci&it!tion' #it)out t)e !t os&)ere t)ere c!nnot +e cli !tolog"' Discuss t)is !ssertion' #)!t do "ou underst!nd +" cli !tic ele entsH ,G&l!in t)e (!ctors !((ecting t)e distri+ution o( te &er!ture !nd &reci&it!tion' #)!t is &reci&it!tion !nd in ;)!t (or does it eGitH ,G&l!in t)e %!rious (or s o( &reci&it!tion'
5.
Areol!8 O' et al C2>>2D' Certificate P ysical and %uman &eograp y for Senior Secondary Sc ools' I+!d!n9Uni%ersit" .ress .lc' O/o8O' C2>??D'! e Climates of West Africa. I+!d!n90eine !nn ,duc!tion!l 5ooBs' O/o8O'et al C2002D' 'undamentals Climatology' Sedec .u+lis)ers' of P ysical and (ynamic
2<
SOS 203
UNIT 1
CONTENTS 2'0 2'0 3'0
DYNAMICS OF EART7=S ATMOSP7ERE
3'0 7'0 4'0 ?'0
Introduction O+/ecti%es M!in Content 3'2 At os&)eric Circul!tions 3'2'2 =!ctors o( Gener!tion Circul!tion o( At os&)ere 3'2 At os&)eric Circul!tion S"ste s 3'2'2 T)e Gener!l Circul!tion o( t)e At os&)ere 3'2'2 Ot)er Circul!tion Conclusion Su !r" Tutor -M!rBed Assign ent Re(erences$=urt)er Re!dings
t)e
1.
INTRODUCTION
As e!rlier entioned t)ere !re %!ri!tions in t)e net r!di!tion o%er t)e e!rt)As sur(!ce !nd +et;een t)e sur(!ce o( t)e e!rt) !nd t)e !t os&)ere' T)is situ!tion is res&onsi+le (or t)e d"n! is eG&erienced in t)e !t os&)ere' All !t os&)eric circul!tions or otions !re c!used +" energ" ine1u!lities ;)ic) &roduce te &er!ture !nd &ressure %!ri!tions' T)is unit eG! ines !t os&)eric circul!tions !nd so e o( t)e (!ctors !((ecting t)e '
2.
O!"ECTIVES
5" t)e end o( t)is unit8 "ou s)ould +e !+le to ,G&l!in so e o( t)e (!ctors o( !t os&)eric circul!tion' Descri+e t)e !t os&)eric otions !t t)e %!rious sc!les8 t)!t is &ri !r"8 second!r" !nd terti!r" sc!les'
3. 3.1
MAIN CONTENT A%*o-,&e')+ C)'+ul$%)o(-
3.1.1 F$+%o'- o. %&e Ge(e'$l C)'+ul$%)o( o. %&e A%*o-,&e'e

T)e (!ctors ;)ic) in(luence t)e gener!l circul!tion o( t)e !t os&)ere include r!di!tion +!l!nce8 &ressure gr!dient (orce8 rot!tion o( t)e e!rt) etc'
2>
SOS 203
R$d)$%)o( !$l$(+e R!di!tion +!l!nce is t)e di((erence +et;een !+sor+ed sol!r r!di!tion !nd e((ecti%e outgoing r!di!tion' It !dds u& to Fero (or t)e e!rt)As !t os&)eric s"ste o%er ! &eriod o( ! "e!r' T)is &re%ents t)e e!rt) (ro getting ;!r er or cooler' O%er s)orter &eriods or s !ll !re!s8 on t)e ot)er )!nd8 t)is e1uili+riu does not occur' T)ere is !n eGcess o( r!di!tion +!l!nce in t)e lo; l!titudes !nd !rBed de(icits in t)e )ig) l!titudes' T)is results in ! &ole ;!rd te &er!tures gr!dient +ot) !t t)e sur(!ce !nd in t)e !t os&)ere' T)e tro&ics !re t)us +elts ser%ing !s ! )e!t source8 ;)ile t)e &oles ser%e !s )e!t sinBs' I( t)ere ;ere no circul!tion to tr!ns&ort t)e eGcess (ro e1u!tori!l regions to t)e &oles8 t)e tro&ics ;ould +e getting )otter !nd t)e )ig) l!titude getting colder' #it) t)e gener!l circul!tion )o;e%er8 )e!t is tr!ns(erred (ro t)e )e!t source to t)e )e!t sinBs8 so !int!ining t)e !%er!ge te &er!tures o( t)e ;orld' T)e le%eling u& o( te &er!ture is done ostl" t)roug) t)e tr!ns(er o( sensi+le )e!t !nd +" t)e tr!ns&ort!tion o( ;!ter %!&our !nd its l!tent )e!t (ro t)e Fones ;)ere e%!&or!tion is &redo in!nt to Fones ;)ere &reci&it!tion is &redo in!nt !nd +et;een t)e oce!ns8 ;)ic) &ro%ide >0 &er cent o( !t os&)eric ;!ter %!&our !nd t)e continents' P'e--u'e G'$d)e(% T)e !t os&)ere eGerts &ressure +ec!use !ir )!s ;eig)t or !ss' T)e !ss o( ! colu n o( !ir o%er ! gi%en &oint deter ines t)e !t os&)eric &ressure !t t)e &oint' At se! le%el t)e !%er!ge &ressure is 2023 +' 0oriFont!l &ressure di((erences result &ri !ril" (ro te &er!ture di((erences ;)ic) &roduce !ir o%e ents or ;inds' T)us8 t)e underl"ing (!ctors o( ost &ressure di((erences !t t)e +otto o( t)e !t os&)ere !re t)e s! e c!uses o( )oriFont!l distri+ution o( te &er!tureE l!titude !nd l!nd-;!ter rel!tions)i&s +eing t)e ost i &ort!nt' T)ere !re t)us di((erences in t)e distri+ution o( &ressure due to t)er !l c!uses8 !nd ;inds gener!ll" o%e (ro t)e !re!s ;it) cold )e!%" !ir to !re!s ;it) t)e lig)ter ;!r !ir' In !ddition t)ere !re !lso ec)!nic!l c!uses' T)e di((erences in t)e distri+ution o( &ressure +et;een t;o !d/!cent !re!s in turn sets t)e !ir in otion !nd c!uses ;inds to +lo; (ro !re!s o( )ig) to !re!s o( lo; &ressure' T)e di((erence in rel!tion to t)e slo&e o( t)e t;o !d/!cent !re!s is c!lled &ressure gr!dient' A &ressure gr!dient is t)us t)e i edi!te c!use o( !ll !ir o%e ent8 t)e direction o( !ir (lo; +eing (ro )ig) &ressure to lo; &ressure8 !nd t)e %elocit" o( t)e !ir (lo; +eing directl" rel!ted to t)e &ressure gr!dient8 t)!t is t)e r!te o( c)!nge o( &ressure ;it) dist!nce' T)e &ressure gr!dient is stee& ;)en t)e r!te o( c)!nge is gre!t8 !nd t)e stee&er t)e gr!dient8 t)e ore r!&id ;ill +e t)e (lo; o( t)e !ir'
20
SOS 203
Ro%$%)o( o. %&e E$'%& T)e rot!tion o( t)e e!rt) &re%ents direct eridion!l circul!tion t)!t;ould result (ro t)e i +!l!nce o( net r!di!tion o( t)e ;orld' Coriolis (orce is t)e ter gi%en to t)e (orce resulting (or t)e rot!tion o( t)e e!rt)' As entioned e!rlier8 t)e e((ect o( t)e (orce is !t !Gi u !t t)e &oles ;)ile !t t)e e1u!tor t)e e((ect +eco es Fero' T)e de(lecti%e (orce c!uses t)e ;inds to +e de(lected to t)e rig)t in ! nort)ern )e is&)ere !nd to t)e le(t in t)e sout)ern )e is&)ere' F')+%)o( T)e (riction!l (orce !((ects +ot) ;ind s&eed !nd ;ind direction' T)e o%e ent o( !ir is ret!rded +" (riction +et;een t)e o%ing !ir !nd t)e sur(!ce o( t)e e!rt)' T)e (riction!l e((ect o( t)e e!rt)As sur(!ce %!ries ;it) )eig)t' It is o( i &ort!nce onl" +elo; t)e (riction!l l!"er 2700 to 2000 etres !lt)oug) it tends to +e dee&er o%er roug) terr!in or under unst!+le conditions T)ere is !lso intern!l (riction ;it)in t)e !ir itsel(8 !lt)oug) t)is is %er" s !ll !nd %!ries ;it) )eig)t' 5ec!use t)e (orce !cts in t)e o&&osite direction to t)e ;ind direction8 t)e (lo; o( sur(!ce !ir is not essenti!ll" &!r!llel to t)e iso+!rs !s is t)e !ir in t)e (ree !t os&)ere ;)ic) incre!ses ;it) t)e (riction!l (orce'
3.2
A%*o-,&e')+ C)'+ul$%)o( S0-%e*-'
Let us no; eG! ine t)e c!tegories o( t)e !t os&)eric circul!tions s"ste s'
3.2.1 T&e Ge(e'$l C)'+ul$%)o( o. %&e A%*o-,&e'e

T)e underl"ing c!use o( t)e gener!l circul!tion is t)e une1u!l distri+ution o( net r!di!tion' T)ese ine1u!lities eGist +et;een t)e !t os&)ere !nd e!rt)As sur(!ce on one )!nd !nd +et;een t)e tro&ics !nd eGtr! tro&ic!l !re!s on t)e ot)er' To +!l!nce t)ese ine1u!lities8 t)e !t os&)ere tr!ns(ers ;!r !ir &ole-;!rds !nd cool !ir e1u!tor ;!rds' I( ;e !ssu e ! )o ogenous non-rot!ting e!rt) t)e glo+!l ;ind s"ste s ;ould looB uc) si &ler t)!n t)e" !re s)o;n in =igure 3' 0o;e%er8 ;it) ! )o ogenous rot!ting e!rt)8 t)e ;inds ;ill +e su+/ect to +ot) t)e &ressure gr!dient !nd coriolis (orces' #inds o%ing (ro !re!s o( )ig) &ressure to t)ose o( lo; &ressure !re de(lected !s eG&l!ined in unit 38 to t)e rig)t o( t)eir &!t) in t)e nort)ern )e is&)ere !nd to t)e le(t o( t)eir &!t) in t)e sout)ern )e is&)ere' =or ! )eterogeneous rot!ting e!rt)8 t)e &ressure distri+ution &!tterns !re ore cellul!r t)!n Fon!l o;ing to t)e
22
SOS 203
di((erenti!l )e!ting o( l!nd !nd ;!ter sur(!ce' T)e glo+!l ;ind s"ste s ;ill t)en +e !s s)o;n in =igure 3' I( ;e i &ose t)e %!ried to&ogr!&)" o( t)e e!rt)As sur(!ce on t)is8 t)e &!ttern o( ;ind s"ste ;ill +e ore co &leG t)!n t)!t s)o;n in =igure 3'
F)/ 38 Glo:$l >)(d -0-%e* Relie( c!n in(luence t)e ;ind s"ste s in %!rious ;!"s' =irst t)e" c!n &ose ! +!rrier to !ir (lo;E secondl"8 t)e" c!n )!%e ! c)!nneling e((ect on !ir (lo;' Relie( !lso reduces ;ind s&eed !t lo; le%els t)roug) (riction!l dr!gion !ir (lo;' T)e glo+!l &!ttern o( gener!l circul!tions is t)us in(luenced +" ! c)!nge in !n" o( t)e (!ctors discussed !+o%e' T)e glo+!l ;ind s"ste s discussed !+o%e !re (or t)e sur(!ce le%el onl"' Ot)er ;ind s"ste s liBe t)e Ross+" ;!%es8 e!sterl" ;!%es !nd /et stre! s !re !lso encountered !t t)e iddle !nd u&&er le%els o( t)e !t os&)ere'
3.2.2 O%&e' C)'+ul$%)o(T)e d!"-to-d!" ;e!t)er !cti%ities o%er ! gi%en !re! !re deter ined ore +" second!r" !nd terti!r" circul!tion s"ste s ;)ic) !re e +edded in t)e
22
SOS 203
gener!l circul!tion o( t)e !t os&)ere' T)ese include t)e c"clones8 !ntic"clones8 l!nd !nd se! +reeFe' T&e Mo(-oo(
onsoon8
T)e se!son!l %!ri!tion in t)e te &er!ture +et;een t)e l!nd !nd se! result in t)e se!son!l ;ind s"ste s c!lled onsoons' During su er8 t)e continent!l l!nd !sses +eco e ;!r er t)!n t)e surrounding ;!ter sur(!ces8 resulting in te &er!ture induced lo; &ressure centre o%er t)e l!nd sur(!ce' T)e ;ind t)ere(ore +lo;s (ro t)e se! to t)e l!nd8 +ringing !+und!nt oisture' C=ig' 3D' During t)e ;inter )o;e%er8 t)e continent!l l!nd !sses !re uc) colder t)!n t)e se!s' T)is conse1uentl" c!uses ! s)!llo; )ig) &ressure cell o%er l!nd ;it) ! lo;er &ressure o%er t)e !d/!cent ;!ter sur(!ce ;)ic) le!ds to t)e de%elo& ent o( ! l!nd to se! &ressure gr!dient !nd ;ind' C=ig' 3D' T)e cold dr" !ir (ro t)e l!nd is &oor in oisture content !nd +rings no &reci&it!tion' Monsoons !re +est de%elo&ed in e!stern !nd sout)ern Asi!8 +ec!use o( t)e siFe o( t)e continent ;)ic) intensi(ies t)e continent!l e((ect on ;e!t)er' In !re!s suc) !s #est A(ric! !nd Nort) A eric!8 t)e s"ste s !re not !s ;ell de%elo&ed' L$(d $(d Se$ !'ee?eT)ese occur !s ! result o( diurn!l %!ri!tion in t)e )e!ting o( l!nd !nd ;!ter !nd t)e" !" +e c!lled d!il" onsoons' T)e" di((er (ro t)e l!rge se!son!l onsoons +ec!use t)e" result (ro lesser c)!nges in &ressure' During t)e d!"8 t)e !ir o%es (ro t)e se! to t)e uc) )e!ted l!nd ;)ile !t nig)t8 ! re%ersed condition occurs8 t)e ;ind +lo;s (ro t)e uc) cooled l!nd to t)e se! CA"o!de 2002D'
1.
CONCLUSION
T)e !t os&)ere is (!r (ro +eing st!+le !t !n" ti e' It is )ig)l" d"n! ic !nd t)is is !ttri+ut!+le to t)e %!ri!tion in t)e ! ount o( sol!r r!di!tion recei%ed o%er t)e e!rt)As sur(!ce' 5et;een t)e e!rt)As sur(!ce !nd t)e !t os&)ere t)e glo+!l !t os&)eric circul!tion s"ste )!s t)e region!l !nd loc!l circul!tion e +edded in it !nd it is t)ese lo;er le%el circul!tion s"ste s t)!t !re res&onsi+le (or t)e d!" to d!" ;e!t)er !cti%ities o%er !n" gi%en !re!'
23
SOS 203
2.
SUMMARY
In t)is unit ;e )!%e le!rnt t)!t9 2' 2' 3' 3' 7' R!di!tion +!l!nce8 &ressure gr!dient (orce8 rot!tion o( t)e e!rt) !nd (riction!l (orce !re so e o( t)e (!ctors o( t)e gener!l circul!tion o( t)e !t os&)ere' Gener!l circul!tion o( t)e !t os&)ere is c!used +" une1u!l distri+ution o( net r!di!tion' T)e !t os&)ere tr!ns(ers )e!t (ro t)e e1u!tor &ole ;!rds !nd cold (ro t)e &oles to;!rds t)e e1u!tor' T)ere !re ot)er ;ind s"ste s in t)e iddle !nd u&&er !t os&)ere i'e' Ross+" ;!%e8 e!sterl" ;!%es !nd /et stre! ' T)e d!"-to-d!" ;e!t)er is deter ined +" second!r" !nd terti!r" circul!tion s"ste s liBe t)e onsoons8 c"clones !ntic"clones8 l!nd !nd se! +reeFes ! ong ot)ers'
6.
Discuss t)e &ro&elling (orces res&onsi+le (or t)e &!ttern o( !t os&)eric circul!tion' Succinctl" enu er!te t)e %!rious s"ste s o( !t os&)eric otion'
5.
A"o!de8 J'O' C2><3D' Introduction to Climatology for t e !ropics. C)ic)ester9Jo)n #ile" !nd Sons' Nieu;olts8S'C2>??D' !ropical Climatology" An Introduction to t e Climates of t e )ow )atitudes' C)ic)ester9Jo)n #ile" !nd Sons' O/o8 O' C2>??D' ! e Climates of West Africa' I+!d!n90eine !nn ,duc!tion!l 5ooBs' O/o8O'et al C2002D' 'undamentals of P ysical Climatology' L!gos9 S,D,C .u+lis)ers' and (ynamic
Str!)ler8 A'N' !nd Str!)ler8 A'0 C2>?3D' $nvironmental &eosciences9 Interaction *etween +atural Systems and Man' Jo)n #ile"s !nd Sons'
23
SOS 203
UNIT
RADIATION AND 7EATING ATMOSP7ERIC SYSTEM
OF
T7E
CONTENTS 2'0 2'0 3'0 Introduction O+/ecti%es M!in Content 3'2 R!di!tion !nd 0e!ting o( t)e At os&)eric S"ste 3'2'2 T)e Sun 3'2'2 Dis&osition o( Sol!r R!di!tion in t)e ,!rt)As At os&)eric S"ste 3'2'3 Terrestri!l !nd At os&)eric R!di!tion 3'2'3 R!di!tion 5!l!nce Conclusion Su !r" Tutor M!rBed Assign ent Re(erences$=urt)er Re!dings
3'0 7'0 4'0 ?'0
1.
INTRODUCTION
Sol!r energ" re&resents !l ost !ll t)e energ" !%!il!+le to t)e e!rt) C>>'>?LD' As e!rlier entioned8 it is !n i &ort!nt source o( energ" (or li(e on t)e sur(!ce o( t)e e!rt)' It is t)e gre!t engine ;)ic) dri%es t)e e!rt)As !t os&)ere !nd oce!nic circul!tions' It gener!tes ;e!t)er !nd !Bes t)e e!rt) ! lo%e!+le &l!ce (or &l!nts !nd !ni !ls' .rocesses suc) !s &)otos"nt)esis8 on ;)ic) !nAs eGistence &!rtl" de&ends !re !l ost i &ossi+le ;it)out r!di!tion
2.
O!"ECTIVES
5" t)e end o( t)is unit8 "ou s)ould +e !+le to9 Descri+e t)e sun St!te )o; sol!r energ" is tr!ns itted to t)e e!rt) St!te )o; t)e e!rt) is )e!ted St!te )o; t)e !t os&)ere is )e!ted'
27
SOS 203
3. 3.1
MAIN CONTENT R$d)$%)o( $(d 7e$%)(/ o. %&e A%*o-,&e')+ S0-%e*
3.1.1 T&e Su(

T)e sun8 ;)ic) is ! st!r o( !+out ediu !ss8 )!s ! sur(!ce o te &er!ture o( !+out 4000 *' It e its ! (or o( energ" Bno;n !s electro !gnetic r!di!tion' T)is energ" tr!%els !+out 270 illion Bilo eters to re!c) t)e e!rt)As sur(!ce !nd t!Bes !+out > O inutes to co &lete t)e /ourne"' T)e tot!lit" o( ;!%elengt) is Bno;n !s sol!r s&ectru ' T)e sol!r s&ectru consists o( +ot) s)ort !nd long ;!%e r!di!tion' A ;!%elengt) !" +e de(ined !s t)e dist!nce (ro crest to crest o( succeeding ;!%es' T)e con%ention!l unit used in t)e e!sure ent o( ;!%elengt) is t)e icron C2 icron P 0'000B or 20-3D' T)e s" +ol used is Q' Anot)er unit used ;)ic) is s !ller t)!n t)e icron is !ngstro P20< c ' T)e tot!l +ulB o( !ll sol!r r!di!tion occurs in t)e n!rro; r!nge o( ;!%elengt) (ro 0'30 Q to 0'?3 Q8 usu!ll" re(erred to !s s)ort ;!%e r!di!tion' S)ort ;!%e r!di!tion is %isi+le !s lig)t to )u !n e"e' T)e colours o( %isi+le r!di!tion !re %iolet8 indigo8 +lue8 green8 "ello;8 or!nge !nd red' T)e sol!r s&ectru 2' 2' 3' consists o(9
R-r!"s8 g! ! r!"s8 !l&)! r!"s !nd ultr!%iolet r!"s consisting !+out >L o( t)e tot!l energ"' 6isi+le lig)t r!"s C0'3-0'?3 QD c!rr"ing 32L In%isi+le in(r!red C)e!tD r!"s C0'?-3000 QD consisting 70L'
T)e ter s)ort ;!%e r!di!tion is !&&lied to t)e %isi+le !nd ultr!%iolet &ortion o( t)e s&ectru C;!%elengt)s less t)!n 0'? QD !s distinct (ro t)e in(r!red or long ;!%e &ortion Clonger t)!n 0'? QD' R!di!tion is energ" in tr!nsit' #)en it co es in cont!ct ;it) !n o+/ect or su+st!nce it !" +e tr!ns itted8 re(lected or !+sor+ed in &ro&ortions ;)ic) de&end on t)e n!ture o( t)e ediu !nd ;!%elengt) o( t)e r!di!tion' It is t)e ! ount o( t)e r!di!tion !+sor+ed +" ! ediu t)!t is e((ecti%e in )e!ting it'
3.1.2 D)-,o-)%)o( o. Sol$' A%*o-,&e')+ S0-%e*
R$d)$%)o(
)(
%&e
E$'%&=-
T)e sol!r r!di!tion interce&ted +" t)e e!rt) is eit)er !+sor+ed or returned +!cB to s&!ce +" sc!ttering or re(lection' M!t)e !tic!ll" t)e dis&osition o( sol!r r!di!tion is eG&ressed +"
24
SOS 203
Ss P CrTArTC!TA!TCST1DC2- U DTCST1D U =ro t)e eG&ression8 t)e sol!r r!di!tion incident on to& o( t)e !t os&)ere c!n +e sc!ttered !nd re(lected +!cB to s&!ce +" cloud CCrD8 cloud co%er +locBs t)e &enetr!tion o( insol!tion' A+out 27L o( inco ing sol!r r!di!tion is re(lected +!cB to s&!ce +" clouds' Sol!r r!di!tion c!n !lso +e sc!ttered or re(lected +" !ir olecules8 dust &!rticles !nd ;!ter %!&our CArD' Dust &!rticles8 !ir olecules !nd ;!ter %!&our in t)e !t os&)ere !re c!&!+le o( sc!ttering ! lot o( sol!r r!di!tion' T)e sc!ttering is eit)er u&;!rd to;!rds t)e s&!ce or do;n;!rds to;!rd t)e e!rt)As sur(!ce' A+out 4L o( t)e insol!tion re!c)ing t)e to& o( t)e !t os&)ere is sc!ttered do;n;!rd !nd re!c)es t)e sur(!ce !s di((use r!di!tion' R!di!tion is !lso re(lected +" t)e e!rt)As sur(!ce CCST1D UD8 ;)ere S !nd 1 !re direct sol!r +e! !nd di((use sol!r r!di!tion res&ecti%el" !nd U is t)e sur(!ce !l+edo' On t)e ot)er )!nd8 sol!r r!di!tion c!n +e !+sor+ed +" cloud CC!D' Clouds !ct !s te &or!r" t)er !l reser%oirs (or t)e" !+sor+ ! &!rt o( t)e energ" t)e" interce&t' Sol!r r!di!tion is !lso !+sor+ed +" !ir olecules8 dust !nd ;!ter %!&our CA!D' A+out 2<L o( t)e insol!tion is !+sor+ed directl" +" oFone !nd ;!ter %!&our' OFone !+sor+s it !inl" in t)e ultr!%iolet region consisting 0!rtle" +!nd C0'20-0'33QD' #!ter %!&our !+sor+s in t)e ne!r in(r!red +!nd centering !t 0'>38 2'238 2'32 !nd 2'3? Q' #!ter %!&our is ! selecti%e !+sor+er o( r!di!tion' C!r+on dioGide !+sor+s r!di!tion ;it) ;!%elengt)s gre!ter t)!n 3 Q' T)e e!rt)As sur(!ce re&resented +" CCST1DC2- UD8 !lso !+sor+s sol!r r!di!tion' L!nd !nd ;!ter )!%e di((erent t)er !l &ro&erties !nd re!ct di((erentl" to insol!tion' L!nd )e!ts u& r!&idl" !nd loses )e!t r!&idl" ;)ile ;!ter )e!ts u& slo;l" !nd rele!ses )e!t slo;l"'
3.1.3 Te''e-%')$l $(d A%*o-,&e')+ R$d)$%)o(

T)e sur(!ce o( t)e e!rt) ;)en )e!ted8 +eco es ! source o( long ;!%e r!di!tion' 5ec!use t)e sur(!ce te &er!ture o( t)e e!rt) is 2<7o* ost o( t)e r!di!tion is e itted in in(r!red s&ectr!l r!nge (ro 3 Q to 200 Q ;it) ! &e!B ne!r 20 Q' LiBe t)e e!rt)8 t)e !t os&)ere !+sor+s !nd e its r!di!nt energ"' Alt)oug) t)e !t os&)ere is ne!rl" tr!ns&!rent to s)ort ;!%e r!di!tion8 it e!sil" !+sor+s terrestri!l r!di!tion' T)e &rinci&!l !+sor+ers +eing ;!ter %!&our C7'3-?'? Q !nd +e"ond 20 QD8 OFone !+sor+s C>'3->'< QD8 c!r+on dioGide C24'> QD C23'2-!nd clouds !+sor+ r!di!tion !t !ll ;!%elengt)s' #)ile t)e !t os&)ere !+sor+s onl" 23L o( inco ing sol!r r!di!tion Cs)ort ;!%eD8 >2L o( in(r!red terrestri!l r!di!tion is !+sor+ed'
2?
SOS 203
T)e !t os&)ere in turn re-r!di!tes t)e !+sor+ed terrestri!l r!di!tion &!rtl" to s&!ce !nd &!rtl" +!cB to t)e e!rt)As sur(!ce' T)is is Bno;n !s conter-r!di!tion !nd is re&resented s" +olic!ll" +" t)e (ollo;ing I P I C!D T I CsD @@@@@'' CiD I P I T I !CsD @@@'''CiiD =ro t)ese t;o e1u!tions t)e e((ecti%e outgoing r!di!tion c!n +e s&eci(ied I P I - I @@' CiiiD I is t)e e((ecti%e outgoing r!di!tion
3.1.1 R$d)$%)o( !$l$(+e

R!di!tion +!l!nce or net r!di!tion is t)e di((erence +et;een t)e !+sor+ed sol!r r!di!tion +" ! sur(!ce !nd t)e e((ecti%e outgoing r!di!tion (ro t)e sur(!ce' On t)e !%er!ge8 t)e e!rt)As sur(!ce !+sor+s !+out 223 Bilol!ngle"s o( sol!r r!di!tion e!c) "e!r !nd in turn e((ecti%el" r!di!tes 72 Bilol!ngle" "r-2' T&e Pl$(e%$'0 R$d)$%)o( !$l$(+e 2' Sol!r energ" incident on outer edge o( !t os&)ere Re(lected +" clouds Re(lected +" olecules8 dust8 ;!ter %!&our Tot!l re(lected +" t)e !t os&)ere Re(lected (ro t)e e!rt)As sur(!ce Tot!l re(lected +" sur(!ce !nd !t os&)ere A+sor+ed +" clouds A+sor+ed +" olecules8 dust !nd ;!ter %!&our Tot!l !+sor+ed +" t)e !t os&)ere A+sor+ed !t t)e e!rt)As sur(!ce Tot!l !+sor+ed +" e!rt) !nd !t os&)ere ' 2' In(r!red r!di!tion e itted +" t)e e!rt)As sur(!ce Loss o( s&!ce A+sor+ed +" t)e !t os&)ere C !D In(r!red r!di!tion e itted +" t)e !t os&)ere Lost to s&!ce A+sor+ed +" t)e e!rt)As sur(!ce !s counter-r!di!tion ,((ecti%e outgoing r!di!tion (ro t)e e!rt)As sur(!ce
2<
243 43 27 ?< 24 >3 ? 3< 37 223 24>
27< 20 23< 377 23> 204 72
SOS 203
,((ecti%e outgoing r!di!tion (ro ,((ecti%e outgoing r!di!tion (ro Modified from Sellers ,1-./0
t)e !t os&)ere t)e e!rt) !nd !t os&)ere
22? 24>
T)is le!%es t)e e!rt)As sur(!ce ;it) ! +!l!nce o( ?2 Bilol!ngle"s "r -2 usu!ll" design!ted +" Rn !nd Bno;n !s r!di!tion +!l!nce' It is s" +olic!ll" gi%en !s9 Rn P CST1D C2-UD I I #)ere CST1D C2- UD is t)e !+sor+ed sol!r r!di!tion8 S !nd 1 !re direct !nd di((use sol!r r!di!tion res&ecti%el"8 U is t)e !l+edo !nd I is t)e e((ecti%e outgoing r!di!tion' Si il!rl"8 r!di!tion +!l!nce o( t)e !t os&)ere CRgD is de(ined' T)e !t os&)ere !+sor+s 37 Bilol!ngle"s o( sol!r energ" &er "e!r !nd r!di!tes 22? Bilol!ngle"s "r-2' T)us t)e !t os&)ere looses !s uc) r!di!tion in ! "e!r !s t)e e!rt)As sur(!ce g!ins' T)e +!l!nce o( t)e ;)ole s"ste 8 sur(!ce CRnD !nd t)e !t os&)ere CRgD is t)ere(ore Fero' Alt)oug) t)e glo+!l r!di!tion +!l!nce is Fero !%er!ged o%er t)e "e!r8 it ;ill not gener!ll" e1u!l Fero eit)er se!son!ll" or !nnu!ll" in !n" gi%en l!titude'
1.
CONCLUSION
Sol!r r!di!tion is %er" i &ort!nt to )u !n eGistence on t)e e!rt)As sur(!ce !s it touc)es !ll s&)eres o( !nAs li(e8 &!rticul!rl" !gricultur!l !cti%ities'
2.
2' 2' 3' 3'
SUMMARY
T)e sun e its ! (or o( energ" Bno;n !s electro !gnetic r!di!tion T)e tot!lit" o( ;!%elengt) is Bno;n !s sol!r s&ectru ;)ic) consists o( s)ort !nd long-;!%e T)e inco ing sol!r r!di!tion is sc!ttered8 re(lected or !+sor+ed +" cloud8 !ir olecules8 dust &!rticles8 ;!ter %!&our !nd t)e e!rt)As sur(!ce' T)e !t os&)ere is signi(ic!ntl" )e!ted +" terrestri!l r!di!tion'
6.
2' 2'

#)!t is t)e i &ort!nce o( sol!r r!di!tion to !nH Account (or t)e dis&osition o( sol!r r!di!tion in t)e e!rt)As !t os&)eric s"ste '
2>
SOS 203
3'
,G&l!in t)e r!di!tion +!l!nce o( t)e e!rt)As !t os&)eric s"ste '
5.
A"o!de8 J'O' C2><3D' Introduction to Climatology for t e !ropics' C)ic)ester9Jo)n #ile" !nd Sons'' Nieu;olts8S'C2>??D'!ropical Climatology" An Introduction to t e Climates of t e )ow )atitudes. C)icester9Jo)n #ile" !nd Sons' ' O/o8 O' C2>??D' ! e Climates of West Africa' I+!d!n90eine !nn ,duc!tion!l 5ooBs' O/o8O'et al C2002D''undamentals of P ysical Climatology. L!gos9S,D,C .u+lis)ers' and (ynamic
Str!)ler8 A'N' !nd Str!)ler8 A'0 C2>?3D' $nvironmental &eosciences9 Interaction *etween +atural Systems and Man' Jo)n #ile"s !nd Sons'
30
SOS 203
MODULE 2
Unit 2 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 3 Unit 7 At os&)eric Moisture T)e D"n! ics o( .ressure !nd #ind S"ste s T)e Condens!tion !nd .reci&it!tion .rocess Se!son!l 6!ri!tions in R!di!tion8D!"lig)t Te &er!ture Se!son!l 6!ri!tions in ,%!&or!tion !nd R!in(!ll
!nd
UNIT 1
ATMOSP7ERIC MOISTURE
3'0 7'0 4'0 ?'0
Introduction O+/ecti%es M!in Content 3'2 At os&)eric Moisture 3'2'2 ,%!&or!tion !nd ,%!&otr!ns&ir!tion 3'2 0u idit" 3'2'2 Distri+ution o( 0u idit" Conclusion Su !r" Tutor -M!rBed Assign ent Re(erences$=urt)er Re!dings
1.
INTRODUCTION
#!ter c!n eGist in solid8 li1uid or g!seous st!tes' It is ! )ig)l" i &ort!nt ele ent (or !ll li%ing t)ings !nd t)e en%iron ent' #!ter in its g!seous st!te or M;!ter %!&ourN (or s t)e +ulB o( ;)!t ;e re(er to !s !t os&)eric oisture' #!ter %!&our is o( gre!t signi(ic!nce in deciding ;e!t)er !nd cli !te !nd so cli !tologists !nd eteorologists !re interested in its ! ount !nd distri+ution o%er ti e !nd s&!ce' T)is unit eG! ines t)e n!ture8 ! ount !nd distri+ution o( !t os&)eric oisture'
2.
O!"ECTIVES
5" t)e end o( t)is unit8 "ou s)ould +e !+le to9 Underst!nd t)e ter !t os&)eric oisture De(ine )u idit" !nd t)e %!rious indices o( )u idit" ,G&l!in t)e distri+ution o( )u idit"'
32
SOS 203
3. 3.1
MAIN CONTENT A%*o-,&e')+ Mo)-%u'e
3.1.1 E9$,o'$%)o( $(d E9$,o%'$(-,)'$%)o(

At os&)eric ;!ter %!&our is deri%ed (ro e%!&or!tion !nd tr!ns&ir!tion' ,%!&or!tion is t)e &rocess +" ;)ic) oisture in its li1uid or solid (or is con%erted into g!seous (or I;!ter %!&our' Tr!ns&ir!tion on t)e ot)er )!nd re(ers to t)e loss o( ;!ter (ro &l!nts to t)e !t os&)ere' ,%!&otr!ns&ir!tion di((ers (ro e%!&or!tion +ec!use it descri+es ;!ter losses (ro sur(!ces ;)ere tr!ns&ir!tion is ! !/or contri+utor' ,ssenti!ll"8 it co +ines e%!&or!tion !nd tr!ns&ir!tion' A%!il!+ilit" o( oisture !t e%!&or!ting sur(!ce !nd t)e !+ilit" o( t)e !t os&)ere to %!&orise t)e ;!ter8 re o%e !nd tr!ns&ort t)e %!&our u&;!rd !re (und! ent!l (!ctors t)!t deter ine t)e r!te o( e%!&or!tion !nd e%!&otr!ns&ir!tion o%er !n" gi%en !re!' ,%!&or!tion !nd e%!&otr!ns&ir!tion ;ill occur !t t)e !Gi u le%el i( oisture is !l;!"s !%!il!+le !t t)e e%!&or!ting sur(!ce' T)is )!s gi%en rise to t)e conce&t o( &otenti!l e%!&otr!ns&ir!tion' 0o;e%er8 oisture is not !l;!"s !%!il!+le !t t)e e%!&or!ting sur(!ce8 !nd e%!&or!tion !nd e%!&otr!ns&ir!tion )!%e o(ten occurred +elo; !Gi u le%el' T)is )!s !lso gi%en rise to t)e conce&t o( !ctu!l e%!&otr!ns&ir!tion' M!n" (!ctors including sol!r r!di!tion8 te &er!ture8 ;ind s&eed !nd )u idit" !lso deter ine e%!&or!tion !nd e%!&otr!ns&ir!tion' ,nerg" is needed to %!&orise ;!ter !nd in t)e !+sence o( r!di!tion d!t!8 energ" is indic!ted +" !ir te &er!ture' #ind s&eed re o%es t)e oistened !ir l"ing o%er t)e e%!&or!ting sur(!ce !nd re&l!ces it ;it) dr" !ir to !int!in t)e e%!&or!tion &rocess' T)e )u idit" o( !ir deter ine t)e c!&!cit" o( t)e !ir to )old oisture' It !lso !((ects t)e e%!&or!tion r!te' T)e lo;er t)e )u idit"8 t)e gre!ter t)e c!&!cit" o( !ir to )old oisture ;)ile t)e )ig)er t)e )u idit" t)e lo;er t)e c!&!cit" o( !ir to )old ;!ter' Condens!tion !nd &reci&it!tion ;)ic) )!%e +een eG&l!ined in !n e!rlier unit )el& to re o%e ;!ter %!&our (ro t)e !t os&)ere' T)e ost cons&icuous !s&ects o( t)e ;e!t)er Ce'g' r!in8 sno;8 )!il8 (og etcD result (ro t)e &resence o( ;!ter in t)e !t os&)ere'
3.2 7u*)d)%0
0u idit" is ! e!sure o( t)e ! ount o( ;!ter in t)e !t os&)ere' It does not co%er t)e ot)er (or s o( oisture in t)e !t os&)ere8 i'e' li1uid (or C;!ter dro&letsD !nd solid (or CiceD' 5ec!use o( its origin Ce!rt)As sur(!ceD !t os&)eric ;!ter %!&our is concentr!ted in t)e lo;er l!"ers o(
32
SOS 203
t)e !t os&)ere' In (!ct8 !+out )!l( o( t)e tot!l ;!ter %!&our in t)e !t os&)ere is (ound +elo; 2000 etres' T)e ! ount o( oisture in t)e !t os&)ere decre!ses ste!dil" ;it) incre!se in )eig)t' #!ter %!&our is %irtu!ll" !+sent !(ter t)e tro&o&!use' T)ere !re di((erent ;!"s o( e!suring t)e oisture content o( t)e !t os&)ere' T)e indices o( )u idit" usu!ll" !&&lied include t)e (ollo;ing9 A+solute )u idit"9 It is eG&ressed in gr!ins &er cu+ic t)e tot!l !ss o( ;!ter in ! gi%en %olu e o( !ir' S&eci(ic )u idit"9 T)is is t)e including its oisture' etres o( !ir' It is o( !ir
!ss o( ;!ter %!&our &er Bilogr! iGing r!tio9It is t)e
M!ss iGing r!tio or )u idit" %!&our &er Bilogr! o( dr" !ir'
!ss o( ;!ter
Rel!ti%e )u idit"9It is t)e r!tio o( t)e !ctu!l oisture content o( ! s! &le o( !ir to t)!t ;)ic) t)e s! e %olu e o( !ir c!n )old !t t)e s! e te &er!ture !nd &ressure ;)en s!tur!ted' It is usu!ll" eG&ressed in &ercent!ge' De;-&oint te &er!ture9 T)is is t)e te &er!ture !t ;)ic) s!tur!tion ;ill occur i( t)e !ir is cooled !t const!nt &ressure ;it)out !ddition or re o%!l o( %!&our' 6!&our &ressure is t)e &ressure eGerted +" t)e %!&our content o( t)e !t os&)ere in illi+!rs' T)e rel!ti%e )u idit" is t)e ost &o&ul!rl" used indeG (or e!suring !ir )u idit"' It is e!sil" e!sured !nd indic!tes t)e degree o( s!tur!tion o( t)e !ir' 0o;e%er8 it is )ig)l" in(luenced +" t)e !ir te &er!ture' A c)!nge in !ir te &er!ture c!n c)!nge t)e %!lue o( rel!ti%e )u idit" e%en t)oug) t)e oisture content re !ins const!nt' =or inst!nce8 t)e rel!ti%e )u idit" o( t)e !ir %!ries in%ersel" ;it) te &er!ture8 +eing lo;er in t)e e!rl" !(ternoon !nd )ig)er !t nig)t' It is i &ort!nt to note t)!t rel!ti%e )u idit" does not tell us !+out t)e 1u!ntit" o( oisture in t)e !ir +ut tells us )o; close to s!tur!tion t)e !ir is' Unless t)e" )!%e +een o+t!ined !t !+out t)e s! e )our o( t)e d!" ;)en !ir te &er!tures !re not too di((erent8 rel!ti%e )u idit" (or di((erent st!tions c!nnot +e co &!red since t)e %!lues !re de&endent on !ir te &er!ture' =or t)e &ur&ose o( co &!rison ot)er indic!tors o( !t os&)eric oisture suc) !s t)e %!&our &ressure or t)e !+solute
33
SOS 203
)u idit" s)ould +e used' UnliBe rel!ti%e )u idit" t)ese not undul" in(luenced +" !ir te &er!tures'
e!sures !re
3.2.1 D)-%'):u%)o( o. 7u*)d)%0

#!ter %!&our !s e!rlier entioned is t)e ost i &ort!nt !ir co &onent t)!t )!s in(luence on ;e!t)er !nd cli !te' It is )ig)l" inconst!nt %!r"ing (ro ne!rl" Fero u& to ! !Gi u o( !+out 3L in t)e iddle l!titude8 !nd 3L in t)e )u id tro&ics' T)is %!ri!+ilit" in +ot) &l!ce !nd ti e is o( outst!nding i &ort!nce (or t)e (ollo;ing re!sons' #!ter %!&our is t)e source o( !ll (or s o( condens!tion !nd &reci&it!tion' #!ter %!&our is ! &rinci&!l !+sor+er o( sol!r !nd in(r!red r!di!tion' It t)ere(ore )!s !n i &ort!nt in(luence on te &er!ture' 5ec!use o( its l!tent )e!t8 t)e ! ount o( %ertic!l distri+ution o( ;!ter %!&our in t)e !t os&)ere indirectl" !((ects t)e +uo"!nc" o( !ir !nd )ence its tendenc" to !scend' T)is in turn is closel" rel!ted to t)e (or !tion o( clouds !nd &reci&it!tion' T)e l!tent )e!t o( ;!ter %!&our is !n i &ort!nt energ" source (or !t os&)eric circul!tions'0u idit" is !n i &ort!nt (!ctor o( e%!&or!tion8 ! &rocess t)!t is i &ort!nt (or !ni !l !nd &l!nt li(e' Gener!ll"8 rel!ti%e )u idit" is gre!ter o%er t)e oce!n t)!n o%er t)e continent!l !re!s' T)is re(lects t)e )ig) r!te o( e%!&or!tion due to t)e (!ct t)!t t)e su&&l" o( ;!ter is unli ited !t t)e oce!n sur(!ce ;)ile o%er !n" l!nd !re!sE ;!ter is !n i &ort!nt li iting (!ctor o( e%!&or!tion +ec!use it is sc!rce' Also rel!ti%e )u idit" is )ig) t)roug)out in %er" )u id cli !tes !nd lo; in !rid !nd se i-!rid cli !tes' In se!son!ll" )u id !re!s8 rel!ti%e )u idit" is )ig)er during t)e r!in" se!son t)!n during t)e dr" se!son T)e %!&our &ressure distri+utions )!%e si il!r c)!r!cteristics ;it) rel!ti%e )u idit" o%er t)e oce!ns !nd t)e %er" )u id !re!s o( t)e ;orBE (or inst!nce8 %!&our &ressures !re !l ost !t s!tur!tion le%el' In t)e !rid !nd se i-!rid !re!s8 %!&our &ressures !re lo;8 c!using t)e s!tur!tion de(icit o( e%!&or!+ilit" o( !ir to +e )ig)' #)en %!&our is continuousl" !dded to t)e !t os&)ere !nd t)e li it is re!c)ed8 t)e !ir is s!id to +e s!tur!ted' T)e resulting %!&our &ressure o( t)e u&&er li it o( ;!ter )olding c!&!cit" is ter ed s!tur!tion %!&our &ressure' T)e s!tur!tion %!&our &ressure incre!ses ;it) )ig)er te &er!tures !nd re!c)es ! !Gi u !t 2023 + !t ;)ic) &oint t)e
33
SOS 203
introduction o( ore ;!ter %!&our into t)e !ir results in condens!tion o( !n e1ui%!lent ! ount o( ;!ter %!&our' T)e s!tur!tion &oint c!n +e re!c)ed !t ! &!rticul!r te &er!ture ;it)out t)e oisture content c)!nging' T)e critic!l te &er!ture !t ;)ic) t)e s!tur!tion %!&our &ressure is re!c)ed is Bno;n !s t)e de; &oint te &er!ture8 ;)ic) !" +e de(ined !s t)e te &er!ture !t ;)ic) t)e 1u!ntit" o( ;!ter %!&our in t)e !ir re&resents t)e !Gi u )olding c!&!cit" o( t)e !ir !t t)!t te &er!ture' T)is critic!l te &er!ture !" +e !tt!ined +" incre!sing t)e ;!ter %!&our content o( t)e !ir !t ! &!rticul!r te &er!ture8 or decre!sing t)e !ir te &er!ture !nd conse1uentl"8 reducing t)e rel!ti%e oisture content o( t)e !ir !t ! const!nt te &er!ture' Once t)e de; &oint is re!c)ed8 !n" (urt)er cooling +e"ond it ;ill result in condens!tion eit)er in t)e (or o( inute &!rticles o( ;!ter i( te &er!ture is !+o%e 00C or ice i( it is +elo; 00C' T)e de; &oint !nd rel!ti%e )u idit" !re closel" rel!ted' At )ig) rel!ti%e )u idit"8 t)e !ir is close to s!tur!tion !nd onl" slig)t cooling ;ill +e re1uired to !tt!in t)e de; &oint' On t)e ot)er )!nd8 ;)en rel!ti%e )u idit" is lo;8 ! l!rge ! ount o( cooling is re1uired (or t)e de; &oint to +e !tt!ined'
1.
CONCLUSION
At os&)eric oisture is !de u& o( ;!ter %!&our8 ;!ter dro&lets !nd ice' T)e" !re deri%ed (ro e%!&or!tion !nd re o%ed +" condens!tion !nd &reci&it!tion'
2.
SUMMARY
In t)is unit ;e )!%e le!rnt t)!t9 2' 2' #!ter %!&our )ig)l" in(luences ;e!t)er !nd cli !te At os&)eric oisture is deri%ed t)roug) e%!&or!tion (ro t)e ;!ter +odies on t)e e!rt)As sur(!ce 3' 0u idit" is ! e!sure o( t)e ! ount o( ;!ter %!&our in t)e !t os&)ere' 3' T)e ! ount o( ;!ter %!&our decre!ses ;it) )eig)t' 7' T)ere !re di((erent indices (or e!suring )u idit" 4' Rel!ti%e )u idit" is t)e ost &o&ul!rl" used indeG (or e!suring !ir )u idit"' ?' Rel!ti%e )u idit" is )ig)er o%er t)e oce!n t)!n o%er t)e continent'
37
SOS 203
6.
2' 2'

,G&l!in t)e &rocess o( !c1uisition !nd re o%!l o( !t os&)eric oisture' !' #)!t do "ou underst!nd +" rel!ti%e )u idit"H +' ,G&l!in t)e de; &oint te &er!ture !nd )o; it is rel!ted to rel!ti%e )u idit"'
5.
A"o!de8J'O'C2003D' Introduction to Climatology for t e !ropics. I+!d!n9S&ectru 5ooBs Li ited' A"o!de8J'O'C2002D' Introduction to Agro Climatology'I+!d!n96int!ge .u+lis)ers' Don!ld A)rens8 C' C2>>3D' Meteorology !oday" An introduction to Weat er# Climate and t e $nvironmentC7t) edD' U'S'A9#est .u+lis)ing Co &!n"' O/o8O'et al C2002D''undamentals of P ysical and (ynamic Climatology Sedec .u+lis)ers'
34
SOS 203
UNIT 2
CONTENTS 2'0 2'0 3'0 3'0 7'0 4'0 ?'0
T7E DYNAMICS OF PRESSURE AND #IND SYSTEMS
Introduction O+/ecti%es M!in Content 3'2 .ressure !nd #ind S"ste s 3'2'2 .ressure 5elts !nd .l!net!r" #inds Conclusion Su !r" Tutor- M!rBed Assign ent Re(erences$=urt)er Re!dings
INTRODUCTION
T)e o%e ent o( !ir in t)e !t os&)eric s"ste !" +e %ertic!l or )oriFont!lE in t)e l!tter c!se it is co onl" Bno;n !s ;ind' #inds result (ro di((erences in !ir &ressure ;)ic) in turn !" +e c!used +" di((erences in te &er!ture !nd t)e (orce eGerted +" gr!%it"8 !s &ressure decre!ses r!&idl" ;it) )eig)t' An incre!se in te &er!ture c!uses !ir to )e!t8 eG&!nd8 +eco e less dense !nd rise8 cre!ting !n !re! o( lo; &ressure +elo;' Con%ersel"8 ! dro& in te &er!ture &roduces !n !re! o( )ig) &ressure' In t)is unit8 ;e ;ill +e looBing !t t)e glo+!l distri+ution o( &ressure !nd directions o( ;inds'
2.
O!"ECTIVES
At t)e end o( t)is unit8 "ou s)ould +e !+le to9 ,G&l!in t)e glo+!l distri+ution o( &ressure St!te t)e %!rious &l!net!r" ;inds !nd eG&l!in t)eir directions'
3. 3.1
MAIN CONTENT P'e--u'e $(d #)(d S0-%e*-
T)is re(ers to t)e circul!tion o( !ir o%er t)e e!rt)As sur(!ce !s ! result o( di((erences in &ressure' Along t)e e1u!tor !nd ;it)in 7 degrees nort) !nd sout)8 is t)e ,1u!tori!l lo; &ressure +elt8 ;)ere t)e idd!" sun is ne%er (!r (ro %ertic!l' It is ! +elt o( intense o%er)e!ting ;)ic) c!uses t)e !ir to eG&!nd8 +eco e lig)ter !nd rise' It is ! Fone o( ;ind con%ergence !nd o(ten c!lled t)e Doldru s'
3?
SOS 203
At !+out 300 nort) !nd sout) occur t)e su+-tro&ic!l )ig) &ressure +elts ;)ere t)e !ir is co &!r!ti%el" dr" !nd t)e ;inds !re c!l !nd lig)t' It is ! region o( descending !ir currents or ;ind di%ergence !nd !ntic"clones' It is (re1uentl" c!lled t)e )orse l!titude' Around t)e l!titudes 40o nort) !nd sout) !re t)e t;o te &er!te lo; &ressure +elts ;)ic) !re !lso Fones o( con%ergence ;it) c"clonic !cti%it"' T)e su+-&ol!r lo; &ressure !re!s !re +est de%elo&ed o%er t)e oce!ns8 ;)ere te &er!ture %!ri!tions +et;een t)e su er !nd ;inter !re negligi+le' At t)e nort) !nd sout) &ol!r >0o nort) !nd sout) ;)ere te &er!tures !re &er !nentl" lo;8 !re t)e &ol!r )ig) &ressure +elts' UnliBe t)e ;!ter !sses o( t)e )ig) l!titude in t)e sout)ern )e is&)ere8 )ig) &ressures o( corres&onding l!titude in t)e nort)ern )e is&)ere !re ! little co &lic!ted +" t)e &resence o( l!nd !ss' So e &ressure di((erences +et;een t)e su er !nd ;inter c!n +e eG&ected'
3.1.1 P'e--u'e !el%- $(d Pl$(e%$'0 #)(d=ro t)e glo+!l &er !nent &ressure +elts8 ;inds tend to +lo; (ro t)e )ig) &ressure +elts to lo; &ressure +elts !s &l!net!r" ;inds' =igure 3 !+o%e s)o;s t)e !ctu!l !rr!nge ent o( t)e glo+!l &ressure !nd ;ind +elts' 0o;e%er8 it is i &ort!nt to note t)!t t)ere !re se!son!l %!ri!tions in +ot) &ressure !nd ;inds'
3<
SOS 203
T)e ;inds +lo;ing out (ro t)e su+-tro&ic!l )ig) &ressure +elt in t)e nort)ern )e is&)ere to;!rds t)e e1u!tori!l lo; !re c!lled nort) tr!de ;inds !nd t)ose in t)e sout)ern )e is&)ere !re c!lled sout) e!st ;inds' #inds !re !l;!"s n! ed !(ter t)e direction t)e" co e (ro ' T)e tr!de ;inds !re t)e ost regul!r o( !ll t)e &l!net!r" ;inds' T)e" +lo; ;it) gre!t (orce !nd in ! const!nt direction' T)e" )!%e gre!t c!&!cit" (or )olding oisture +ec!use t)e" +lo; (ro t)e cooler su+-tro&ic!l l!titudes to t)e ;inter tro&ics' #inds +lo; (ro t)e su+-tro&ic!l )ig) &ressure +elts to;!rds t)e te &er!te lo; &ressure +elts !s t)e %!ri!+le ;esterlies' Under t)e e((ect o( t)e coriolis (orce8 t)e" +eco e t)e sout)-;esterlies in t)e sout)ern )e is&)ere' T)e" !re ore %!ri!+le in t)e nort)ern )e is&)ere8 +ut t)e" &l!" !n i &ort!nt role in c!rr"ing ;!r e1u!tori!l ;!ters !nd ;inds to t)e ;estern co!sts o( t)e te &er!te l!nds' T)e" +ring uc) &reci&it!tion to t)e ;estern co!sts o( continents' T)e ;e!t)er is d! & !nd cloud" !nd t)e se!s !re stor " !nd %iolent' =in!ll"8 t)e &ol!r e!sterlies +lo; out (ro t)e &ol!r )ig) &ressure +elts to;!rds t)e te &er!te lo; &ressure +elts' T)e" !re eGtre el" cold ;inds !s t)e" co e (ro t)e tundr! !nd ice- c!& regions' T)e" !re ore regul!r in t)e sout) t)!n in t)e nort)'
1.
CONCLUSION
T)ere !re !re!s o( &er !nentl" )ig) !nd lo; &ressure on t)e glo+e' #inds origin!ting (ro t)ese &ressure +elts !lso )!%e t)eir direction in(luenced +" corriolis (orce'
2.
SUMMARY
In t)is unit ;e )!%e le!rnt t)!t9 2' 2'' 3' 3' 7' #ind is t)e )oriFont!l o%e ent o( !ir #ind results (ro di((erences in !ir &ressure T)ere !re %!rious !re!s o( &er !nentl" )ig) !nd &er !nentl" lo; &ressure on t)e glo+e #inds !re n! ed !(ter t)e directions t)e" co e (ro #inds !re de(lected (ro t)eir origin!l direction +" corriolis (orce'
6.
2' 2'

,G&l!in t)e distri+ution o( &ressure !nd ;ind on ! glo+!l sc!le' #it) t)e !id o( ! di!gr! 8 eG&l!in t)e distri+ution o( ;orld &ressure !nd ;ind s"ste s
3>
SOS 203
5.
Areol!8 O' et al C2>>2D' Certificate P ysical and %uman &eograp y for Senior Secondary Sc ools' I+!d!n9Uni%ersit" .ress .lc' O/o8 O' C2>??D' ! e Climates of West Africa' I+!d!n90eine !nn ,duc!tion!l 5ooBs O/o8O'et al C2002D''undamentals of P ysical and (ynamic Climatology' Sedec .u+lis)ers' Str!)ler8 A'N' !nd Str!)ler8 A'0 C2>?3D'$nvironmental &eosciences9 Interaction between +atural Systems and Man' Jo)n #ile"s !nd Sons'
30
SOS 203
UNIT 3
T7ECONDENSATION PRECIPITATION PROCESS
AND
3'0 7'0 4'0 ?'0
Introduction O+/ecti%es M!in Content 3'2 Condens!tion 3'2 .reci&it!tion 3'2'2 T"&es o( .reci&it!tion Conclusion Su !r" Tutor- M!rBed Assign ent Re(erences$=urt)er Re!dings
1.
INTRODUCTION
At os&)eric oisture eGists in t)e (or o( ;!ter %!&our or ice' T)e condens!tion !nd &reci&it!tion &rocess essenti!ll" !ct to re o%e ;!ter (ro t)e !t os&)ere' T)is unit eG! ines t)e &rocesses t)!t result in +ot) condens!tion !nd e%entu!ll" &reci&it!tion'
2.
O!"ECTIVES
5" t)e end o( t)is unit8 "ou s)ould +e !+le to9 ,G&l!in )o; condens!tion t!Bes &l!ce in t)e !t os&)ere ,G&l!in t)e t)eories o( r!in dro& (or !tion' ,G&l!in t)e t"&es o( &reci&it!tion
3. 3.1
MAIN CONTENT Co(de(-$%)o(
Condens!tion c!n +e de(ined !s t)e (or !tion o( ;!ter dro&lets ;)en !ir )!s +een cooled +e"ond its de; &oint' Air !" +e cooled +" direct r!di!tion (ro t)e sur(!ce o( t)e e!rt) during ! cle!r nig)tE t)e )oriFont!l o%e ent o( ;!r !ir o%er ! cold sur(!ce8 t)e iGing !long o( t)e !rgins o( t;o !ir currents o( !rBed di((erent te &er!turesE t)e o%e ent o( !ir (ro ;!r er to cooler l!titudes8 !nd +" (!r t)e ost i &ort!nt8 +" !scent' ,!c) (or o( cooling !" &roduce condens!tion o( di((erent degrees !nd ;it) di((erent results'
32
SOS 203
=or condens!tion to t!Be &l!ce8 it is necess!r" (or so e Bind o( nuclei to +e &resent on ;)ic) t)e dro&lets c!n (or ' T)ese nuclei include &!rticles o( dust !nd s oBe8 s!lt (ro t)e oce!n8 &ollen8 !nd neg!ti%e ions &roduced +" t)e &!ss!ge o( r!di!tion t)roug) t)e !t os&)ere' T)e condensed dro&lets ;)en (or ed !re so inute t)!t t)e" (lo!t in t)e !ir !s (og or clouds' L!rger dro&s (or on le!%es !nd gr!ss !s de;8 or )o!r-(rost i( te &er!ture is +elo; (reeFing &oint '#)en dro&lets co!lesce in t)e !ir to ! cert!in critic!l siFe8 t)e" !" (!ll to e!rt) !s one or ot)er o( t)e (or s o( &reci&it!tion e!rlier discussed' T)e (or !tion o( r!indro&s is )ig)l" co &leG !nd it is not !ctu!ll" cle!r )o; dro&lets co!lesce8 t)oug) cert!in t)eories &ro&ose electric!l !ttr!ction8 su&ercooling (ollo;ed +" (reeFing into ice &!rticles8 !nd tur+ulence c!using co!lescence +" collision' Dro&s !" (or !nd continue to eGist in li1uid (or 8 e%en ;)en t)e te &er!ture is +elo; (reeFing &oint8 !s long !s !ir is undistur+ed' T)is &)eno enon is Bno;n !s su&er cooling8 !nd )!s ! nu +er o( i &ort!nt eteorologic!l e((ects' A good eG! &le is t)e !ccretion o( ice on !ircr!(t' I( !n !ircr!(t &!sses into ! cloud consisting o( l!rge dro&s o( su&er cooled ;!ter8 ;it) t)e !ir te &er!ture !t or +elo; (reeFing &oint8 ! consider!+le t)icBness o( cle!r ice !" (or !s e!c) dro& (reeFes on cont!ct ;it) t)e le!ding edges o( t)e ;ings' Si il!rl"8 gl!Fed (rost (or s ;)en su&er cooled ;!ter (reeFes on +r!nc)es8 tele&)one ;ires !nd ro!d sur(!ces' T)e !in (or s o( condens!tion include de;8 (rost8 (ogs !nd clouds ;)ic) )!%e +een discussed in Unit 3'
3.2
P'e+),)%$%)o(
6!rious r!in dro& (or !tion t)eories !re s!id to )!%e +een &ut (or;!rd in t)e &!st !nd %irtu!ll" !ll )!%e +een re/ected (or %!rious re!sons' According to A"o!de C2003D8 t)e t;o t)eories currentl" !cce&ted !re t)e 5ergeron-=indeisen !nd Co!lescense t)eories' T)e 5ergeron-=indeisen t)eor" o( r!in dro& (or !tion su+ its t)!t ice cr"st!ls ;it)in clouds tend to gro; l!rger !t t)e eG&ense o( t)e ;!ter dro&lets until t)e" +eco e too )e!%" to +e su&&orted ;it)in t)e cloud !nd conse1uentl" (!ll' T)ese ice cr"st!ls ;ill elt to (or r!in dro&s i( t)e" encounter ;!r er !ir !s t)e" descend' I( not8 t)e" ;ill (!ll !s sno;' #)en t)e te &er!ture ne!r t)e e!rt)As sur(!ce is !+out (reeFing le%el8 t)e ice cr"st!ls ;ill &!rti!ll" elt !nd (!ll !s sleet8 ! iGture o( r!in !nd sno;' T)e ice cr"st!ls gro; l!rger !t t)e eG&ense o( t)e ;!ter dro&lets +ec!use t)e s!tur!tion %!&our &ressure o%er ice is less t)!n o%er ;!ter' T)is e!ns t)!t %!&our ;)ic) is onl" s!tur!ted ;it) res&ect to ;!ter is su&er s!tur!ted ;it) res&ect to ice' Condens!tion t)ere(ore occurs on t)e ice cr"st!ls !t t)e eG&ense o( t)e su&er cooled ;!ter dro&lets'
32
SOS 203
T)e 5ergeron-=indeisen t)eor" is su&&orted +" o+ser%!tion !nd l!+or!tor" eG&eri ents' =or inst!nce8 in eGtr! tro&ic!l !re!s it is gener!ll" o+ser%ed t)!t signi(ic!nt &reci&it!tion !l;!"s co es (ro clouds ;)ose to&s eGtend +e"ond t)e (reeFing le%el in t)e !t os&)ere ;)ere!s lo;er clouds "ield no ore t)!n ist or driFFle' Also8 r!d!r eG&eri ents )!%e con(ir ed t)e eGistence o( +ot) ;!ter dro&lets !nd ice cr"st!ls in clouds eGtending +e"ond t)e (reeFing le%el !nd t)!t suc) clouds gi%e signi(ic!nt &reci&it!tion' =in!ll"8 in cloud seeding eG&eri ents clouds )!%e +een !de to &roduce r!in +" seeding ;it) (ine dr" ice Csolid (or o( Co2D or sil%er iodide ;)ic) )!s cr"st!l structure %er" si il!r to t)!t o( ice' R!in dro& (or !tions in tro&ic!l clouds !re usu!ll" ;!r +ec!use t)e" do not eGtend into t)e (reeFing le%el in t)e !t os&)ere' T)ese clouds !re t)ere(ore !de u& solel" o( ;!ter dro&lets' And "et t)ese clouds &roduce )e!%" r!in(!ll' #it)in suc) clouds8 r!indro&s gro; +" t)e co!lescence &rocess' T)e l!rger ;!ter dro&lets ;it)in clouds (!ll !t ! (!ster r!te t)!n t)e s !ller ones8 o%ert!Bing !nd !+sor+ing t)e s !ller dro&lets !long t)eir &!t)s' T)e l!rger dro&lets !lso dr!g or s;ee& t)e s !ller ones !nd !+sor+ t)e C=ig' 7D'
33
SOS 203
F)/. 28 P'o+e--e- o. '$)(d'o, .o'*$%)o( $++o'd)(/ %o ;$< !e'/e'o(3 Fe)de)-e( %&eo'0 $(d ;:< +o$le-+e(+e %&eo'0 ;Sou'+e8 A0o$de, 2 1; ,G&eri ent!l results s)o; t)!t t)e co!lescence &rocess !llo;s ! ore r!&id gro;t) o( r!indro&s t)!n si &le condens!tion !lt)oug) it is initi!ll" r!t)er slo;' =or condens!tion !nd &reci&it!tion to occur n!tur!ll"8 t)e !&&reci!+le !scent o( !n !ir- !ss is essenti!l' T)is !scent is +roug)t !+out in t)ree !in ;!"sE )ence t)ere !re t)ree !in t"&es o( &reci&it!tion9 2' 2' Con%ection!l r!in(!ll due to sur(!ce )e!ting8 Orogr!&)ic or relie( r!in(!ll due to !scent o%er l!nd8 &!rticul!rl" o%er ! )ig) r!nge o( )ills !nd
33
SOS 203
3'
=ront!l or c"clonic r!in(!ll8 ;)en eit)er ! !ss o( ;!r runs cold !ir or t)e l!tter undercuts t)e (or er'
!ir o%er
3.2.1 T0,e- o. P'e+),)%$%)o(

.reci&it!tion t"&es !re cl!ssi(ied on t)e +!sis o( t)e &rocesses ;)ic) led to t)eir (or !tion' T)ere !re t)ree t"&es o( &reci&it!tion' 2' Con%ection!l &reci&it!tion C=ig'4D9 T)is t"&e o( &reci&it!tion is co on in t)e tro&ics' #)en t)e e!rt)As sur(!ce is )e!ted u&8 oisture l!den %!&our rises +ec!use )e!ted !ir !l;!"s eG&!nds !nd +eco es lig)ter' Air rises in ! con%ection current !(ter &rolonged )e!ting' In !scending8 ;!ter %!&our condenses into cu uloni +us cloud ;)ic) re!c)es its !Gi u in t)e !(ternoon' 0ot8 rising !ir )!s gre!t c!&!cit" (or )olding oisture' As !ir rises it cools !nd ;)en s!tur!tion &oint is re!c)ed torrenti!l do;n &ours occur8 o(ten !cco &!nied +" t)under !nd lig)tening' T)ese do;n&ours !" not +e use(ul (or !griculture +ec!use t)e" !re so intense t)!t t)e" do not sinB into t)e soil +ut dr!in o(( !l ost i edi!tel"' In (!ct t)e" !" c!use serious erosion in (or s o( slo&e ;!s) !nd gull"ing
F)/. 68 Co(9e+%)o($l '$)(.$ll 2' Relie( or orogr!&)ic &reci&it!tion C=ig' ?D9T)e second c!use o( !ir rising is !ssoci!ted ;it) l!nd (or +!rriers suc) !s ount!ins8 )ills8 !nd ot)er )ig)l!nds' T)is t"&e is Bno;n !s orogr!&)ic &reci&it!tion' In t)is c!se8 t)e +!rriers lie !cross t)e &!t)s o( oisture +e!ring ;inds' ,G! &les in #est A(ric! include &reci&it!tion c!used +" t)e rising !ir !long t)e =ut! J!llon 0ig)l!nds8 t)e Jos .l!te!u !nd t)e C! eroon Mount!ins Cr!in(!ll in Jos .l!te!u is )ig)er t)!n t)e !%er!ge (or its l!titudeD' As t)e !ir is (orced to rise +" t)e )ig)l!nds8 t)e !ir cools !t t)e !di!+!tic r!te' I( cooling is su((icient8 r!in !" (!ll' As t)e !ir &!sses o%er t)e )ig)est &oint o( t)e )ig)l!nds8 it +egins to descend on t)e lee;!rd side' As it descends8 it undergoes ;!r ing !nd +eco es
37
SOS 203
drier' T)is +elt o( rel!ti%el" drier cli !tic conditions8 is usu!ll" c!lled t)e Mr!in s)!do;N8 !nd is c)!r!cteristic o( t)e lee;!rd sides o( t)e )ig)l!nd !re!s'
F)/. 58 Rel)e. R$)(.$ll 3' =ront!l8 con%ergence !nd distur+!nce &reci&it!tion C=ig' <D9T)is t"&e o( &reci&it!tion is c!used t)roug) t)e con%ergence o( !ir !sses ;it) contr!sting c)!r!cteristics' T)is t"&e o( &reci&it!tion is not co on in #est A(ric! !nd onl" occ!sion!ll" occurs ;)en in(luences o( t)e id l!titude de&ressions eGtend !s (!r sout) !s t)e" did (or inst!nce in 2>40' T)e !ir !scending !t t)e intertro&ic!l con%ergence Fone CITCVD is dr" !nd st!+le !nd conse1uentl"8 not r!in &roducing' On t)e ot)er )!nd8 true (ronts !" +e (or ed in !n" con%ergent !re!s8 suc) !s t)e idl!titudes ;)ere t)e !ir !sses !re o( contr!sting c)!r!cter in ter s o( te &er!ture !nd )u idit"'
F)/. @8 F'o(%$l '$)(.$ll #)!t !re t)e %!rious (or s o( &reci&it!tion "ou )!%e le!rntH Using rele%!nt di!gr! s8 enu er!te t)e t"&es o( &reci&it!tion
1.
CONCLUSION
Condens!tion is ! necess!r" condition (or &reci&it!tion to occur !nd &reci&it!tion c!n occur in di((erent ;!"s'
2.
34
SUMMARY
SOS 203
In t)is unit ;e )!%e le!rnt t)!t9 2' 2' 3' 3' Condens!tion occurs ;)en !ir is cooled +e"ond de; &oint' Air is cooled in di((erent ;!"s' T)e &resence o( nuclei is i &ort!nt (or condens!tion to occur' T)ere !re t;o t)eories o( r!indro& (or !tion8 t)!t is8 5ergeron=indeisen !nd co!lescence t)eories' 7' T)e !scent o( !ir is essenti!l (or condens!tion !nd &reci&it!tion to occur 4' T)ere !re t)ree t"&es o( r!in(!ll8 t)!t is8 con%ection!l8 orogr!&)ic !nd (ront!l rin(!ll'
6.
2' 2' 3' 3' 7' 4' ?' <' >' 20' 22'

Descri+e t)e ode o( origin !nd c)!r!cteristics o( C!D Con%ecti%e C+D Orogr!&)ic !nd CcD =ront!l &reci&it!tion' ,G&l!in t)e t;o t)eories o( r!indro& (or !tion' Discuss t)e &ro&elling (orces res&onsi+le (or t)e &!ttern o( !t os&)eric circul!tion' #)!t is t)e i &ort!nce o( sol!r r!di!tion to !nH Account (or t)e dis&osition o( sol!r r!di!tion in t)e e!rt)As !t os&)eric s"ste ' ,G&l!in t)e r!di!tion +!l!nce o( t)e e!rt)As !t os&)eric s"ste ' ,G&l!in t)e &rocess o( !c1uisition !nd re o%!l o( !t os&)eric oisture' !' #)!t do "ou underst!nd +" rel!ti%e )u idit"H +' ,G&l!in t)e de; &oint te &er!ture !nd )o; it is rel!ted to rel!ti%e )u idit"' ,G&l!in t)e distri+ution o( &ressure !nd ;ind on ! glo+!l sc!le' #it) t)e !id o( ! di!gr! 8 eG&l!in t)e distri+ution o( ;orld &ressure !nd ;ind s"ste s' Descri+e t)e ode o( origin !nd c)!r!cteristics o( !' Con%ecti%e &reci&it!tion +' Orogr!&)ic &reci&it!tion c' =ront!l &reci&it!tion ,G&l!in t)e t;o t)eories o( r!indro& (or !tion'
22'
5.
3?
SOS 203
A"o!de8J'O'C2003D' Introduction to Climatology for t e !ropics' I+!d!n9S&ectru 5ooBs Li ited' O/o8O'et al C2002D''undamentals of P ysical and (ynamic Climatology' L!gos9S,D,C .u+lis)ers' MonB)ouse8 ='J' C2>?>D' Principles of P ysical &eograp y'5rit!in9 0odder !nd Stoug)ton'
3<
SOS 203
UNIT 1
SEASONAL VARIATIONS IN RADIATION, DAYLIG7T AND TEMPERATURE
3'0 7'0 4'0 ?'0
Introduction O+/ecti%es M!in Content 3'2 Se!son!l 6!ri!tions in R!di!tion 3'2 Se!son!l 6!ri!tions in D!"lig)t 3'3 Se!son!l 6!ri!tions in Te &er!ture Conclusion Su !r" Tutor- M!rBed Assign ent Re(erences$=urt)er Re!dings
1.
INTRODUCTION
Agriculture is t)e !inst!" o( ost countries in t)e tro&ics' Un(ortun!tel" !griculture is )ig)l" %ulner!+le to cli !te %!ri!tions' To i &ro%e (ood &roduction in tro&ic!l countries8 it is essenti!l to Bno; t)e %!lue o( cli !tic ele ents !nd t)ier d!il"8 ont)l"8 se!son!l !nd
intensities %!lues.
2. O!"ECTIVES
5" t)e end o( t)is unit8 "ou s)ould +e !+le to9 Descri+e t)e se!son!l %!ri!tions in t)e ! ount o( sol!r r!di!tion8 d!"lig)t !nd te &er!ture Identi(" t)e !/or c!uses o( t)e se!son!l %!ri!tions'
3. 3.1
MAIN CONTENT Se$-o($l V$')$%)o(- )( R$d)$%)o(
T)e sun is t)e !in source o( energ" (or t)e e!rt)' It e its r!di!nt energ" ;)ic) is recei%ed +" t)e e!rt) !s sol!r r!di!tion or insol!tion' T)e ! ount o( insol!tion recei%ed !t !n" &l!ce on e!rt) de&ends !inl" on t)e lengt) o( d!" !nd t)e !ngle o( idd!" sun' Ot)er (!ctors include dist!nce (ro t)e sun8 !t os&)eric !+sor&tion8 re(lection !nd sc!ttering8 l!titude8 t)e n!ture o( t)e sur(!ce8 ele%!tion !nd !s&ect'
3>
SOS 203
At t)e ti e o( su er solstice CJune 22stD8 t)e noon r!"s o( t)e sun !re %ertic!l on t)e tro&ic o( c!ncer C23 2$2oND !nd t)e lengt) o( d!" incre!ses (ro 44 2$2o C!nt!rctic circleD in t)e ;inter )e is&)ere to t)e &ole in t)e su er )e is&)ere' T)e nort)ern )e is&)ere eG&eriences !Gi u sol!r r!di!tion' T)e nort)ern )e is&)ere !ctu!ll" recei%es t;o to t)ree ti es t)e ! ount o( sol!r r!di!tion recei%ed +" t)e ;inter )e is&)ere' Neglecting8 (or t)e o ent t)e e((ects o( t)e !t os&)ere8 on June 22st8 t)e Fon!l sol!r energ" cur%e8 +eginning !t Fero !t t)e Ant!rctic circle continues to rise ste!dil" u& to !+out l!titude 30oN in s&ite o( t)e (!ct t)!t t)e sunAs r!"s !re incre!singl" ore o+li1ue nort) o( 232$2oN' Nort) o( t)is l!titude8 )o;e%er t)ere is ! slig)t decline in sol!r r!di!tion ;)ic) continues to !+out l!titude 42oN +ec!use t)e ore o+li1ue r!"s o( t)e sun o((set t)e incre!sed lengt) o( d!"' 5ut t)e sol!r energ" cur%e !g!in rises nort) o( 42oN !nd re!c)es !n !+solute !Gi u !t t)e Nort) .ole' T)e conditions in t)e sout)ern )e is&)ere on Dece +er 22nd is t)e eG!ct re%erse o( ;)!t o+t!ins in t)e nort)ern )e is&)ere on June 22st C=ig >D =ig >'2 CA"o!de8 20028 &g 738 =ig 3! !nd +D'
70
SOS 203
At t)e ti e o( t)e e1uinoGes C!+out M!rc) 22 !nd Se&te +er 23D ;)en t)e sunAs noon r!"s !re %ertic!l !t t)e e1u!tor !nd t)e t!ngent !" re!c) t)e &oles8 l!titudin!l distri+ution o( sol!r r!di!tion rese +les t)!t (or t)e "e!r !s ! ;)ole8 since t)e !Gi u is !t t)e e1u!tor ;it) ini ! !t t)e &oles' During t)ese ti es +ot) t)e nort)ern !nd sout)ern )e is&)eres recei%e !&&roGi !tel" e1u!l ! ounts o( t)e sol!r r!di!tion' =or t)e "e!r !s ! ;)ole8 sol!r r!di!tion re!c)es ! !Gi u !t t)e e1u!tor !nd di inis)es gr!du!ll" !nd regul!rl" to;!rd ini u !t eit)er &ole' At t)e &oles t)e tot!l ! ount o( sol!r r!di!tion recei%ed (or t)e entire "e!r is !+out 30L o( t)!t recei%ed !t t)e e1u!tor' In #est A(ric!8 sol!r r!di!tion %!lues !re less !long t)e co!st!l !re!s t)!n inl!nd o( t)e region +ec!use o( cloud co%er' T)e %!lues o( r!di!tion !re !lso less during t)e r!in" se!son t)!n during t)e dr" se!son +ec!use o( t)e rel!ti%el" )e!%" cloud co%er'
3.2
Se$-o($l V$')$%)o(- )( D$0 L)/&%
T)e dur!tion o( insol!tion is indic!ted +" lengt) o( d!" or d!" lig)t !nd its %!ri!tions de&end l!rgel" on t)e e!rt)As re%olution' On June 22st Csu er solsticeD8 t)e e!rt) is so loc!ted in its or+it t)!t t)e nort) &ol!r end o( its !Gis tilts !t t)e (ull 23Oo to;!rds t)e sun' At t)is &osition8 t)e nort)ern )e is&)ere is inclined to;!rds t)e sun ;)ile t)e sout)ern )e is&)ere ti&s !;!" (ro t)e sun' On t)is d!"8 t)e d!"lig)t incre!ses (ro Fero on 44Oo CAnt!rctic circleD o( t)e ;inter )e is&)ere
72
SOS 203
to;!rds t)e nort) &ole until it is 23 )ours nort) o( t)e Arctic circle C44OoND' On Dece +er 22nd C;inter solsticeD8 t)e e!rt) is so &ositioned t)!t t)e nort) &ol!r !Gis !g!in le!ns t)e (ull 23 O o directl" !;!" (ro t)e sun !Bing t)e sout)ern )e is&)ere to ti& to;!rds t)e sun !nd t)e nort)ern )e is&)ere !;!"' T)e conditions o( d!"lig)t !re eG!ctl" ! re%erse o( t)!t o( June 22st' D!"lig)t incre!ses (ro Fero on t)e CArctic circleD in t)e ;inter )e is&)ere until it is 23 )ours sout) o( 44OoS CAnt!rctic circleD' During t)e e1uinoGes CM!rc) 22st !nd Se&t' 23rdD t)e e!rt)As !Gis !Bes ! rig)t !ngle ;it) ! line dr!;n to t)e sun8 !nd neit)er t)e nort) nor sout) &ole is ti&&ed to;!rds t)e sun' On t)ese d!"s !ll &l!ces !ll o%er t)e ;orld )!%e e1u!l d!" !nd e1u!l nig)t' In su !r"8 &l!ces on t)e su er )e is&)ere en/o" longer d!"s t)!n t)ose )!%ing ;inter +ut t)e tot!l !nnu!l eG&osure to t)e sun is t)e s! e (or !ll &l!ces on e!rt)' T)e di((erence +et;een su er !nd ;inter d!"lig)ts incre!ses (ro t)e e1u!tor re!c)ing its eGtre e &oles' T)roug)out t)e "e!r t)e lengt) o( d!" is e1u!l !t t)e e1u!tor t;el%e )ours !nd se%en inutes' According to Nieu;olt C2>??D8 !strono ic!ll" t)e dur!tion ;ould +e t;el%e )ours eG!ctl" +ut it t!Bes 3O inutes (or t)e u&&er )!l( o( t)e sun to dis!&&e!r under t)e )oriFon !t sunset !nd si il!rl"8 3O inutes +e(ore t)e centre o( t)e sunAs disc is !t t)e )oriFon ;)ile t)e u&&er )!l( o( it !lre!d" &ro%ides insol!tion !t sunrise' T)e di((erence +et;een t)e s)ortest !nd t)e longest d!" o( t)e "e!r gro;s ;it) incre!sing l!titude' In t)e lo; l!titudes t)e incre!se is !+out ? inutes &er degree ;)ole in )ig)er l!titudes C+et;een 70o !nd 40oDE it ! ounts to !+out 2< inutes &er degree o( l!titude' In conclusion8 se!son!l %!ri!tions in d!"lig)t in t)e tro&ics !re insigni(ic!nt'
3.3
Se$-o($l V$')$%)o(- )( Te*,e'$%u'e
Te &er!tures !re l!rgel" controlled +" inco ing !nd outgoing r!di!tion' 0o;e%er8 ! nu +er o( ot)er (!ctors !lso in(luence sur(!ce te &er!tures !nd t)eir distri+utions +ot) o%er ti e !nd &l!ce' Sur(!ce !ir te &er!tures !lso s)o; ! %!ri!tion ;it) l!titude' T)ere is ! gener!l incre!se in se!son!l %!ri!tion o( !ir te &er!ture ;it) l!titude' In t)e tro&ics8 t)e !+sence o( ! cold se!son indic!tes t)!t te &er!ture %!ri!tions +et;een t)e se!sons !re gener!ll" s !ll' In s)ort t)e tro&ics c!n +e s!id to )!%e se!son!l te &er!ture uni(or it"' T)e !in re!son (or t)is se!son!l te &er!ture uni(or it" is t)e s !ll di((erences in t)e ! ount o( net r!di!tion recei%ed in t)e di((erent se!sons' T)e te &er!ture uni(or it" is strongest !round t)e e1u!tor !nd decre!sed &ole ;!rds ;it) incre!sing l!titude' To;!rds t)e outer li its o( t)e tro&ics t)er !l di((erences ;it) &l!ce incre!se r!&idl" es&eci!ll" o%er t)e continent!l !re!s C=ig 20D'
72
SOS 203
T)e %!ri!tions !re (ound to +e ore !rBed o%er t)e l!nd t)!n o%er t)e oce!n' T)is is +ec!use l!nd sur(!ces !re r!&idl" !nd intensel" )e!ted +" sol!r r!di!tion8 ;)ere!s under e1u!l r!di!nt energ" ;!ter sur(!ces !re )e!ted ore slo;l" during t)e su er' On t)e ot)er )!nd l!nd sur(!ces cool ore r!&idl" !nd re!c) uc) lo;er te &er!tures t)!n t)e ;!ter sur(!ces during t)e ;inter' Outside t)e tro&ics8 te &er!tures %!r" ;idel" +et;een t)e se!sons' Cert!in de(inite centres o( )ig) !nd lo; te &er!tures occur during t)e su er !nd ;inter res&ecti%el"' T)ese !re (ound o%er l!nd !sses' In Jul"8 )ig) te &er!ture centres occur o%er Si+eri! C-34oCD8 nort)ern ost Nort) A eric! C-33oCD in J!nu!r"' A &er !nent centre o( lo; te &er!ture occurs in Greenl!nd !nd Ant!rctic!' T)ese !re t;o regions o( !ssi%e ice s)eets' =ro !+out 4 degrees l!titude8 t)ere is ! te &er!ture regi e8 in ;)ic) t)e te &er!tures !re )ig)er in t)e s&ring C=e+8 M!rc)8 A&rilD t)!n in su er' T)is is !s ! result o( cloudiness ;)ic) c)!r!cterises t)e r!in" se!son Csu erD' T)e r!in" se!son Csu erD is c)!r!cterised +" )e!%" cloud o%erc!st &!rticul!rl" in t)e d!"' T)is )el&s in reducing te &er!tures' T)is is not so in s&ring ;)ic) is c)!r!cterised +" !n" d!"s ;it) ! cle!r sB"' In Nigeri! t)e )ig)est !ir te &er!tures !re nor !ll" in A&ril in t)e nort)ern &!rts !nd ! little e!rlier in t)e sout)' Mini u te &er!tures in t)e nort) !re usu!ll" recorded !+out Dece +er' In t)e sout) t)ere is ! little di((erence +et;een t)e Dece +er te &er!tures !nd t)e rel!ti%el" lo; te &er!tures o( t)e r!in" se!son8 t)e lo;est te &er!tures o( t)e "e!r !" e%en +e recorded during t)e r!in" se!son'
73
SOS 203
1.
CONCLUSION
Se!son!l %!ri!tions in sol!r r!di!tion8 d!"lig)t !nd te &er!ture !re !inl" due to t)e re%olution o( t)e e!rt) !nd ore !rBed in t)e id !nd )ig) l!titude'
2.
SUMMARY
2' Glo+!ll"8 t)e su er )e is&)ere recei%es t;o to t)ree ti es t)e ! ount o( sol!r r!di!tion recei%ed +" t)e ;inter )e is&)ere' In ost o( t)e tro&ics8 &!rticul!rl" #est A(ric! r!di!tion is lo;er during t)e r!in" se!son t)!n during t)e dr" se!son +ec!use o( t)e rel!ti%el" )e!%" cloud co%er' 2' .l!ces on t)e su er )e is&)ere en/o" longer d!"s t)!n t)ose on t)e ;inter )e is&)ere' Se!son!l %!ri!tions in d!"lig)t in t)e tro&ics !re insigni(ic!nt' 3' Gener!ll" se!son!l %!ri!tions o( !ir te &er!ture incre!se ;it) l!titude' In t)e tro&ics te &er!ture %!ri!tions +et;een t)e se!sons !re 1uite s !ll'
6.
2' 2' 3'

Discuss t)e e((ect o( t)e re%olution o( t)e e!rt) on t)e glo+!l distri+ution o( sol!r r!di!tion' ,G&l!in t)e se!son!l %!ri!tions in d!"lig)t in t)e ;orld' #)" is t)ere no cold se!son in t)e tro&icsH
5.
A"o!de8 J'O' C2><3D' Introduction to Climatology for t e !ropics' Jo)n C)ic)ester9 #ile" !nd Sons' Nieu;olts8 S' C2>??D' Tro&ic!l Cli !tolog"9 An Introduction to t e Climates of t e )ow )atitudes' C)ic)ester9Jo)n #ile"s !nd Sons8 O/o8 O' C2>??D' ! e Climates of West Africa'I+!d!n90eine !nn ,duc!tion!l 5ooBs' O/o8O'et al C2002D'''undamentals of P ysical Climatology'L!gos9 S,D,C .u+lis)ers' and (ynamic
Str!)ler8 A'N' !nd Str!)ler8 A'0 C2>?3D' $nvironmental &eoScience9 Interaction between +atural Systems and Man'C)ic)ester9 Jo)n #ile"s !nd Sons'
73
SOS 203
UNIT 2
CONTENTS 2'0 2'0 3'0 3'0 7'0 4'0 ?'0
SEASONAL VARIATIONS IN EVAPORATION AND RAINFALL
Introduction O+/ecti%es M!in Content 3'2 Se!son!l 6!ri!tions in ,%!&or!tion 3'2'2 Se!son!l 6!ri!tions in R!in(!ll Conclusion Su !r" Tutor- M!rBed Assign ent Re(erences$=urt)er Re!dings
1.
INTRODUCTION
,%!&or!tion is t)e sources o( !ll !t os&)eric oisture including r!in(!ll' It is t)e re%erse o( &reci&it!tion in t)e )"drologic!l c"cle' =ood &roduction in t)e tro&ics de&ends l!rgel" on t)e c)!r!cteristics8 ! ount !nd dur!tion o( r!in(!ll' .roducti%it" c!n +e i &ro%ed +" !d/usting &l!nting d!tes so t)!t cro&s c!n t!Be !d%!nt!ge o( r!in(!ll conditions.
2.
O!"ECTIVES
5" t)e end o( t)is unit8 "ou s)ould +e !+le to9 De(ine e%!&or!tion !nd e%!&otr!ns&ir!tion St!te t)e di((erences +et;een !ctu!l !nd &otenti!l e%!&otr!ns&ir!tion Descri+e t)e se!son!l %!ri!tions in t)e ! ount o( e%!&or!tion !nd r!in(!ll' Identi(" t)e !/or c!uses o( t)e se!son!l %!ri!tions'
3. 3.1
MAIN CONTENT Se$-o($l V$')$%)o(- )( E9$,o'$%)o(
,%!&or!tion is t)e &)"sic!l &rocesses o( olecul!r tr!ns(er in%ol%ing ! c)!nge o( st!te o( ;!ter (ro li1uid or solid into g!s' T)e &rocess o( e%!&or!tion re1uires energ" to +e eG&ended in o%erco ing t)e inter olecul!r !ttr!ctions o( t)e ;!ter &!rticles' T)is energ" is l!rgel" &ro%ided +" t)e re o%!l o( )e!t (ro t)e i edi!te surroundings c!using !&&!rent )e!t loses' ,%!&or!tion !" occur eit)er (ro (ree ;!ter sur(!ces suc) !s ri%ers8 &onds !nd l!Bes8 (ro +!re soil8 or (ro
77
SOS 203
;!ter ;)ic) )!s +een interce&ted +" &l!nt le!%es or ste s' ,%!&or!tion !lso occurs t)roug) tr!ns&ir!tion (ro &l!nts' #!ter loss (ro tr!ns&ir!tion in co +in!tion ;it) e%!&or!tion is ter ed ,%!&otr!ns&ir!tion' I( oisture is not li iting !t t)e e%!&or!ting sur(!ce8 e%!&or!tion !nd e%!&otr!ns&ir!tion occur !t t)e !Gi u r!te &ossi+le (or t)e en%iron ent' T)is )!s gi%en rise to t)e conce&t o( &otenti!l e%!&otr!ns&ir!tion' Moisture is )o;e%erE )!rdl" !l;!"s !%!il!+le in su((icient 1u!ntities !t t)e e%!&or!ting sur(!ce8 so t)!t e%!&or!tion !nd e%!&otr!ns&ir!tion o(ten occur !t r!tes +elo; t)ose t)!t ;ould t!Be &l!ce !ssu ing ;!ter ;!s !l;!"s !%!il!+le' T)is is Bno;n !s !ctu!l e%!&otr!ns&ir!tion' 5ec!use o( t)e &ro+le s in%ol%ed in t)e stud" o( !ctu!l e%!&otr!ns&ir!tion ore !ttention )!s +een &!id to t)e stud" o( &otenti!l e%!&otr!ns&ir!tion &!rticul!rl" (or !gricultur!l &ur&oses' 5ud"Bo C2>74D concluded t)!t e%!&or!tion (ro (ield cro&s is close to t)e &otenti!l r!te ;)en t)e soil oisture is gre!ter t)!n or e1u!l to ?0-<0L o( t)e %!lue o( (ield c!&!cit"' T)ornt);!ite !nd M!t)er C2>77D s!id t)!t e%!&or!tion !nd e%!&otr!ns&ir!tion ;ould continue !t t)e &otenti!l r!te !s long !s t)e soil ;!s !t (ield c!&!cit"' T)e conditions o( e%!&or!tion in t)e dr" se!son in #est A(ric! s)o; ! gener!l incre!se in l!nd (ro t)e co!st in ! Fon!l &!ttern !lt)oug) so e su+st!nti!l distortions occur !long t)e co!st !nd in t)e interior +et;een 22oN !nd 2<oN' Sout) o( l!titude >oN t)ere is ! re !rB!+le decre!se in e%!&or!tion &ro+!+l" +ec!use o( t)e r!&id c)!nge in cloudiness +et;een !re!s to t)e nort) !d sout) o( t)e l!titude' T)e s !llest %!lues o( e%!&or!tion !re !long t)e co!st' T)e re!son (or t)is is t)!t t)e !ir !ss is still &resent in co!st!l !re!s !nd it is cloudier' T)is reduces t)e inco ing r!di!tion !%!il!+le (or e%!&or!tion' During t)e r!in" se!son8 t)e s&re!d o( cloud +eco es ore uni(or !nd conse1uentl" t)ere is ! ore regul!r distri+ution o( e%!&or!tion8 &!rticul!rl" o%er !re!s to t)e sout) o( !&&roGi !tel" l!titude 27oN8 ;)ere t)e %!lues !re less t)!n ?7 ' T)e lo;est %!lues !re !long t)e co!st' T)is !g!in re(lects t)e lo; %!lue o( net r!di!tion !%!il!+le (or e%!&or!tion +ec!use o( )ig)er cloud densit" !nd conse1uentl" ! gre!ter loss in inco ing sol!r r!di!tion' ,%!&or!tion is rel!ti%el" lo; !long t)e sout)ern co!stl!nd !nd )ig) ne!r t)e desert' 6!lues !re gener!ll" )ig)er in dr" se!son t)!n in r!in" se!son &!rticul!rl" !long t)e co!st in t)e tro&ics' Gener!ll"8 t)e e%!&or!tion r!te is )ig)est to;!rd t)e end o( t)e dr" se!son8 n! el" in M!rc) !nd A&ril' T)e lo;est %!lues !re recorded in t)e ;et se!son n! el" Jul" !nd August in Nigeri! due to consider!+le
74
SOS 203
incre!ses in cloud !nd )ig)l" reduced ! ounts o( insol!tion COgunto"in+o8 2>?<D'
3.1.1 Se$-o($l V$')$%)o(- )( R$)(.$ll

In gener!l8 )ig) r!in(!ll tot!ls occur o%er t)e e1u!tori!l regions !nd t)e onsoon l!nds o( sout)-e!st Asi!8 ;)ile t)e deserts recei%e t)e le!st ! ount o( r!in(!ll' #it) res&ect to se!son!l %!ri!tions in r!in(!ll t)e &!ttern is gener!ll" Fon!l (or +ot) se!sons8 es&eci!ll" in t)e lo; l!titudes' In t)e iddle l!titudes8 on t)e ot)er )!nd8 t)e &!ttern is non Fon!l' T)e continents )!%e ore o( t)eir r!in(!ll during su er t)!n during t)e ;inter ont)s' In t)e tro&ics t)e se!son!l %!ri!tion is second in i &ort!nce to t)e tot!l ! ount o( r!in(!ll' It is t)e &ri e controlling (!ctor o( t)e (!r ing c!lend!r in ost o( t)e tro&ics I cle!ring8 &loug)ing8 ridging8 &l!nting8 !&&lic!tion o( (ertiliFer8 ;eeding !nd )!r%esting' In !n" &!rts o( t)e tro&ics8 t)e onset8 dur!tion !nd retre!t o( t)e r!in !re decisi%e in t)e !gricultur!l &roduction' Se!son!l r!in(!ll )!s ! strong e((ect on t)e ;!" o( li(e o( &eo&le &!rticul!rl" t)eir outdoor !cti%ities' T)e !/or (!ctor controlling t)e cli !te o( #est A(ric! is Inter Tro&ic!l Discontinuit" CITDD' In #est A(ric!8 t)e ITD !ssu es its nort)ern ost &osition !round l!titude 20oN in August' T)is !rBs t)e )eig)t o( t)e r!in" se!son in #est A(ric! ;it) %irtu!ll" t)e ;)ole region under t)e in(luence o( t)e oist sout);esterl" !ir !ss (ro t)e Atl!ntic Oce!n C=ig' 22D'
F)/. 118 Fe:'u'$'0 '$)(.$ll o9e' #e-% A.')+$ ;)(+&e-< Sou'+e8 A0o$de, 2 2
7?
SOS 203
T)e ITD !tt!ins its sout)ern ost &osition !round l!titude 4oN in J!nu!r"' T)is re&resents t)e &e!B o( t)e dr" se!son ;it) t)e ;)ole o( #est A(ric! eGce&t t)e co!stl!nds co ing under t)e in(luence o( t)e dr" nort) e!sterlies (ro t)e S!)!r! Desert C=ig 22D'
F)/. 128 Au/u-% '$)(.$ll o9e' #e-% A.')+$ ;)(+&e-< Sou'+e8 A0o$de, 2 2 T)e co!st!l region o( #est A(ric! C!re!s !round C!l!+!rD is ! continuousl" r!in" !re!8 ;)ere t)ere is so e se!son!l %!ri!tion in r!in(!ll +ut ;)ere no re!l dr" se!son occurs' T)is is (ollo;ed +" ! region ;)ere t;o r!in" se!sons !nd t;o dr" &eriods !ltern!te' T)e lengt) !nd intensit" o( t)e t;o !/or r!in" !nd t;o dr" se!sons !re r!rel" t)e s! e' In t)e nort)ern &!rt o( #est A(ric! onl" ! s)ort r!in" se!son !nd ! long dr" se!son occur' R!in(!ll decre!ses +ot) in dur!tion !nd ! ount (ro t)e co!st to t)e interior eGce&t ;)ere !ltitudin!l e((ects cre!te isl!nds o( )ig)er r!in(!ll Ce'g' Jos .l!te!uD' T)e co!st!l !re!s recei%e o%er 3000 s&re!d o%er <-20 ont)s ;)ile t)e eGtre e nort) recei%es less t)!n 270 s&re!d o%er 3 to 3 ont)s'
1.
CONCLUSION
,%!&or!tion is t)e source o( oisture in t)e !t os&)ere !nd e%entu!ll" r!in(!ll' R!in(!ll is t)e source o( oisture (or !gricultur!l &roduction &!rticul!rl" in t)e tro&ics'
7<
SOS 203
2.
SUMMARY
In t)is unit ;e )!%e le!rnt t)!t9 2' ,%!&or!tion in%ol%es t)e c)!nge o( st!te o( ;!ter (ro li1uid or solid into g!s' ,%!&or!tion !" occur eit)er (ro ! (ree ;!ter sur(!ce or +!re ground' #!ter loss (ro tr!ns&ir!tion in co +in!tion ;it) e%!&or!tion is ter ed e%!&otr!ns&ir!tion' I( oisture is not li iting !t t)e e%!&or!ting sur(!ce8 e%!&or!tion !nd e%!&otr!ns&ir!tion occurs !t t)e !Gi u r!te &ossi+leE !nd t)is is ter ed &otenti!l e%!&otr!ns&ir!tion' ,%!&or!tion !nd e%!&otr!ns&ir!tion t)!t occur ;)en ;!ter is not !l;!"s !%!il!+le is ter ed !ctu!l e%!&otr!ns&ir!tion' 2' In t)e tro&ics8 se!son!l %!ri!tion in r!in(!ll is !n i &ort!nt (!ctor ;)ic) controls t)e !gricultur!l c!lend!r' 3' Se!son!l r!in(!ll )!s ! strong e((ect on t)e ;!" o( li(e o( &eo&le8 &!rticul!rl" t)eir outdoor !cti%ities' 3' T)e !/or (!ctor controlling #est A(ric!As cli !te is t)e ITD'
6.
2'

#rite s)ort notes on t)e (ollo;ing9 !' ,e%!&or!tion +' ,%!&otr!ns&ir!tion c' Actu!l e%!&otr!ns&ir!tion d' .otenti!l e%!&otr!ns&ir!tion' Co ent on t)e i &ort!nce o( ITD' Discuss t)e e((ect o( t)e r!di!tion o( t)e e!rt) on t)e glo+!l distri+ution o( sol!r r!di!tion' ,G&l!in t)e se!son!l %!ri!tions in d!"lig)t in t)e ;orld' #)" is t)ere no cold se!son in t)e tro&icsH
2' 3' 3' 7'
7>
SOS 203
5.
A"o!de8 J'O' C2><3D' Introduction to Climatology for t e !ropics Jo)n C)ic)ester9#ile" !nd Sons' Nieu;olts8 S' C2>??D' !ropical Climatology" An Introduction to t e Climates of t e )ow )atitudes' C)ic)ester9Jo)n #ile" !nd Sons' O/o8 O' C2>??D' ! e Climates of West Africa'I+!d!n90eine !nn ,duc!tion!l 5ooBs' O/o8O'et al C2002D' 'undamentals of P ysical and Climatology'L!gos9 S,D,C .u+lis)ers' (ynamic
Str!)ler8 A'N' !nd Str!)ler8 A'0 C2>?3D' $nvironmental &eoScience9 Interaction between +atural Systems and Man' C)ic)ester9Jo)n #ile"s !nd Sons'
40
SOS 203
MODULE 3
Unit 2 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 3 Unit 7 ,1ui& ent !nd M!inten!nce o( St!nd!rd Meteorologic!l St!tions Me!sure ent o( Air .ressure8 #ind S&eed8 #ind Direction8 R!di!tion !nd Suns)ine Dur!tion Me!sure ent o( ,%!&or!tion !nd ,%!&otr!ns&ir!tion !nd M!inten!nce o( ! St!nd!rd Meteorologic!l St!tion' Cli !te !nd Agriculture in t)e Tro&ics I Cli !te !nd Agriculture in t)e Tro&ics II
UNIT 1
EAUIPMENT AND MAINTENANCE OF STANDARD METEOROLOGICAL STATIONS
3'0 7'0 4'0 ?'0
Introduction O+/ecti%es M!in Content 3'2 C!tegories o( #e!t)er St!tions 3'2 #e!t)er Me!sure ent 3'2'2 R!in(!ll 3'2'2 Air Te &er!ture 3'2'3 0u idit" Conclusion Su !r" Tutor- M!rBed Assign ent Re(erences$=urt)er Re!dings
1.
INTRODUCTION
A ;e!t)er st!tion ot)er;ise Bno;n !s ! eteorologic!l st!tion or eteorologic!l enclosure is ! &l!ce ;)ere !ll ele ents o( ;e!t)er !re e!sured !nd recorded' In di ension8 it e!sures 20 etres +" 4 etres' It s)ould +e loc!ted on ! le%el ground co%ered ;it) s)ort gr!sses' =urt)er ore8 t)e st!tion s)ould not +e sited on or close to ! )ill8 in ! de&ression or on stee& slo&e8 ne!r +uildings or t!ll trees' T)e st!tion is !lso usu!ll" (enced !round ;it) ;ire g!uFe (or t)e securit" o( t)e instru ents !nd to ensure (ree !ir circul!tion' 5!sed on t)e nu +er o( ele ents e!sured or o+ser%ed !nd t)e (re1uenc" o( o+ser%!tion o( t)ese ele ents8 (our c!tegories o( ;e!t)er st!tions !re recognised'
42
SOS 203
F)/. 138 L$0ou% o. $ #e$%&e' S%$%)o( ;Sou'+e8 A0o$de, 2
2<
2.
O!"ECTIVES
5" t)e end o( t)is unit8 "ou s)ould +e !+le to9 Descri+e t)e l!"out o( ! ;e!t)er st!tion Recognise t)e e1ui& ent (or e!suring r!in(!ll8 !ir te &er!ture !nd )u idit" Me!sure r!in(!ll8 !ir te &er!ture !nd )u idit"'
3. 3.1
MAIN CONTENT C$%e/o')e- o. #e$%&e' S%$%)o(-
#e )!%e t)e (ollo;ing c!tegories o( ;e!t)er st!tions9 2' R!in(!ll st!tions9 T)ese !re st!tions !nned +" &!rt-ti e o+ser%ers ;)o t!Be d!il" re!dings o( r!in(!ll onl"' In t)e strictest sense o( t)e ter t)ese !re not ;e!t)er st!tions8 !s t)e onl" ;e!t)er ele ent e!sured is r!in(!ll'
42
SOS 203
2' Cli !tologic!l st!tions9 T)ese st!tions !re !lso !nned +" &!rt-ti e o+ser%ers +ut in !ddition to e!suring d!il" r!in(!ll8 t)e" !Be once or t;ice d!il" instru ent!l o+ser%!tions o( !ir te &er!ture !nd )u idit"' 3' Agrocli !tologic!l st!tions9 T)ese !re st!tions ;)ere d!il" instru ent!l o+ser%!tions o( te &er!ture !nd )u idit"8 !s ;ell !s soil te &er!tures o( %!rious de&t)s !re !de once or t;ice' Ot)er ele ents ;)ic) !re e!sured onl" once d!il" include r!in(!ll8 ;ind s&eed !nd direction8 e%!&or!tion8 suns)ine dur!tion !nd r!di!tion' T)e" !re !nned +" &!rt- ti e o+ser%ers' 3' S"no&tic st!tion9 T)ese !re st!tions !nned +" (ull-ti e &ro(ession!l o+ser%ers' Continuous ;e!t)er onitoring !nd )ourl" instru ent!l o+ser%!tion !re !int!ined )ere' T)e !in cli !tic ele ents o+ser%ed include te &er!ture8 )u idit"8 &ressure8 r!in(!ll8 dur!tion o( suns)ine8 cloud ! ount !nd ;ind s&eed !nd direction'
3.2
#e$%&e' Me$-u'e*e(%
,le ents o( ;e!t)er !re o+ser%ed !nd e!sured +" ;e!t)er instru ents ;)ic) !re Be&t ;it)in t)e con(ines o( ;e!t)er st!tions' #e!t)er instru ents !" +e !nu!l or sel(-recording C!utogr!&)icD' T)e !utogr!&)ic instru ents &ro%ide continuous e!sure ents o( ;e!t)er ele ents o%er ! &eriod o( ti e8 usu!ll" 23 )ours' Autogr!&)ic instru ents !re ore eG&ensi%e t)!n !nu!l instru ents' T)e gener!l &rocedures (or t)e e!sure ents o( t)e !/or ;e!t)er ele ents !re discussed )ere'
3.2.1 R$)(.$ll
R!in(!ll is e!sured +" ! r!in g!uge' A r!in g!uge consists o( ! co&&er c"linder ;it) ! et!l (unnel ;)ic) le!ds into ! s !ller co&&er cont!iner or ! gl!ss +ottle' T)e )ole in t)e (unnel t)!t le!ds do;n to t)e cont!iner is %er" s !ll so t)!t e%!&or!tion o( t)e collected r!in is ini ised' T)e g!uge s)ould +e !t le!st 30c !+o%e t)e ground !nd (ir l" (!stened to !%oid s&l!s)ing' R!in(!ll (!lling in t)e (unnel tricBles into t)e /!r +elo; !nd !t t)e end o( ! 23-)our &eriod t)is is &oured into ! gr!du!ted e!suring c"linder ;)ic) is t!&ered !t t)e +otto to en!+le %er" s !ll ! ounts Csuc) !s 0'27 D to +e e!sured !ccur!tel"' T)e re!ding s)ould +e done !t e"e-le%el !nd to !n !ccur!c" o( u& to 0'2c '
43
SOS 203
F)/. 118 R$)(/u$/eR!in(!ll is gener!ll" st!ted in units o( inc)es8 illi eters !nd centi eters t)!t (!ll &er unit o( ti e' =or inst!nce8 20 o( r!in(!ll ;ould co%er t)e ground to ! de&t) o( 20 8 &ro%ided t)!t none is lost +" runo(( e%!&or!tion or sinBing into t)e ground' =or eteorologic!l recordings8 ! r!in-d!" is recBoned +" ! &eriod o( 23 )ours ;it) !t le!st 0'27 o( r!in recorded' T)ere !re di((erent t"&es o( !utogr!&)ic r!in g!uges8 de&ending on t)e t"&e o( o&er!ting ec)!nis E t)e" include t)e tilting si&)on8 t)e ti&&ing +ucBet !nd t)e ;eig)ing collector s"ste C#'M'O 2>?0D' T)e ost &o&ul!r o( t)ese r!in g!uges is t)e tilting si&)on !utogr!&)ic r!in g!uge' It cont!ins ! collecting c)! +er (itted ;it) ! (lo!t' #)en t)e c)! +er (ills u& !s r!in (!lls8 t)e (lo!t rises !nd ! &en !tt!c)ed to t)e to& tr!ces ! gr!&) on ! c)!rt (iGed to ! c"lindric!l dru dri%en +" clocB ;!%e' A(ter t)e c)! +er is (illed8 it tilts o%er on its &i%ot !nd t)e contents si&)on out o( t)e g!uge' T)e (lo!t t)en returns to its origin!l le%el !nd t)e &en rests on t)e +!se o( t)e c)!rt' T)e c)! +er (ills u& !g!in !s t)e r!in continues to (!ll !nd t)e &rocess is re&e!ted until t)e r!in sto&s' One co &lete c"cle e!sures 7 o( r!in(!ll'
3.2.2 A)' Te*,e'$%u'e

Air te &er!ture is e!sured !nu!ll" ;it) t)e !id o( !Gi u ini u t)er o eters !nd !utogr!&)ic!ll" +" ! t)er ogr!&)' !nd
43
SOS 203
,!c) ;e!t)er st!tion )!s ! Ste%enson screen in ;)ic) t)e t)er o eters !re Be&t' T)e" !re !Gi u !nd ini u t)er o eters8 ;et +ul+ t)er o eter !nd dr" +ul+ t)er o eter' T)e screen is +uilt to &ro%ide s)!de under ;)ic) t)e s)!de te &er!ture o( t)e !ir c!n +e e!sured' It is ! ;ooden +oG ;)ose (our sides !re lou%ered to !llo; !de1u!te %entil!tion' T)e roo( is !de o( dou+le +o!rding to &re%ent t)e sunAs )e!t (ro re!c)ing t)e inside o( t)e screen ;)ile t)e ;)ite &!int (urt)er i &ro%es t)e insul!tion !g!inst sol!r r!di!tion' It is &l!ced on ! st!nd8 !+out 222c C3(tD !+o%e t)e ground le%el' T)e !Gi u t)er o eter is ! ercur"-in-gl!ss t)er o eter ;)ic) cont!ins ! s !ll gl!ss indeG' #)en t)e te &er!ture rises t)e ercur" eG&!nds !nd &us)es t)e indeG !long t)e tu+e' #)en t)e te &er!ture (!lls8 t)e ercur" contr!cts le!%ing +e)ind t)e indeG' T)e !Gi u te &er!ture is re!d on t)e sc!le !t t)e end o( t)e indeG ne!rer t)e ercur"'
F)/. 128 M$B)*u* $(d *)()*u* %&e'*o*e%e'T)e ini u t)er o eter is !n !lco)ol in-gl!ss t)er o eter in ;)ic) ;)en t)e te &er!ture rises8 t)e !lco)ol eG&!nds !nd (lo;s &!st t)e indeG !nd ;)en t)e te &er!ture (!lls8 t)e !lco)ol contr!cts !nd &ulls t)e indeG !long t)e tu+e' T)e end o( t)e indeG ne!rer t)e eniscus s)o;s t)e ini u te &er!ture' T)e instru ent is reset +" tilting or +" using ! !gnet to dr!; +!cB t)e indeG to t)e ercur"' T)e !Gi u !nd ini u t)er o eters !re used !t ;e!t)er st!tions to e!sure t)e
47
SOS 203
)ig)est !nd lo;est te &er!tures ;it)in t)e d!" res&ecti%el"' T)e !ir te &er!ture !t !n" gi%en ti e c!n +e re!d o(( !n ordin!r" ercur" ingl!ss t)er o eter ;it) or ;it)out !n indeG' Continuous e!sure ent o( !ir te &er!ture c!n +e done ;it) t)e !id o( ! sel(-recording t)er o eter Bno;n !s ! t)er ogr!&)'
3.2.3 Me$-u'e*e(% o. 7u*)d)%0

T)ere !re %!rious e!sures o( )u idit" Ci'e' t)e ;!ter %!&our content o( t)e !t os&)ereD' T)ese include8 !s e!rlier discussed8 rel!ti%e )u idit"8 !+solute )u idit"8 s&eci(ic )u idit"8 )u idit" iGing r!tio8 %!&our &ressure !nd de; &oint te &er!ture' Rel!ti%e )u idit" is )o;e%er8 t)e ost co onl" used e!sure o( )u idit"8 &er)!&s +ec!use it is e!s" to co &ute using t)e ;et !nd dr" +ul+ t)er o eter' T)e instru ent (or e!suring rel!ti%e )u idit" is t)e )"gro eter8 ;)ic) co &rises ;et!nd dr" +ul+ t)er o eters &l!ced side +" side in t)e Ste%enson screen' T)e dr" +ul+ is in (!ct t)e ordin!r" t)er o eter t)!t e!sures s)!de te &er!ture CTdD' T)e ;et +ul+ t)er o eter )!s its +ul+ co%ered ;it) uslin ;)ic) is &er&etu!ll" di&&ed in ! reser%oir o( distilled ;!ter' #)en !ir is s!tur!ted8 e%!&or!tion8 ;)ic) &roduces ! cooling e((ect8 t!Bes &l!ce (ro t)e ;et uslin' T)e ;et +ul+ t)ere(ore !l;!"s s)o;s lo;er re!ding CT;D t)!n t)e dr" +ul+' T)e di((erence +et;een t)e t;o re!dings CTd-T;D is Bno;n !s t)e ;et +ul+ de&ression' T)e drier t)e !t os&)ere is t)e gre!ter t)is di((erence' .s"c)o etric t!+les !re used to o+t!in %!lues8 %!&our &ressure8 de; &oint !nd rel!ti%e )u idit" (ro re!dings o( dr" !nd ;et +ul+ t)er o eters' A si &li(ied %ersion o( t)e &s"c)o etric t!+les is gi%en +elo;'
44
SOS 203
F)/. 168 70/'o*e%e' ;D'0 $(d #e% :ul: %&e'*o*e%e'<
1.
CONCLUSION
T)ere !re (our c!tegories o( ;e!t)er st!tions' #e!t)er e1ui& ent is Be&t in ;e!t)er st!tions' T)er o eters !nd dr" !nd ;et +ul+ t)er o eters !re Be&t in t)e Ste%enson screen ;)ic) in turn is &l!ced in ! ;e!t)er st!tion'
4?
SOS 203
2.
SUMMARY
In t)is unit ;e )!%e le!rnt t)!t9 2' A ;e!t)er st!tion is ! &l!ce ;)ere !ll ;e!t)er ele ents !re !nd recorded' e!sured
2' =our c!tegories o( ;e!t)er st!tions !re recognised I r!in(!ll st!tions8 cli !tologic!l st!tions8 !grocli !tologic!l st!tions !nd s"no&tic st!tions' 3' T)e di ension o( ! ;e!t)er st!tion is 4G20 ' 3' R!in g!uges C+ot) r!in(!ll' !nu!l !nd sel(-recordingD !re used in e!suring
7' T)er o eters C+ot) !nu!l !nd sel( recordingD !re used in e!suring te &er!ture' 4' Dr" !nd ;et +ul+ t)er o eters !re used to e!sure )u idit"'
6.
2' 2'

,G&l!in t)e !in (e!tures o( r!in g!uges !nd )o; t)e ! ount o( r!in is e!sured ;it) t)e e1ui& ent' ,G&l!in )o; "ou ;ill set u& ! st!nd!rd eteorologic!l st!tion'
4<
SOS 203
5.
Areol!8 O' C2>>>D' Certificate P ysical and %uman &eograp y for Senior Secondary Sc ools' I+!d!n9Uni%ersit" .ress .lc' A"o!de8 J'O' C2><3D' Introduction to Climatology for t e !ropics' C)ic)ester9Jo)n #ile" !nd Sons' A"o!de8 J'O' C2002D' Introduction to Agroclimatology' I+!d!n96!nt!ge .u+lis)ers' 5unnet8 R'5' C2>?3D' London9Long !n' &eneral &eograp y in (iagram'
Nieu;olt8 S C2>??D' !ropical Climatology' An Introduction to t e Climates of t e )ow latitudes' C)ic)ester9Jo)n #ile" !nd Sons' O/o8 O' C2>??D' ! e Climates of West Africa. I+!d!n90eine !nn ,duc!tion!l 5ooBs' O/o8O'et al. C2002D ''undamentals of P ysical and (ynamic Climatology. L!gos9S,D,C .u+lis)ers'
4>
SOS 203
UNIT 2
MEASUREMENT OF AIR PRESSURE, #IND SPEED, #IND DIRECTION, RADIATION AND SUNS7INE DURATION
CONTENTS 2'0 2'0 3'0 Introduction O+/ecti%es M!in Content 3'2 Me!sure ent o( Air .ressure 3'2 Me!sure ent o( #ind S&eed 3'3 Me!sure ent o( #ind Direction 3'3 Me!sure ent o( R!di!tion 3'7 Me!sure ent o( Suns)ine Dur!tion Conclusion Su !r" Tutor- M!rBed Assign ent Re(erences$=urt)er Re!dings
3'0 7'0 4'0 ?'0
1.
INTRODUCTION
e!sure ents st!rted in Unit 22 !nd continues
#e!t)er o+ser%!tion !nd in t)is unit'
2.
O!"ECTIVES
5" t)e end o( t)is unit8 "ou s)ould +e !+le to9 Recognise t)e e1ui& ent (or e!suring !ir &ressure8 ;ind s&eed8 ;ind direction8 r!di!tion !nd suns)ine dur!tion' Me!sure !ir &ressure8 ;ind s&eed8 ;ind direction8 r!di!tion !nd suns)ine dur!tion'
3.1
Me$-u'e*e(% o. A)' P'e--u'e
Air )!s ;eig)t !nd t)e ;eig)t o( t)e %ertic!l colu n o( !ir is e!sured +" +!ro eters' T)e instru ent ;)ic) e!sures !ir &ressure is c!lled ! +!ro eter' T)ere !re %!rious t"&es o( +!ro eters' T)e" !re t)e ercur" +!ro eter8 t)e !neroid +!ro eter8 t)e +!rogr!&) !nd !lti eter' 2' T)e ercur" +!ro eter9 T)e &rinci&le ;)ic) o&er!tes t)e ercur" +!ro eter is t)e +!l!ncing o( t)e colu n o( !ir !g!inst ! colu n o( ercur" in ! sc!led gl!ss tu+e' =luctu!tions in !ir &ressure &roduce corres&onding di((erences in t)e )eig)t o( t)e ercur" !nd ! gr!du!ted %!nier is ounted !long t)e tu+e to (!cilit!te !ccur!te re!ding to ! t)ous!ndt) o( !n inc)' At se! le%el8 t)e !t os&)ere
?0
SOS 203
+!l!nces ! colu n o( ercur" 2>'2> inc)es' In gener!l t)e ercur" +!ro eter is l!rge !nd cu +erso e to c!rr" !+out +ut it is %er" !ccur!te !nd is used in !n" ;e!t)er st!tions' 2' T)e !neroid +!ro eter e!sures &ressure using t)e &rinci&le o( s"l&)on cells8 ;)ic) is &!rti!ll" e%!cu!ted et!l ;e(er' #)en &ressure in t)e outside !ir incre!ses8 t)e cell tends to Mcoll!&seNE ;)en &ressure decre!ses8 t)e cell eG&!nds' T)ese (luctu!tions ;it) &ressure c)!nges !re ec)!nic!ll" linBed to !n indic!tor or ! c!li+r!ted di!l' T)e di!l is co onl" c!li+r!ted in inc)es o( ercur"' Alt)oug) t)e !neroid +!ro eter is less reli!+le8 it is ore co &!ct8 &ort!+le !nd con%enient to use on t)e (ield' 3' T)e !lti eter is !n !ltitude +!ro eter' T)e &rinci&le is t)e s! e !s t)!t o( t)e !neroid +!ro eter' T)e c)ie( di((erence lies in t)e (!ct t)!t +!ro etric sc!les !re c!li+r!ted in ter s o( !t os&)eric &ressure8 ;)ere!s8 !lti eters !re c!li+r!ted in (eet or etric )eig)t units' 3' T)e +!rogr!&)9 At os&)eric &ressure c!n !lso +e e!sured ;it) t)e !id o( ! sel(-recording +!ro eter Bno;n !s ! +!rogr!&)' T)e ost co onl" used +!rogr!&) e &lo"s t)e s"l&)on cells' S"l&)on cells !cti%!te &en !r ;)ic) o%es t)e inB record'
?2
SOS 203
3.2
Me$-u'e*e(% o. #)(d S,eed
#ind s&eed is e!sured +" ! cu& !ne o eter ;)ic) consists o( t)ree or (our cu&s8 conic!l or )e is&)eric!l in s)!&e ounted s" etric!ll" !+out %ertic!l !Gis'
F)/. 1C8 #)(d $(eo*e%e' T)e et!l cu&s ;)ic) !re (iGed to t)e ends o( t)e !r s rot!te !ccording to t)e &re%!iling ;ind s&eed' In t)e cu& gener!tor !ne o eter t)e rot!ting cu&s !re !de to gener!te %olt!ge8 ;)ic) registers on ! di!l c!li+r!ted in Bnots8 iles or Bilo etres &er )our' In t)e cu&-counter !ne o eter t)e integr!ted (lo; o( t)e !ir in iles or Bilo etres is registered on ! counter' In t)e l!tter c!se8 ;ind s&eed is o+t!ined +" di%iding in ;ind run +et;een t;o o+ser%!tion ti es +" t)e inter%ening
?2
SOS 203
&eriod o( ti e8 usu!ll" 23 )ours' A sel(-recording !ne o eter ;)ic) &roduces ! continuous record o( ;ind %elocit" o%erti e is c!lled !n !ne ogr!&)'
3.3
Me$-u'e*e(% o. #)(d D)'e+%)o(
#ind direction is o+ser%ed ;it) t)e !id o( ! ;ind %!ne ;)ic) consists o( ! rot!ting !r &i%oted on ! %ertic!l s)!(t' T)e !rro; o( t)e ;ind %!ne !l;!"s &oints in t)e direction (ro ;)ic) t)e ;ind +lo;s !nd t)e ;ind is n! ed !(ter t)e direction'
F)/. 2 8 #)(d 9$(e-
3.1
Me$-u'e*e(% o. I(-ol$%)o(
A nu +er o( instru ents !re !%!il!+le (or e!suring t)e di((erent co &onents o( t)e e!rt)As r!di!tion +!l!nce8 t)e e1u!tion o( ;)ic) is in t)e (or Rn P CST1D C2-UD T I - I #)ere Rn is t)e net r!di!tion8 CST1D is t)e su o( t)e s)ort;!%e direct CSD !nd di((use C1D8 sol!r r!di!tion incident on t)e e!rt)As sur(!ce8 I is t)e counter r!di!tion (ro t)e !t os&)ere ;)ic) is t)e long-;!%e Cin(r!redD !nd I is t)e terrestri!l r!di!tion ;)ic) is !lso ! long-;!%e or in(r!red' Instru ents used (or e!suring r!di!tion !re gener!ll" eG&ensi%e !nd t)ere(ore !re not co onl" used in !n" de%elo&ing countries' T)e instru ents (!ll into (i%e +!sic t"&es !s (ollo;s9 2' Net R!dio eters I (or e!suring onl" t)e net r!di!tion' 2' ."r!no eters- (or e!suring t)e tot!l s)ort ;!%e r!di!tion (ro sB" incident on ! )oriFont!l sur(!ce !t t)e ground' t)e
?3
SOS 203
3' ."r)elio eters I (or e!suring t)e sol!r intensit" or t)e direct +e! sol!r r!di!tion CSD !t nor !l incidence' T)ese !re t)e ost !ccur!te o( !ll r!di!tion instru ents' 3' ."rr!dio eters I (or e!suring onl" t)e !l+edo o( t)e sur(!ce 7' ."rgeo eters I (or e!suring in(r!red long ;!%e r!di!tion (ro t)e e!rt)As sur(!ce or t)e !t os&)ere de&ending u&on ;)et)er it is do;n;!rd (!cing or u&;!rd (!cing' 4' Al+edo eters I (or e!suring onl" t)e !l+edo o( t)e sur(!ce' Me!sure ents o( so e r!di!tion co &onents !re descri+ed +elo;' ."r)elio eters !re instru ents designed (or e!suring t)e direct +e! sol!r r!di!tion !t nor !l incidence8 usu!ll" c!lled sol!r intensit"' It )!s ! +l!cBened recei%ing sur(!ce oriented &er&endicul!r to t)e sol!r +e! !nd is eit)er inserted in ! +l!cBened tu+e or surrounded +" ! series o( s&!ced di!&)r!g s !rr!nged in suc) ! ;!" t)!t onl" r!di!tion (ro t)e sun !nd ! n!rro; !nnulus o( sB" is interce&ted'
F)/. 218 P0'$(o*e%e' ."rono eters !re ore co onl" used t)!n &"r)elio eters' T)e" e!sure t)e tot!l s)ort ;!%e r!di!tion (ro t)e sun !nd sB" incident on ! )oriFont!l sur(!ce o( t)e ground Ci'e' +ot) direct !nd di((use r!di!tionD' T)e recei%er o( t)e &"r!no eter is enclosed in ! gl!ss or 1u!rtF c!sing t)!t ust +e Be&t cle!n !nd dr"' To &ro%ide t)e +est &ossi+le result8 t)e &"r!no eter s)ould +e tre!ted so t)!t ! s)!do; ;ill not +e c!st on it !t !n" ti e'
?3
SOS 203
F)/. 228 S%$' P0'$(o*e%e' 3.2 Me$-u'e*e(% o. Du'$%)o( o. Su(-&)(e
T)e dur!tion o( suns)ine is e!sured ;it) t)e !id o( C! &+ell-stoBes suns)ine recorder' It consists o( ! gl!ss s&)ere ;)ic)
F)/. 238 C$*,:ell3S%oDe- Su(-&)(e Re+o'de' concentr!tes t)e sunAs r!"s on ! sensitised c!rd gr!du!ted in )ours !nd inutes !nd )eld in ! et!l )!l(-+o;l ;it) ;)ic) t)e s&)ere is
?7
SOS 203
concentric' T)e instru ent is inst!lled on ! concrete &ill!r in t)e o&en !+out 2-7 !+o%e t)e ground' 5rig)t suns)ine le!%es ! tr!ce o( +urnt line !long t)e sensitised c!rd ;)ile cloud" &eriods !re +l!nB' To e!sure t)e tot!l dur!tion o( suns)ine (or t)e d!"8 t)e tot!l lengt) o( t)e +urnt tr!ces on t)e c!rd ;)ic) is gr!du!ted in )ours !nd inutes is c!lcul!ted'
3.6
Me$-u'e*e(% o. So)l Te*,e'$%u'e
Soil te &er!tures !re e!sured !t %!rious de&t)s I 7c 8 20c 8 20c 8 70c !nd 200c ' T)e instru ent used (or e!suring soil te &er!ture is Bno;n !s soil t)er o eter' It is ! ercuri!l t)er o eter ;it) +ul+s e +edded in &!r!((in ;!G' T)e t)er o eter is sus&ended in steel tu+es !nd inserted into t)e soil !t %!rious de&t)s'
1.
CONCLUSION
,1ui& ent (or e!suring !ir &ressure8 ;ind s&eed !nd direction8 r!di!tion !nd suns)ine dur!tion )!%e +een identi(ied in t)is unit' Met)ods o( e!suring t)e cli !tic ele ents )!%e !lso +een discussed'
2.
SUMMARY
In t)is unit ;e )!%e le!rnt t)!t9 2' 2' 3' 3' 6!rious t"&es o( +!ro eters !re used (or e!suring !ir &ressure' Cu& !ne o eter is t)e e1ui& ent used (or e!suring ;ind s&eed' T)e ;ind %!ne is used (or e!suring ;ind direction' 6!rious t"&es o( r!dio eters !re used (or e!suring %!rious !s&ects o( r!di!tion' 7' C! &+ell-stoBes suns)ine recorder is used (or e!suring t)e dur!tion o( suns)ine'
6.
2' 2' 3'

List !ll t)e e1ui& ent used (or e!suring !ll !s&ects o( sol!r r!di!tion !nd descri+e &"rgeo eters' ,G&l!in )o; to e!sure ;ind s&eed' Dr!; !n !nnot!ted di!gr! o( t)e ercur" +!ro eter'
5.
?4
SOS 203
Areol!8 O' C2>>>D' Certificate P ysical and %uman &eograp y for Senior Secondary Sc ools' I+!d!n9Uni%ersit" .ress .lc' A"o!de8 J'O' C2><3D' Introduction to Climatology for t e !ropics C)ic)ester9Jo)n #ile" !nd Sons' A"o!de8 J'O' C2002D' Introduction to Agroclimatology' I+!d!n9 6!nt!ge .u+lis)ers8 Tro&ic!l Cli !tolog"9 A 5unnet8 R'5' C2>?3D'&eneral Long !n8 &eograp y in (iagrams'London9
Nieu;olt8 S C2>??D' An Introduction to t e Climates of t e )ow )atitudes' C)ic)ester9 Jo)n #ile" !nd Sons' O/o8 O' C2>??D' ! e Climates of West Africa' I+!d!n9 0eine !nn ,duc!tion!l 5ooBs' O/o8O'et al' C2002D''undamentals of P ysical Climatology' L!gos9 S,D,C .u+lis)ers' and (ynamic
UNIT 3
MEASUREMENT OF EVAPORATION EVAPOTRANSPIRATION AND
AND T7E
??
SOS 203
MAINTENANCE OF A METEOROLOGICAL STATION

STANDARD
3'0 7'0 4'0 ?'0
Introduction O+/ecti%es M!in Content 3'2 Me!sure ent o( ,%!&or!tion 3'2 Me!sure ent o( ,%!&otr!ns&ir!tion 3'3 M!inten!nce o( ! St!nd!rd Meteorologic!l St!tion Conclusion Su !r" Tutor -M!rBed Assign ent Re(erences$=urt)er Re!dings
1.
INTRODUCTION
e!sure ents st!rted in Unit 22 continue in
#e!t)er o+ser%!tion !nd t)is unit'
2.
O!"ECTIVES
5" t)e end o( t)is unit8 "ou s)ould +e !+le to9 Recognise t)e e1ui& ent (or e!suring e%!&or!tion !nd e%!&otr!ns&ir!tion T!Be c!re o( ! eteorologic!l st!tion'
3. 3.1
MAIN CONTENT Me$-u'e*e(% o. E9$,o'$%)o(
T)e e1ui& ent (or e!suring e%!&or!tion !re gener!ll" c!lled e%!&ori eters' T)ere !re t;o +!sic t"&es o( e%!&ori eters9 t)ose in ;)ic) e%!&or!tion t!Bes &l!ce (ro ! continuousl" ;etted &orous sur(!ce o( +lotting-&!&er8 (!+ric or cer! ic !teri!l8 !n eG! &le o( ;)ic) is t)e &ic)e e%!&ori eterE !nd t)ose in ;)ic) e%!&or!tion t!Bes &l!ce (ro ! (ree ;!ter sur(!ce in t!nBs or &!ns' T&e P)+&e E9$,o')*e%e' T)e ost co on instru ent (or e!suring e%!&or!tion in #est A(ric! is t)e &ic)e e%!&ori eter8 ! gr!du!ted e!suring c"lindric!l tu+e 22'7c long ;it) !n intern!l di! eter o( 22 !nd !n eGtern!l di! eter o( 23 ' It )!s ! closed !nd !n o&en end' At t)e o&en end o(
?<
SOS 203
t)e tu+e is ! ;etted sur(!ce C! (ilter &!&er discD )eld +" ! s&ring (itted ;it) ! disc !nd coll!r' T)e tot!l e%!&or!ting sur(!ce is gi%en in centi eters' #!ter is su&&lied to t)e &!&er !t t)e o&en end +" ! ;icB inBing it to ! s !ll ;!ter cont!iner nor !ll" gr!du!ted in illi eters' T)e e%!&or!tion (ro t)e instru ent is t)e di((erence +et;een t)e re!dings o( t)e cont!iner !t t)e +eginning !nd end o( t)e &eriod' T)e .ic)e e%!&ori eter is not reli!+le !nd it )!s +een criticised !s e!suring t)e dr"ing &o;er o( !ir r!t)er t)!n t)e ! ount o( ;!ter lost +" e%!&or!tion to t)e !t os&)ere' T)e &ic)e e%!&ori eter is !lso Be&t in t)e Ste%enson screen'
F)/. 218 P)+&e E9$,o')*e%e' T)ere !re di((erent t"&es o( e%!&or!tion &!ns de&ending on t)eir siFe8 s)!&e !nd !nner o( eG&osure' Onl" t)e t)ree ost co on ones !re descri+ed )ere' T)ese !re t)e United St!tes #e!t)er 5ure!u CUS#5D Cl!ss A &!n8 t)e r!ised t!nB !nd t)e sunBen t!nB' T)e US#5 Cl!ss A &!n )!s +een reco ended (or ;orld;ide use +" t)e #MO' It is circul!r ;it) ! di! eter o( 2204 !nd 273 dee&' It is !de o( g!l%!nised iron !nd ounted on ! ;ooden o&en (r! e &l!t(or !+out 270 !+o%e t)e ground' T)e &!n is (illed ;it) ;!ter to ;it)in 72 o( t)e ri '
?>
SOS 203
F)/. 228 Cl$-- A ,$(

2 T)e sunBen t!nB is !+out 2<2> ;it) t)e ;!ter le%el !t t)e ground le%el !nd ! ri o( ?4 &rotruding !+o%e t)e ground to &re%ent in(lo; o( sur(!ce ;!ter ;)en it r!ins'
A t)ird t"&e8 t)e r!ised t!nB8 is ! rect!ngul!r t!nB ;)ic) is >27 +" 22?0 !nd 332 dee&' T)e de&t) o( t)e ;!ter in t)e t!nB is !+out 370 ' A ;ooden &l!t(or is used to r!ise t)e t!nB so t)!t t)e ;!ter sur(!ce is !+out 37? !+o%e t)e ground '
<0
SOS 203
F)/. 258 R$)-ed T$(D T)e &rinci&le e &lo"ed in !ll e%!&or!tion &!ns to e!sure e%!&or!tion r!tes is t)e s! e9 ,%!&or!tion e!sure ents !re t!Ben +" re(illing t)e ;!ter in t)e t!nBs to ! (iGed le%el' A(ter ! &eriod o( ti e8 ;)ic) is usu!ll" 23 )ours8 t)e le%el o( ;!ter in t)e &!n is c)ecBed' Unless so e r!in )!s (!llen during t)e inter%ening &eriod8 t)e le%el o( ;!ter in t)e &!n ;ould )!%e (!llen o;ing to e%!&or!tion' T)e &!n is reset +" (illing it +!cB ;it) ;!ter to t)e origin!l le%el' T)e ! ount o( ;!ter !dded to reset t)e &!n re&resents t)e e%!&or!tion t)!t )!s occurred in t)e inter%ening &eriod' ,!c) &!n )!s ! cu& s&eci(ic to it !nd t)is is used to re(ill t)e &!n' #)en r!in (!lls8 t)e r!in ;!ter is !llo;ed (or +" !dding t)e ! ount o( r!in(!ll e!sured in ! ne!r+" r!in g!uge to t)e ! ount o( t)e !&&!rent e%!&or!tion' T)ere !re ! nu +er o( dis!d%!nt!ges to &!ns !nd sunBen t!nBs' It is di((icult to detect le!B!ge' 5ec!use o( t)eir closeness to t)e ground8 t)e t!nBs tend to get dirt"8 ;)ic) in(luences t)e r!te o( e%!&or!tion' Anot)er &ro+le is t)!t r!in ;!ter c!n s&l!s) into t)e t!nBs or o%er(lo; (ro t)e ' T)e t!nBs !nd &!ns !re di((icult to cle!n' T)e t!nBs !nd &!ns !+out ground le%el !" +e su+/ect to r!di!tion (ro t)e sides !nd +otto 8 so t)!t re!dings !" +e )ig)er' One ot)er co on &ro+le ;it) e%!&or!tion &!ns !nd t!nBs is t)e di((icult" o( &re%enting )erds or str!" !ni !ls (ro drinBing ;!ter (ro t)e &!n'
<2
SOS 203
0o;e%er8 t!nBs or &!ns )!%e t)e !d%!nt!ge o( +eing ineG&ensi%e to inst!ll !nd e!s" to )!ndle' T)e" c!n +e used t)roug)out t)e li(e s&!n o( ! cro&'
3.2
Me$-u')(/ o. E9$,o%'$(-,)'$%)o(
R!tes o( e%!&otr!ns&ir!tion o%er ! sur(!ce !re e!sured +" t)e cost o( l"si eter' T)ere !re t;o t"&es o( l"si eterE t)e ;eig)ing l"si eter !nd t)e dr!in!ge l"si eter' L"si eter !re t!nBs +uried in t)e ground to e!sure t)e &ercol!tion o( ;!ter t)roug) t)e soils' T)e" &ro%ide t)e ost reli!+le !nd !ccur!te et)od (or t)e direct e!sure ent o( e%!&otr!ns&ir!tion &ro%ided t)e necess!r" &rec!utions in designing8 o&er!ting !nd sitting !re t!Ben' T)e inst!ll!tion o( l"si eter in #est A(ric! )!s +een i &ossi+leE )o;e%er8 one o( t)e re!sons is t)!t it is %er" eG&ensi%e' T)e ;eig)ing l"si eter is ! r!t)er so&)istic!ted de%ice consisting o( ! soil-(illed t!nB8 t)e e%!&otr!ns&iro eter t!nB8 in ;)ic) gr!ss is &l!nted' #!ter enters t)roug) t)is t!nB !nd dr!ins t)roug) !n outlet &i&e into !n o%er(lo; c)! +er !nd su&&orted +" ! ;eig)ing ec)!nis '
F)/. 2@8 E9$,o%'$(-,)'o*e%e' ,%!&otr!ns&ir!tion %!lues !re o+t!ined directl" +" c!lcul!ting c)!nges in t)e ;eig)t o( t)e soil-%eget!tion s"ste ;it)in t)e t!nB o%er ! s&eci(ied &eriod o( ti e8 usu!ll" 23 )ours8 to o+t!in d!il" %!lues o( e%!&otr!ns&ir!tion' I( t)e eG&eri ent!l sur(!ce is surrounded +" ! +u((er Fone ;it) t)e s! e t"&e o( %eget!tion !nd Be&t oist +" ;!tering' T)e %!lues o( e%!&otr!ns&ir!tion o+t!ined ;ould +e t)ose o( &otenti!l e%!&otr!ns&ir!tion' T)e +u((er Fone is necess!r" to ensure t)!t
<2
SOS 203
energ" !nd drier !ir !re not !d%ected o%er t)e eG&eri ent!l &lot (ro t)e surrounding' #eig)ing l"si eter !re o(ten used to e!sure !ctu!l e%!&otr!ns&ir!tion ;)en t)e eG&eri ent!l sur(!ce !nd t)e surroundings !re not Be&t !t (ield c!&!cit"' T)e dr!in!ge l"si eter ;)ic) o&er!tes on ! s! &le ;!ter +!l!nce +!sis is ore ;idel" used t)!n t)e ;eig)ing l"si eter !s it c!n +e constructed' T)e &rinci&le on ;)ic) it o&er!tes is t)!t e%!&otr!ns&ir!tion is t)e di((erence +et;een ;!ter in&ut in (or o( r!in(!ll !nd irrig!tion i( necess!r" !nd ;!ter out&ut in (or o( &ercol!tion !nd runo(( in ! soil &l!nt s"ste ' CC)!ng8 2>43D' T)e dr!in!ge l"si eter is nor !ll" used to e!sure r!tes o( &otenti!l e%!&otr!ns&ir!tion' T)ere is t)ere(ore8 t)e need to Bee& t)e t!nB !nd t)e surrounding !re! continuousl" oist +" irrig!tion'
3.3
M$)(%e($(+e o. $ S%$(d$'d Me%eo'olo/)+$l S%$%)o(
To ensure t)!t o+ser%!tions !t t)e eteorologic!l st!tions !re !ccur!te !nd co &!r!+le o%er ti e8 t)e (ollo;ing s)ould +e o+ser%ed9 2' 5uildings s)ould not +e loc!ted close to t)e eteorologic!l st!tion' 2' 5ig trees s)ould not +e !llo;ed to gro; !round t)e st!tion' 3' T)e gr!ss o( t)e eteorologic!l st!tion s)ould +e Be&t lo; !t !ll ti es' 3' O+ser%!tion o( t)e ele ents s)ould +e regul!r !nd &ro &t' 7' Ani !ls s)ould not +e !llo;ed !ccess to t)e st!tion8 &!rticul!rl" t)e &!ns !nd t!nBsE in drier !re!s +irds !nd s !ll !ni !ls use t)e t!nBs (or +!t)ing' 4' M!l(unctioning e1ui& ent s)ould +e re&l!ced &ro &tl"'
1.
CONCLUSION
,1ui& ent (or e!suring e%!&or!tion !nd e%!&otr!ns&ir!tion )!%e +een (ull" discussed in t)is unit' T)e et)ods o( !inten!nce o( ! ;e!t)er st!tion )!%e !lso +een discussed'
2.
SUMMARY
In t)is unit ;e )!%e le!rnt t)!t9 2' ,%!&ori eters ;)ic) !re o( t;o t"&es C&ic)e e%!&ori eter8 &!nsD !re used (or e!suring e%!&or!tion' 2' L"si eter ;)ic) !re !lso o( t;o t"&es Cdr!in!ge l"si eter8 ;eig)ing l"si eterD !re used (or e!suring e%!&otr!ns&ir!tion' 3' *ee&ing t)e gr!ss inside t)e ;e!t)er st!tion lo;8 cle!ring t)e surrounding8 (encing t)e ;e!t)er st!tion8 re&orting !nd re&l!cing t)e
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SOS 203
!l(unctioning e1ui& ent !re so e o( t)e ;!"s o( ;e!t)er st!tion'
!int!ining !
6.
2' 2 3' 3' 7' 4' ?' <' >' 20'

#it) t)e !id o( ! di!gr! 8 descri+e )o; to e!sure e%!&otr!ns&ir!tion' !' Descri+e &ic)e e%!&ori eter +' #)!t is its s)ortco ing !s !n instru ent (or e!suring e%!&or!tionH List ;!"s o( !int!ining ! ;e!t)er st!tion' ,G&l!in t)e !in (e!tures o( r!in g!uges !nd )o; t)e ! ount o( r!in is e!sured ;it) t)e e1ui& ent' ,G&l!in )o; "ou ;ill set u& ! st!nd!rd eteorologic!l st!tion' List !ll t)e e1ui& ent used in e!suring !ll !s&ects o( sol!r r!di!tion !nd descri+e &"rogeo eters' ,G&l!in )o; to e!sure ;ind s&eed' Dr!; !n !nnot!ted di!gr! o( ! ercur" +!ro eter' #it) t)e !id o( ! di!gr! 8 descri+e )o; to e!sure e%!&otr!nsi&ir!tion' List ;!"s o( !int!ining ! ;e!t)er st!tion'
5.
Areol!8 O' C2>>>D' Certificate P ysical and %uman &eograp y for Senior Secondary Sc ools' I+!d!n9 Uni%ersit" .ress .lc' A"o!de8 J'O' C2><3D' Introduction to Climatology for t e !ropics' C)ic)ester9 Jo)n #ile" !nd Sons'' A"o!de8 J'O'C2002D'Introduction to Agroclimatology' I+!d!n96!nt!ge .u+lis)ers' 5unnet8 R'5'C2>?3D'&eneral Long !n'' &eograp y in (iagram' London9
Nieu;olt8S'C2>??D'!ropical Climatology9 An Introduction to t e Climates of t e )ow latitudes C)ic)ester9 Jo)n #ile" !nd Sons' O/o8O'C2>??D' ! e Climates of West Africa' I+!d!n9 0eine !nn ,duc!tion!l 5ooBs' O/o8O'et al. C2002D''undamentals of P ysical Climatology' L!gos9 S,D,C .u+lis)ers' and (ynamic
UNIT 1
CLIMATE AND TROPICS I
AGRICULTURE
IN
T7E
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SOS 203
CONTENTS 2'0 2'0 3'0 Introduction O+/ecti%es M!in Content 3'2 Gener!l ,((ects o( R!di!tion on Cro& Gro;t) 3'2'2 ,((ects o( .)oto&eriodis on Cro& Gro;t) 3'2 Gener!l ,((ects o( #!ter on Cro& Gro;t) 3'3 Gener!l ,((ects o( 0u idit" on Cro& Gro;t) Conclusion Su !r" Tutor- M!rBed Assign ent Re(erences$=urt)er Re!dings
3'0 7'0 4'0 ?'0
1.
INTRODUCTION
O( !ll &ri !r" econo ic !cti%ities &ursued t)roug)out t)e ;orld !griculture is t)e ost i &ort!nt !nd it is !lso )ig)l" de&endent on t)e ;e!t)er' =ro t)e re%ie; o( liter!ture8 it )!s +een ! &l" de onstr!ted t)!t !griculture +eing !n outdoor !cti%it" is %er" sensiti%e to ;e!t)er conditions' T)ere is o+%iousl" ! need to stud" t)e rel!tions +et;een cli !te !nd !griculture in !ll cli !tes8 +ut it is &!rticul!rl" i &ort!nt in t)e tro&ics' Cli !tic conditions in t)e tro&ics !re gener!ll" not !s (!%our!+le (or !griculture !s is o(ten !ssu ed CNieu;olt8 2>??D' T)e luGuri!nt %eget!tion in !n" &!rts o( t)e tro&ics !nd t)e r!&id gro;t) o( &l!nts )!%e erroneousl" led to t)e +elie( t)!t (ood c!n +e &roduced ;it) %er" little e((ort' T)e gener!l rel!tions)i& +et;een cli !te !nd !griculture ;ill +e discussed +elo;'
2.
O!"ECTIVES
5" t)e end o( t)is unit8 "ou s)ould +e !+le to ,G&l!in t)e gener!l e((ects o( r!di!tion on cro& gro;t) ,G&l!in ;)!t &)oto&eriod !nd &)oto&eriodis !re !nd )o; t)e" in(luence cro& distri+ution' ,G&l!in t)e gener!l e((ects o( oisture on cro& gro;t)'
3.
MAIN CONTENT
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3.1
Ge(e'$l E..e+%- o. R$d)$%)o( o( C'o, G'o>%&
T)e rel!tions +et;een sol!r r!di!tion !nd !griculture !re &ri !ril" illustr!ted +" t;o &rocesses9&)oto-energ" C&)otos"nt)esisD &rocesses !nd &)oto-sti ulus &rocesses' In gener!l8 &)oto-energ" &rocesses re1uire )ig)er r!di!tion intensit" t)!n &)oto-sti ulus &rocesses' In (!ct &)oto-sti ulus &rocesses resol%e t)e sel%es into t;o9 o%e ent &rocesses !nd (or !ti%e &rocesses' =or !ti%e &rocesses in%ol%e ! ong ot)er t)ings ste elong!tion8 le!( eG&!nsion8 &ig ent (or !tion8 (lo;ering in &)oto &eriodic!ll" sensiti%e &l!nts ;)ic) !re deter ined +" t)e rel!ti%e lengt) o( lig)t !nd d!rB &eriods to ;)ic) &l!nts !re eG&osed' .r!ctic!ll" !ll t)e dr" !tter o( )ig)er &l!nts origin!tes (ro &)otos"nt)esis' T)is is t)e &rocess +" ;)ic) &l!nts ;it) t)e !id o( c)loro&)"ll &ig ent utilise t)e energ" o( sol!r r!di!tion to &roduce c!r+on dioGide out o( ;!ter !nd c!r+o)"dr!te' .)otos"nt)esis is in)erentl" !n ine((icient &rocess in t)e utilis!tion o( sol!r energ"8 &!rtl" +ec!use onl" t)e %isi+le &ortion !nd s&ectru is !cti%e !nd &!rtl" +ec!use t)e 1u!ntu re1uire ent (or &)otos"nt)esis is uc) )ig)er t)!n t)e t)eoretic!l ini u %!lue' T)e &)otos"nt)esis r!te o( ost le!%es incre!se ;it) lig)t intensit" !l ost line!rl" o%er ! n!rro; r!nge' At t)e s! e lig)t intensit"8 t)e le!%es +eco e lig)t s!tur!ted' =or ! (e; &l!nts8 t)e &)otos"nt)etic r!tes !" e%en decline slig)tl" !s lig)t intensit" incre!ses +e"ond t)e s!tur!tion &oint' At s!tur!tion lig)t intensities !nd nor !l c!r+on dioGide concentr!tion &)otos"nt)esis !re !((ected +" te &er!ture +ec!use +ioc)e ic!l &rocesses !re li iting' Cro&s in t)e (ield !re usu!ll" +elo; t)e o&ti u te &er!ture (or ost o( t)e se!son' 5ut t)e te &er!ture o( le!%es in t)e sunlig)t is o(ten )ig)er t)!n t)!t o( t)e !ir8 so eti es +" !s uc) !s 200C !nd during )ig) sun &eriods8 t)e le!( te &er!tures !" %er" ;ell eGceed t)e o&ti u ' G!tes C2>47D )!s suggested t)!t t)e idd!" de&ression in &)otos"nt)esis is o(ten c!used +" t)e !d%erse e((ect o( %er" )ig) te &er!tures' .l!nt gro;t) de&ends on t)e eGcess o( dr" !tter incre!se +" &)otos"nt)esis o%er t)e loss +" res&ir!tion' T)e net g!in is Bno;n !s net &)otos"nt)esis8 or net !ssi il!tion r!te' #)ere!s &)otos"nt)esis t!Bes &l!ce !inl" in t)e le!%es during t)e d!"8 res&ir!tion &roceeds t)roug)out t)e &l!nts (or t)e entire 23-)our &eriod' Res&ir!tion r!tes incre!se ;it) te &er!ture u& to ! %!r"ing !Gi u (or di((erent &l!nts'
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SOS 203
=or Al(!l(! T)o !s !nd 0ill C2>3?D re&orted ! (our(old incre!se in res&ir!tion r!te +" incre!sing te &er!ture (ro 00 to 200C'
3.1.1 E..e+%- o. P&o%o,e')od)-* o( C'o, G'o>%&

T)e lengt) o( d!il" eG&osure to lig)t is Bno;n !s ! &)oto&eriod ;)ile t)e res&onse o( cro& de%elo& ent to ! &)oto&eriod is c!lled &)oto&eriodis ' T)e e!rliest ;orB &u+lis)ed on t)is &)eno enon is t)!t o( G!rner !nd All!rd C2>20D' T"&ic!ll" t)e &)oto&eriod )!s !n e((ect on t)e (or !tion o( (lo;ers8 (ruits !nd seeds' It !lso in(luences %eget!ti%e gro;t)8 t)e (or !tion o( +uds8 tu+er8 t)e c)!r!cter !nd eGtent o( +r!nc)ing8 le!( s)!&e8 &ig ent (or !tion8 root de%elo& ent dor !nc" !nd de!t)' In t)eir e!rl" ;orB8 G!rner !nd All!rd di%ided &l!nts into t)ree grou&s on t)e +!sis o( t)eir res&onse to t)e &)oto&eriod n! el"E long-d!" &l!nts8 s)ort-d!" &l!nts !nd d!" neutr!l &l!nts' Long -d!" cro&s (lo;er onl" under d!"-lig)t less t)!n 23 )ours' ,G! &les !re ;)e!t8 ust!rd8 o!ts8 +urBe"8 r"e !nd clo%er' In s)ort d!"- cro&s (lo;ering !re induced +" s)ort &)oto&eriods o( less t)!n 20 )ours' ,G! &les !re cotton8 illet8 corn8 +e!ns8 cucu +er !nd s;eet &ot!toes' T)e d!" neutr!l cro&s c!n (or t)e (lo;er +uds under !n" &eriod o( illu in!tion' ,G! &les !re to !to !nd c!rrot' L!ter All!rd C2>3<D !dded t)e (ourt) grou& ;)ic) is design!ted !s inter edi!te' T)e inter edi!te cro&s (lo;er !t ! d!" lengt) o( 22-23 )ours +ut !re in)i+ited in re&roduction +" d!" lengt)s eit)er !+o%e or +elo; t)is dur!tion' .)oto&eriodis is !n i &ort!nt (!ctor in t)e n!tur!l distri+ution o( &l!nts' In gener!l &l!nts t)!t )!%e origin!ted in lo; l!titude re1uire s)ort- d!" (or (lo;ering ;)ile t)ose (ro )ig) l!titudes !re long- d!" &l!nts' #)en t)e l!tter !re o%ed to lo; l!titudes t)e" ;ill not &roduce +losso ' #)en t)e lo; l!titudes &l!nts !re gro;n in )ig) l!titudes t)e" ;ill continue to gro; %eget!ti%el" until t)e" !re Billed +" (rost'
3.2
Ge(e'$l E..e+%- o. #$%e' o( C'o, G'o>%&
T)e t)ree grou&s o( &l!nts )!%e +een distinguis)ed on t)e +!sis o( t)eir ;!ter needs9 0"dro&)"tes I t)e" nor !ll" gro; in ;!ter or s;! &s8 eG! &les o( ;)ic) !re !ngro%e !nd &!dd" rice' Meso&)"tes I ost (ield cro&s +elong to t)e eso&)"te grou&' T)is grou& o( &l!nts c!n +e (urt)er di%ided into true eso&)"te I &l!nts t)!t ;ill ;ilt !(ter losing 27L o( t)eir ;!ter content !nd Gero&)"tes
<?
SOS 203
eso&)"tes ;)ic) include t)ose t)!t ;ill ;ilt !(ter losing 27-70L o( t)eir ;!ter content' 'Rero&)"tes It)e" !re c!&!+le o( enduring e%en ore se%ere droug)t' T)e" ;ilt &er !nentl" !(ter loosing 70-?7L o( t)eir ;!ter content' T)is cl!ssi(ic!tion &ro%ides ! &ri !r" !&&roGi !tion o( cro&s !d!&t!tion !nd distri+ution in %!rious oisture regi es' 0o;e%er it is too crude to ser%e !s ! use(ul guide (or irrig!tion !nd ot)er cultur!l &r!ctices' =or t)ose &ur&oses8 it is essenti!l to )!%e !n underst!nding o( t)e %!rious &)"siologic!l &l!nt res&onses to ;!ter' Al ost e%er" &rocess occurring in &l!nt is !((ected +" ;!ter' #!ter is t)e !/or constituent o( t)e &)"siologic!ll" !cti%e &l!nt tissueE ! re!gent in &)otos"nt)esis !nd )"drol"tic suc) !s st!rc) digestionE t)e sol%ent in ;)ic) s!lt8 sug!r !nd ot)er solutes o%e (ro cell to cell !nd org!n to org!nE !nd !n essenti!l ele ent o( t)e !inten!nce o( &l!nt turgidit" necess!r" (or cell enl!rge ent !nd gro;t)' It is not8 )o;e%er8 e!s" to est!+lis) ! rel!tions)i& +et;een ;!ter stress !nd t)e %!rious !s&ects o( cro& (unction' T)e rel!tions)i& %!ries ;it) cro& c)!r!cteristics8 st!ges o( soil de%elo& ent8 !nd cli !tic conditions' #!ter de(icienc" not onl" reduces t)e "ield +ut !lso c)!nges t)e &!ttern o( gro;t)' In gener!l8 e((ecti%e rooting de&t) decre!ses !s t)e soil oisture le%el incre!ses' Roots de%elo&ed under li ited oisture conditions !re (iner !nd )!%e ore !nd longer +r!nc)es t)!n roots de%elo&ed under (!%our!+le oisture conditions' T)e r!tio o( root to s)oot usu!ll" is incre!sed +" ;!ter stress' Le!( !re! is o(ten reduced +ut le!( t)icBness is incre!sed' #!ter de(icit in cro& )!s ! &ro(ound e((ect in t)e r!te o( &)otos"nt)esis +ec!use de)"dr!ted &roto&l!s )!s lo;ered &)otos"nt)esis c!&!cit"' Indirectl"8 once t)e le!( looses its turgidit"8 t)e sto !t! gu!rd cell close8 t)us &re%enting !n" (urt)er int!Be o( c!r+on dioGide (or &)otos"nt)esis' In gener!l t)e res&ir!tion r!te o( cro&s tends to incre!se !s oisture decre!ses' T)is c)!nge is )o;e%er8 uc) s !ller t)!n t)e !cco &!n"ing c)!nges in &)otos"nt)esis' Soil oisture ;)ic) is !n i &ort!nt source o( oisture to cro&s is deter ined +" r!in(!ll8 e%!&or!tion r!te !nd soil c)!r!cteristics' T)e su&&l" o( soil oisture !" %!r" (ro ;ilting &oint ;)en no ;!ter is !%!il!+le (or cro& use to (ield c!&!cit" ;)en t)e soil is (ull" s!tur!ted ;it) oisture +ut is ;ell dr!ined' In ! ;!ter logged condition Ci'e' ;)en !ll t)e soil &ores !re co &letel" (illed ;it) ;!terD8 (ree o%e ent o( !ir ;it)in t)e soil is i &eded !nd co &ounds toGic to t)e roots o( cro&s
<<
SOS 203
!" +e (or ed' At t)e o&&osite end is t)e condition o( droug)t in ;)ic) t)e ! ount o( ;!ter re1uired (or e%!&otr!ns&ir!tion eGceeds t)e ! ount !%!il!+le in t)e soil' Droug)t condition !Bes cro&s ;ilt !nd e%entu!ll" die' 0ence8 too little or too uc) ;!ter is not good (or !griculture' In t)e tro&ics ;)ere t)e te &er!tures !re )ig) t)roug)out t)e "e!r !nd t)e r!tes o( e%!&otr!ns&ir!tion !re const!ntl" )ig)8 t)e role o( oisture in cro& &roduction c!nnot +e o%ere &)!sised' A&!rt (ro t)is8 o%er ost o( t)e tro&ics r!in(!ll is )ig)l" se!son!l !nd %!ries in ! ount (ro one "e!r to !not)er'
3.3
Ge(e'$l E..e+%- o. 7u*)d)%0 o( C'o, G'o>%&
Co &!red ;it) ost ot)er cli !tes8 rel!ti%e )u idities !re gener!ll" )ig) in t)e tro&ics !nd t)is is t)e c!se during t)e r!in" se!son' 0ig) )u idit" o( t)e !ir )!s +een (ound to )!%e so e +ene(ici!l e((ects on &l!nt gro;t)8 +ec!use !n" &l!nts c!n !+sor+ oisture directl" (ro t)e !ir !nd t)e r!te o( &)otos"nt)esis gener!ll" incre!ses ;it) )u idit" C5!Ber8 2>47D' 0ig) rel!ti%e )u idit" !lso lo;ers t)e r!te o( tr!ns&ir!tion t)ere+" reducing t)e ;!ter re1uire ents o( cro&s ;)ile e%!&or!tion losses (ro t)e soil !re !lso less t)!n under dr" conditions' Gener!ll"8 cro& "ields incre!se ;it) incre!sing rel!ti%e )u idit" CArBle"8 2>43D'
1.
CONCLUSION
T)is unit s)o;s cle!rl" t)!t ;e!t)er !nd cli !te !((ect !ll !s&ects o( cro& gro;t) !nd de%elo& ent (ro ger in!tion to )!r%esting'
2.
SUMMARY
In t)is unit ;e )!%e le!rnt t)!t9 2' Sol!r r!di!tion in(luences cro& gro;t) !nd de%elo& ent in t)e (ollo;ing ;!"s I ste elong!tion8 le!( eG&!nsion8 &ig ent (or !tion8 (lo;ering in &)oto &eriodic!ll" sensiti%e &l!nts8 "ield !nd cro& distri+ution' 2' #!ter in(luences cro& gro;t) !nd de%elo& ent !s (ollo;s9distri+ution o( cro&s8 "ield8 !/or constituent o( t)e &)"siologic!ll" !cti%e &l!nt tissue8 ! re!gent in &)otos"nt)esis !nd )"drol"tic8 sol%ent in ;)ic) s!lts8 sug!r !nd ot)er solutes o%e (ro cell to cell !nd org!n to org!n8 !n essenti!l ele ent o( !inten!nce o( &l!nt turgidit"' #!ter de(icit lo;ers &)otos"nt)esis8 incre!ses res&ir!tion !nd reduces "ield8 c!uses ;ilting !nd e%entu!ll" de!t)'
<>
SOS 203
3' 0ig) )u idit" gener!ll" lo;ers tr!ns&ir!tion8 t)ere+" reducing t)e ;!ter re1uire ents o( cro&s8!nd incre!ses &)otos"nt)esis !nd "ield'
6.
2' 2'

Discuss t)e %!rious ;!"s in ;)ic) sol!r r!di!tion in(luences cro& gro;t) !nd de%elo& ent Moisture r!t)er t)!n te &er!ture is t)e ost i &ort!nt control o( !griculture in t)e tro&ics' ,G&l!in'
5.
A"o!de8 J'O' C2><3D' Introduction to Climatology for t e !ropics' C)ic)ester 9Jo)n #ile" !nd Sons8 A"o!de8 J'O' C2002D'Introduction to Agriclimatology' I+!d!n96!nt!ge .u+lis)ers'' 5unnet8 R'5' C2>?3D'&eneral &eograp y in (iagram. London9 Long !n' Nieu;olt8 S' C2>??D'!ropical Climatology" An Introduction to t e Climates of t e )ow )atitudes C)isc)ester9Jo)n #ile" - Sons' O/o8 O' C2>??D' ! e Climates of West Africa' I+!d!n9 0eine !nn ,duc!tion!l 5ooBs' O/o8O'et.al.,2002D' 'undamentals of P ysical Climatology L!gos9. S,D,C .u+lis)ers' and (ynamic
>0
SOS 203
UNIT 2
CLIMATE AND TROPICS II
AGRICULTURE
IN
T7E
3'0 7'0 4'0 ?'0
Introduction O+/ecti%es M!in Content 3'2 Gener!l ,((ects o( Te &er!ture on Cro& Gro;t) 3'2 Agriculture8 .ests !nd Dise!ses 3'3 Agriculture !nd Irrig!tion 3'3 Cli !te I Li%estocB Rel!tions)i&s Conclusion Su !r" Tutor- M!rBed Assign ent Re(erences$=urt)er Re!dings
1.
INTRODUCTION
In t)is unit8 ;e ;ill eG! ine t)e ;!"s in ;)ic) te &er!ture in(luences cro& gro;t) !nd de%elo& ent' #e ;ill !lso eG! ine )o; cli !te indirectl" in(luences cro& gro;t) t)roug) its e((ects on &est !nd dise!ses !nd ;!ter su&&l" '
2.
O!"ECTIVES
5" t)e end o( t)is unit8 "ou s)ould +e !+le to9 ,G&l!in t)e e((ects o( te &er!ture on cro& gro;t) ,G&l!in t)e rel!tions)i& +et;een cli !te8 &ests !nd dise!ses !nd cro& gro;t)'
3. 3.1
MAIN CONTENT Ge(e'$l E..e+%- o. Te*,e'$%u'e o( C'o, G'o>%&
Te &er!tures !re o( course8 closel" correl!ted ;it) insol!tion !nd it is t)ere(ore not !l;!"s &ossi+le to se&!r!te t)e e((ects o( t)ese t;o (!ctors on &l!nt li(e' It is )o;e%er8 cert!in t)!t ost &)"sic!l !nd c)e ic!l &rocesses in cro&s !re strongl" !((ected +" te &er!ture conditions' ,%er" s&ecies )!s !n o&ti u te &er!ture r!nge o( ;)ic) gro;t) !nd de%elo& ent &roceed ;it) !Gi u intensit" !nd s&eed' =or ost cro&s t)e c!rdin!ls r!nge (ro 70C I 40C' Te &er!tures +elo; 40C !re in/urious to ost cro&s ;)ile t)e u&&er li it (or ost cro&s r!nges (ro 700C to 400C' Lo; te &er!tures Bill or d! !ge cro&s' .rolonged
>2
SOS 203
te &er!tures !+o%e (reeFing ret!rd cro& gro;t) !nd !" e%en Bill t)ose cro&s !d!&ted to ;!r conditions' Lo; te &er!ture !" not Bill &l!nt cells directl"8 +ut indirectl" +" reducing t)e (lo; o( ;!ter (ro roots !nd so inter(ere ;it) &l!nt tr!ns&ir!tion !nd nouris) ent' 0ig) te &er!tures !re gener!ll" not !s destructi%e to cro&s !s lo; te &er!tures &ro%ided t)e oisture su&&l" is !de1u!te to &re%ent ;ilting !nd t)e cro& is !d!&ted to t)e cli !te Fone' T)e uni(or te &er!ture !nd its s !ll se!son!l %!ri!tion c)!r!cteristic o( t)e tro&ics &ro%ide ! ;ide r!nge o( c)oice o( suit!+le cro&s in rel!tion to te &er!ture conditionsE t)ere(ore te &er!tures !re r!rel" ! critic!l (!ctor in tro&ic!l !griculture CNieu;olt8 2>??D' As te &er!ture conditions !re (re1uentl" +elo; o&ti u (or ost cro&s8 t)ere eGists close ! correl!tion +et;een "ields !nd te &er!ture' It is !lso eG&ressed in t)e %!rit 0o(( l!; ;)ic) st!tes t)!t dr" !tter &roduction dou+les (or e%er" rise in te &er!ture o( !+out 200C' Suc) correl!tions !re )o;e%er8 not %!lid (or !n" tro&ic!l cro&s' Soil te &er!ture is !not)er signi(ic!nt control o( cro& gro;t) !nd de%elo& ent' At ti es8 it is o( gre!ter ecologic!l i &ort!nce to cro& li(e t)!n !ir te &er!ture' Soil te &er!ture !((ects t)e ger in!tion o( seed !nd l!ter in(luences root de%elo& ent !nd t)e gro;t) o( t)e entire cro&' Soil !lso !((ects t)e &)"sic!l8 c)e ic!l !nd +iologic!l &rocesses in t)e soil t)!t deter ine o%er!ll cro& gro;t)' =or inst!nce8 &ot!toes re1uire !ir te &er!ture o( +et;een <0C !nd 2<0C8 t)e o&ti u +eing 2<0C'
3.2
A/')+ul%u'e, Pe-%- $(d D)-e$-e-
T)e co +in!tion o( )ig) te &er!tures !nd )ig) )u idities c)!r!cteristic o( tro&ic!l lo;l!nds8 c!rries serious dr!;+!cBs (or tro&ic!l !griculture' =or !n" tro&ic!l cro&s t)e "ields !re reduced +ot) in 1u!ntit" !nd 1u!lit" +" )ig) te &er!tures8 !inl" +ec!use so e dise!ses !nd &ests t)ri%e ;ell under ;!r conditions' 0ig) te &er!tures !nd )u idities in t)e tro&ics !lso cre!te )ig)l" (!%our!+le conditions (or t)e &roli(er!tion !nd gro;t) o( nu erous icro-org!nis s !nd insects8 ;)ic) s&re!d dise!ses !nd &ests' T)e" !lso encour!ge r!&id !nd &ro(use gro;t) o( ;eeds !nd &!r!sites ;)ic) c!n dr!stic!ll" reduce "ield' Losses !re not li ited to cro&s on t)e (ieldE t)e" !re e1u!ll" serious !(ter )!r%esting !nd during stor!ge !nd tr!ns&ort!tion' In Nigeri!8 cro& losses due to &ests )!%e +een esti !ted to +e o( t)e order o( 70 to 40L o( tot!l cro& &roduction CA"o!de8 2002D' T)e &eriodic or se!son!l n!ture o( out+re!Bs o( cro& &ests !nd dise!ses suggests t)!t ;e!t)er conditions &l!" !n i &ort!nt role' =!%our!+le te &er!ture !nd )u idit" conditions encour!ge t)e gro;t) !nd de%elo& ent o( cro& &ests !nd dise!se c!using ger s' #ind conditions
>2
SOS 203
control t)e tr!ns&ort !nd distri+ution o( dise!se c!using ger s !nd s&ores' Locusts +reed in t)e se i !rid !re!s +ordering t)e S!)!r! desert ;)ere t)ere is enoug) oisture (or +reeding !nd (or %eget!ti%e gro;t) to (eed t)e l!r%!' T)ere!(ter8 t)e !ture locusts ;it) t)e !id o( nort)e!sterl" ;inds (l" in s;!r s sout);!rds during t)e d!" ;)en !ir te &er!tures !re +et;een 200 !nd 300C' T)e incidence o( rosette !nd ot)er dise!ses t)!t !tt!cB groundnuts incre!ses ;it) incre!se in r!in(!ll !nd )u idit"' T)is is one o( t)e re!sons ;)" l!rge sc!le culti%!tion o( groundnut is li ited to t)e drier nort)ern region o( Nigeri!' Susce&ti+ilit" to (ung!l dise!ses ;)ic) t)ri%e in ;!r 8 oist conditions )!s &re%ented cotton (ro +eing gro;n in sout)ern Nigeri!' Ade/u;on C2>42D de onstr!ted t)!t too uc) r!in(!ll reduces t)e nu +er o( coco! &ods &er tree !nd incre!ses t)e degree o( in(ection +" t)e +l!cB &od dise!ses in t)e coco! gro;ing !re!s o( sout)- ;estern Nigeri!' T)e incidence o( )e!d ould t)!t !tt!cBs sorg)u )!s +een !ttri+uted to )ig) !t os&)eric )u idit" in Nigeri! C*!ss! et. al 2>?4D'
3.3
A/')+ul%u'e $(d I'')/$%)o(
Irrig!tion c!n +e de(ined !s t)e !&&lic!tion o( ;!ter to soil to &ro%ide oisture (or cro& gro;t)' Irrig!tion is one o( t)e oldest (!r tec)ni1ues used in su&&l"ing !ddition!l ;!ter in oisture de(icient l!nds (or cro& &roduction' T)is eGtends culti%!tions to t)e !rgin!l l!nds' It !lso incre!ses (ood &roduction !nd incre!ses "ield' Irrig!tion is used in dr" regions to ;)ic) ;!ter c!n +e t!BenE regions ;)ere r!in(!ll is )ig)l" se!son!lE regions ;)ere t)e !nnu!l r!in(!ll is too lo; or too %!ri!+le (ro "e!r to "e!r to !llo; &ro&er cro& culti%!tion !nd regions o( t)e ;orld ;)ere rice is gro;n +" t)e !id o( irrig!tion' L!rge sc!le irrig!tion in%ol%es t)e construction o( )uge d! s !cross ri%ers so t)!t reser%oirs !re cre!ted to store ;!ter' S !ll sc!le irrig!tion in%ol%es t)e use o( !nnu!l (looding o( ! ri%er during t)e &eriod o( )e!%" r!in(!ll in t)e u&&er &!rts o( its %!lle" Ce'g' Nile %!lle"8 G!nges !nd Niger %!lle"DE t)e construction o( t!nBs to store ;!ter directl" (ro se!son!l r!in(!ll !nd digging +ore)oles (ro ;)ere ;!ter is &u &ed to ;et cro&s or gr!sses or su&&l" drinBing ;!ter to !ni !ls' In t)e dr" tro&ics8 ! lot o( ;!ter is re1uired (or irrig!tion' T)is is +ec!use t)e )ig) te &er!ture !nd lo; )u idit" o( t)e !re!s incre!se t)e r!te o( tr!ns&ir!tion8 t)ere+" incre!sing t)e ;!ter re1uire ents o( cro&' ,%!&or!tion losses (ro soil !re !lso )ig)'
>3
SOS 203
3.1
C'o, #$%e' ReEu)'e*e(%
T)e ;!ter re1uire ent o( !n" gi%en cro& is deter ined +" %!rious (!ctors8 i &ort!nt ! ongst ;)ic) !re ;e!t)er conditions Csuc) !s te &er!ture8 )u idit"8 ;inds8 suns)ineD ;)ic) deter ine t)e &otenti!l e%!&otr!ns&ir!tion o( cro&sE cro& ;!ter use ;)ic) de&ends on t)e t"&e o( cro&s !nd t)e st!ge o( de%elo& ent o( t)e cro&s' T)e gre!ter t)e le!( !re! o( t)e cro& !nd t)e ore !cti%el" t)e cro& is gro;ing8 t)e gre!ter t)e ! ount o( cro& ;!ter re1uire ent' T)e cro& ;!ter re1uire ent o( cro&s c!n +e deter ined in t;o !/or ;!"s n! el"E +" e!suring l"si eter or e%!&or!tion &!ns8 or +" t)e use o( (or ul!e o( ;)ic) t)ere !re %!rious t"&es'
3.2
C'o, I'')/$%)o( ReEu)'e*e(%
Cro& irrig!tion re1uire ent is t)e &ortion o( t)e ;!ter consu &ti%e use o( cro&s ;)ic) ust +e su&&lied +" irrig!tion to ensure o&ti !l cro& gro;t) !nd de%elo& ent' It is t)e di((erence +et;een cro& ;!ter re1uire ent !nd oisture !%!il!+le t)roug) &reci&it!tion !nd (ro soil oisture stor!ge' Suc) cro& irrig!tion re1uire ent is !ctu!ll" t)e di((erence +et;een &otenti!l e%!&otr!ns&ir!tion C.,D !nd t)e !ctu!l e%!&otr!ns&ir!tion CA,D' It is t)ere(ore8 +est esti !ted t)roug) ;!ter +udgeting tec)ni1ues suc) !s t)ose o( T)ornt);!ite !nd M!t)er C2>7?D !nd .en !n C2>3>D' C!lcul!ting irrig!tion ;!ter re1uire ent ;ill )el& to !Gi ise irrig!tion ;!ter' T)is ;ill !lso )el& in regul!ting t)e rele!se o( ;!ter to cro&s so !s not to )!r t)e soil C!%oid le!c)ing !nd s!lin!tionD'
3.6
Cl)*$%e F L)9e-%o+D Rel$%)o(-&),
#e!t)er !nd cli !te in(luence li%estocB directl" or indirectl" in t)ree i &ort!nt ;!"s' =irst8 cli !te conditions !((ect t)e !%!il!+ilit" o( ;!ter (or !ni !l consu &tion !nd deter ine t)e t"&e8 1u!ntit" !nd 1u!lit" o( &!stures !%!il!+le (or !ni !l (eed' Second8 ;e!t)er !nd cli !te )!%e direct e((ects on !ni !ls !nd t)eir +od" &)"siologic (unctions' T)ird8 ;e!t)er !nd cli !te !((ect li%estocB &roduction indirectl" +" deter ining t)e t"&e o( !ni !l &ests !nd dise!ses t)!t ;ould +e &re%!lent in ! gi%en !re!' T)e distri+ution o( !ni !ls is !((ected +" t)e !%!il!+ilit" !nd reli!+ilit" o( ;!ter su&&lies' T)e distri+ution o( &reci&it!tion o%er ! gi%en !re! &ro%ides ! roug) guide to t)e !%!il!+ilit" o( ;!ter in !n !re!' Are!s ;it) little or no r!in(!ll !re de(icient in ;!ter ;)ile !re!s o( !+und!nt r!in(!ll )!%e &lent" o( ;!ter8 !ll t)ings +eing e1u!l' 0u id cli !tes !re )o;e%er not %er" (!%our!+le (or ost t"&es o( li%estocB +ec!use o( t)e
>3
SOS 203
nu erous &ests !nd dise!ses suc) cli !tic +reeds' Ag!in8 cli !tes &ro ote (orest ecos"ste s8 ;)ere!s li%estocB &re(er gr!ss ecos"ste s8 suc) gr!ss ecos"ste s o( t)e ;orld !s t)e A(ric!n s!%!nn! t)e %eldt o( Sout) o( A(ric!8 t)e ste&&es o( Russi!8 t)e do;ns o( Austr!li!8 t)e &! &!s o( Argentin! !nd t)e &r!iries o( Nort) A eric!' Moisture still deter ines t)e distri+ution o( li%estocB ;it)in t)e gr!ssl!nd ecos"ste ' Are!s ;it) reli!+le sources o( ;!ter8 sur(!ce or underground8 !re usu!ll" ;ell stocBed ;it) !ni !ls' In t)e dr" s!%!nn! Fone o( #est A(ric!8 ;!ter is ! !/or &ro+le to li%estocB &roduction' T)e &ro+le o( ;!ter s)ort!ges is ost !cute during t)e long dr" se!son or in "e!rs o( droug)t ;)en t)e eG&ected r!in (!ils to (!ll' At suc) ti es ;!ter is &ro%ided (or li%estocB (ro ;ells !nd +ore)oles' #!tering &oints gener!ll" !ttr!ct l!rge nu +ers o( !ni !ls' T)e #est A(ric!n &!stor!lists re!ct to s)ort!ge o( ;!ter !nd (eed c!used +" t)e dr" se!son or droug)t in "e!rs o( lo; r!in(!ll in t;o ;!"s' So e dis&ose o( t)eir stocB +" selling t)e !t %er" lo; &rices to reduce t)e nu +er o( de!d !ni !ls !nd !lle%i!te r!tioning !%!il!+le (ood ! ongst (e;er !ni !ls' M!n" igr!te ;it) t)eir !ni !ls to ore (!%our!+le cli !te Fones ;)ere ore (eed !nd ;!ter !re !%!il!+le (or t)eir !ni !ls' =or inst!nce t)e =ul!ni c!ttle +reeders igr!te !t t)e +eginning o( t)e dr" se!son (ro t)e Sud!no-S!)eli!n s!%!nn! Fone' At t)e onset o( t)e r!in t)e" o%e +!cB to t)e Sud!n-S!)eli!n s!%!nn! +elt' T)ese o%e ents i edi!tel" r!ises t;o &ro+le s' =irst8 t)e !ni !ls lose ;eig)t during t)e long treB sout);!rd !nd l!ter nort);!rdE second8 t)e !ni !ls !re eG&osed to tr"&!noso i!sis during t)eir so/ourn in t)e Guine! s!%!nn! Fone' In "e!rs o( r!in (!ilure in t)e nort)8 ! lot o( li%estocB &eris)' T)ous!nds o( li%estocB &eris)ed during t)e #est A(ric! S!)el droug)t o( 2>?2-2>?3 !s ! result o( l!cB o( ;!ter !nd !n" ore &eris)ed in t)e 2><2-2><3 droug)t' Droug)t is indeed ! !/or &ro+le to li%estocB &roduction in t)e #est A(ric!n s!%!nn!' It is not onl" t)e )e!lt) o( !ni !ls t)!t is !((ected +" cli !teE t)e re&roducti%e c!&!cities o( !ni !ls !re !lso !((ected' Te &er!ture !((ects !ni !lsA &)"siologic!l (unctions !nd +ioc)e ic!l re!ctions ;it)in t)eir %!rious org!ns !nd tissues ;)ic) !" !((ect t)eir &roducti%e c!&!cit"' It )!s +een de onstr!ted t)!t under )ot conditions8 di!r" co;s tend to &roduce less ilB ;)ile +ee( c!ttle &roduce less (!ts !nd (les)' T)is is &!rtl" +ec!use t)ese !ni !ls tend to reduce t)eir int!Be o( (ood ;)en it is )ot' T)e e((ect o( eGtre e cold on !ni !ls !" !lso reduce &roduction' Muc) o( t)e +od" energ" is used to co +!t cold' Long eG&osure o( li%estocB to cold !" c!use (rost +ite or e%en de!t)'
>7
SOS 203
Region!l distri+ution o( li%estocB is in(luenced indirectl" +" cli !te t)roug) &ests !nd dise!ses' =or inst!nce8 t)e sout)ern &!rt o( Nigeri! ;)ic) )!s ! ore (!%our!+le cli !te !nd (or!ge conditions (or li%estocB )!s ! lo;er &o&ul!tion o( li%estocB t)!n t)e nort)ern &!rt' T)e re!son is t)!t t)e )u id sout) is in(ested ;it) tsetse (l" t)!t c!uses c!ttle tr"&!noso i!sis res&onsi+le (or )ig) r!tes o( or+idit" !nd ort!lit" ! ong c!ttle' T)e drier nort) is (ree o( t)is insect !nd )ence (ree o( t)e scourge o( tr"&!noso i!sis' In Nigeri!8 it )!s +een !rgued t)!t t)e )u id sout)ern &!rts o( t)e countr" !re !s suit!+le !s t)e drier nort)ern &!rts (or tro&ic!l c!ttle +reed !nd ore suit!+le (or i &ort!nt te &er!te +reed +ec!use o( t)e lo;er )e!t on c!ttle in t)e sout) t)!n in t)e nort) CO/o8 2>?2D' Tsetse (l" is (ound o%er ost &!rts o( A(ric! ;it) t)e eGce&tion o( t)e )ig)l!nd !re!s !nd rel!ti%el" dr" !re!s' T)e tsetse (l" li%es in t)e tree c!no&ies ;)ere tr!ns&ir!tion !nd s)!de !int!in ! co +in!tion o( )ig) )u idit" !nd oder!tel" )ig) te &er!tures necess!r" (or its gro;t) !nd de%elo& ent' 0ence8 onl" ! (e; d;!r( +reeds o( c!ttle t)!t !re resist!nt to tr"&!noso i!sis t)ri%e in )u id !nd (orested !re!s o( A(ric!' 0o;e%er8 ost o( A(ric!As c!ttle &o&ul!tion !re to +e (ound in t)e tsetse (l" (ree Fones o( t)e s!%!nn!'
1.
CONCLUSION
Cli !te in(luences cro& !nd !ni !l &roduction directl" t)roug) te &er!ture !nd indirectl" t)roug) its in(luence on &est !nd dise!ses' It !lso deter ines t)e need (or irrig!tion'
2.
SUMMARY
In t)is unit ;e )!%e le!rnt t)!t9 2' Te &er!ture deter ines t)e r!nge o( c)oice o( cro&s t)!t c!n +e &roduced in !n !re!' 2' Te &er!ture !lso !((ects cro&s8 including "ield' ost &)"sic!l !nd c)e ic!l &rocesses in
3' Indirectl" te &er!ture cre!tes (!%our!+le conditions (or t)e &roli(er!tion !nd gro;t) o( nu erous icro-org!nis s !nd insects ;)ic) s&re!d dise!ses !nd &ests' .ests !nd dise!ses destro" cro&s !nd reduce "ields' 3' Irrig!tion is necess!r" ;)ere t)ere is oisture de(icit (or cro& &roduction to i &ro%e "ield !nd incre!se (ood &roduction'
>4
SOS 203
7' Cli !te )!s direct e((ects on !ni !ls !nd t)eir +od" &)"siologic (unctions8 !nd t)e !%!il!+ilit" o( ;!ter (or !ni !l consu &tion' It !lso deter ines t)e t"&e8 1u!ntit" !nd 1u!lit" o( &!stures !%!il!+le (or !ni !l (eed !nd indirectl" deter ines t)e t"&e o( !ni !l &ests !nd dise!ses t)!t ;ould +e &re%!lent in ! gi%en !re!'
6.
2' 2' 3' 3' 7' 4'

0ig)lig)t t)e e((ects o( te &er!ture on cro& &roduction' ,G&l!in t)e indirect in(luences o( cli !te on cro& gro;t)' Discuss t)e %!rious ;!"s in ;)ic) sol!r r!di!tion in(luences cro& gro;t) !nd de%elo& ent' Moisture r!t)er t)!n te &er!ture is t)e ost i &ort!nt control o( !griculture in t)e tro&ics' ,G&l!in' 0ig)lig)t t)e e((ects o( te &er!ture on cro& &roduction ,G&l!in t)e indirect in(luences o( cli !te on cro& gro;t)'
5.
REFERENCES AND FURT7ER READING
A"o!de8 J'O' C2><3D' Introduction to Climatology for t e !ropics' C)ic)ester9 Jo)n #ile" !nd Sons' A"o!de8 J'O' C2002D'Introduction to Agro climatology. I+!d!n96!nt!ge .u+lis)ers' 5unnet8 R'5'C2>?3D' &eneral &eograp y in (iagram' London9 Long !n' Nieu;olt8 S' C2>??D'!ropical Climatology"An Introduction to t e Climates of t e )ow )atitudes' C)isc)ester9 Jo)n #ile" - Sons' O/o8 O' C2>??D' ! e Climates of West Africa. I+!d!n9' ,duc!tion!l 5ooBs' O/o8O'et.al C2002D' 'undamentals of P ysical Climatology. L!gos9S,D,C .u+lis)ers' and 0eine !nn (ynamic
>?

Sos 203

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SOS 203

Course Code Course Title

SOS 203 Introduction to Agro-Cli !tolog"

Course ,ditor .rogr! e Le!der

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

Module 2.. Unit 2 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 3 Unit 7

PRINCIPLES, AIMS AND SCOPE OF CLIMATOLOGY

MAIN CONTENT #e$%&e' $(d Cl)*$%e

P')(+),le- $(d S+o,e o. Cl)*$%olo/0

3' 7' 4'

T!+le 29 Sc!les o( Motion s"ste

TUTOR 3MAR4ED ASSIGNMENT

3'0 7'0 4'0 ?'0

MAIN CONTENT Te*,e'$%u'e

3.1.1 F$+%o'- I(.lue(+)(/ Te*,e'$%u'e

3.2.1 F$+%o'- o. Sol$' R$d)$%)o(

TUTOR3 MAR4ED ASSIGNMENT

3'0 7'0 4'0 ?'0

MAIN CONTENT P'e+),)%$%)o(

3.1.1 Fo'*- o. Co(de(-$%)o(

)' 3' i'

P'e--u'e $(d #)(d-

TUTOR3 MAR4ED ASSIGNMENT

DYNAMICS OF EART7=S ATMOSP7ERE

3'0 7'0 4'0 ?'0

MAIN CONTENT A%*o-,&e')+ C)'+ul$%)o(-

3.1.1 F$+%o'- o. %&e Ge(e'$l C)'+ul$%)o( o. %&e A%*o-,&e'e

A%*o-,&e')+ C)'+ul$%)o( S0-%e*-'

3.2.1 T&e Ge(e'$l C)'+ul$%)o( o. %&e A%*o-,&e'e

TUTOR3 MAR4ED ASSIGNMENT

RADIATION AND 7EATING ATMOSP7ERIC SYSTEM

3'0 7'0 4'0 ?'0

MAIN CONTENT R$d)$%)o( $(d 7e$%)(/ o. %&e A%*o-,&e')+ S0-%e*

3.1.1 T&e Su(

3.1.2 D)-,o-)%)o( o. Sol$' A%*o-,&e')+ S0-%e*

3.1.3 Te''e-%')$l $(d A%*o-,&e')+ R$d)$%)o(

3.1.1 R$d)$%)o( !$l$(+e

243 43 27 ?< 24 >3 ? 3< 37 223 24>

27< 20 23< 377 23> 204 72

t)e !t os&)ere t)e e!rt) !nd !t os&)ere

TUTOR 3MAR4ED ASSIGNMENT

,G&l!in t)e r!di!tion +!l!nce o( t)e e!rt)As !t os&)eric s"ste '

3'0 7'0 4'0 ?'0

MAIN CONTENT A%*o-,&e')+ Mo)-%u'e

3.1.1 E9$,o'$%)o( $(d E9$,o%'$(-,)'$%)o(

!ss o( ;!ter %!&our &er Bilogr! iGing r!tio9It is t)e

M!ss iGing r!tio or )u idit" %!&our &er Bilogr! o( dr" !ir'

3.2.1 D)-%'):u%)o( o. 7u*)d)%0

TUTOR3 MAR4ED ASSIGNMENT

T7E DYNAMICS OF PRESSURE AND #IND SYSTEMS

MAIN CONTENT P'e--u'e $(d #)(d S0-%e*-

TUTOR3 MAR4ED ASSIGNMENT

T7ECONDENSATION PRECIPITATION PROCESS

3'0 7'0 4'0 ?'0

MAIN CONTENT Co(de(-$%)o(

3.2.1 T0,e- o. P'e+),)%$%)o(

TUTOR3 MAR4ED ASSIGNMENT

SEASONAL VARIATIONS IN RADIATION, DAYLIG7T AND TEMPERATURE

3'0 7'0 4'0 ?'0

MAIN CONTENT Se$-o($l V$')$%)o(- )( R$d)$%)o(

Se$-o($l V$')$%)o(- )( D$0 L)/&%

Se$-o($l V$')$%)o(- )( Te*,e'$%u'e

TUTOR 3MAR4ED ASSIGNMENT

A%o-,&e')+ C)'+ul$%)o( S0-%e-'

MAIN CONTENT R$d)$%)o( $(d 7e$%)(/ o. %&e A%o-,&e')+ S0-%e

3.1.2 D)-,o-)%)o( o. Sol$' A%o-,&e')+ S0-%e

3.2.3 Me$-u'ee(% o. 7u)d)%0

F)/. 168 70/'oe%e' ;D'0 $(d #e% :ul: %&e'o*e%e'<

F)/. 228 S%$' P0'$(oe%e' 3.2 Me$-u'ee(% o. Du'$%)o( o. Su(-&)(e

Me$-u'ee(% o. So)l Te,e'$%u'e