The Bipolar Linear Momentum transported by the Electromagnetic

Waves: Origin of the Gravitational Interaction

Fran De Aquino
Copyright © 2014-2017 by Fran De Aquino. All Rights Reserved.

Besides energy, the electromagnetic waves transport linear momentum. Then, if this momentum is
absorbed by a surface, pressure is exerted on the surface. This is the so-called Radiation Pressure. Here
we show that this pressure has a negative component (opposite to the direction of propagation of the
radiation) due to the existence of the negative linear momentum transported by the electromagnetic
waves. This fact leads to an important theoretical discovery: the velocity of the electromagnetic waves in
free space is not a constant. In addition, a generalized equation of the Newton’s law of Gravitation, is
deduced starting from the concept of negative radiation pressure applied on the Gravitational Interaction.
Key words: Gravity, Gravitation, Electromagnetic Waves, Radiation Pressure.

1. Introduction
Electromagnetic waves transport
energy as well as linear momentum. Then, if
this momentum is absorbed by a surface,
pressure is exerted on the surface. Maxwell
showed that, if the incident energy U is
totally absorbed by the surface during a
time t , then the total momentum q transferred
to the surface is q = U v [1]. Then, the
pressure, p (defined as force F per unit area
A ), exerted on the surface, is given by
F 1 dq 1 d ⎛ U ⎞ 1 (dU dt )
p= = = ⎜ ⎟= (1)
A A dt A dt ⎝ v ⎠ v A oscillators (photons, for example), E0 does
whence we recognize the term (dU dt ) A as
the radiation power density, D , (in watts/m2)
arriving at the surface 1 . Thus, if v = c the
radiation pressure exerted on the surface is
p=
D
(2)
c show the well-known expression of the
Here we show that this pressure has a
negative component (opposite to the
direction of propagation of the photons) due
to the existence of the negative linear
momentum transported by the photons. This
E n = (n + 12 )hf n = 0,1,2,... (3)
where f is the classical frequency of
oscillation, and h is the Planck’s constant
[2]. When n = 0 , Eq. (3) shows that
E 0 = 12 hf . This value is called energy of the
zero point. Thus, the energy of the harmonic
oscillator, at equilibrium with the
surrounding medium, does not tend to zero
when temperature approaches to absolute
zero, but stays equal to E0 .
In the particular case of massless
not correspond to the lowest value of the
energy, which the oscillator can have,
because, when temperature approaches to
absolute zero the oscillator frequency
becomes dependent of the temperature T , as
thermal De Broglie wavelength (Λ ) for
massless particles [3, 4], which is given by
ch
(4)
1
Λ= 1
⇒ 1
2 hf = π 3 kT
2π kT
3

fact leads to an important theoretical
discovery: the velocity of the electromagnetic
waves in free space is not a constant. In
addition, a generalized equation of the Newton’s
law of Gravitation is deduced starting from the
concept of negative radiation pressure applied on
the Gravitational Interaction.
.2. Theory
The energy of a harmonic oscillator is
quantized in multiples of hf , and given by
1
This value is also called of Poynting vector.
Then, the lowest value of the energy 12 hf , in
the case of the photon, for example, will be a
fraction of the value 12 hf correspondent to a
critical temperature Tc very close to absolute
zero. The mentioned fraction must be only
related to the frequency f , and a frequency
limit, f g , whose value must be extremely
large. Just a simple algebraic form, the
quotient f f g , can express satisfactorily the
mentioned fraction. Thus, according to Eq.
(4), we can write that
 2
⎛ f ⎞ 1 well-known. However, Eq. (7) point to a
1
2 hf ⎜ ⎟ = π 3 kT
⎜f ⎟
(5) new type of photons when f = 2 f g . In this
⎝ g⎠ case q = 0 , i.e., this type of photon does not
Above Tc , the photon absorbs energy from exert pressure when it incides on a surface.
the surrounding medium 2 [5], and its energy What means that it does not interact with
becomes equal to hf . Therefore, the energy matter. Obviously, this corresponds to a
absorbed by the photon is special type of photon, which we will call of
⎛ f ⎞ neutral photon. Finally, if f > 2 f g the
U = hf − 12 hf ⎜ ⎟
⎜f ⎟
(6) resultant momentum transported by the
⎝ ⎠g
photon is negative. If this momentum is
absorbed by a surface, pressure is exerted on
the surface, in the opposite direction of
propagation of the photon. This special type

( )
of photon will be denominated of attractive
1 f
2 hf fg hf photon.
The quantization of gravity shows that
photon the gravitational mass mg and inertial mass
T =Tc photon mi are correlated by means of the following
T >Tc factor [6]:
mg ⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎤⎫
2
Fig. 1 – Above Tc , the photon absorbs energy from ⎛ Δ ⎞ ⎪
the surrounding medium, and its energy becomes χ= ⎢ ⎜
= ⎨1 − 2 1 + ⎜
p
⎟
⎟ − 1⎥⎬ (8)
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎠ ⎥⎪
equal to hf . ⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭
The absorbed energy is that thrust the photon where mi 0 is the rest inertial mass of the
r
and gives to it its velocity v . Consequently, particle and Δp is the variation in the
the momentum q transported by the photon particle’s kinetic momentum.
r
with velocity v will be expressed by Another important equation obtained
⎛ f ⎞ in the quantization theory of gravity is the
hf − 12 hf ⎜ ⎟ new expression for the momentum q of a
⎜ f ⎟ ⎛ 1 f ⎞ hf
r U
q= r = ⎝ g ⎠ = ⎜1 − ⎟ = particle with gravitational mass M g and
r ⎜ 2 f ⎟ vr
v v ⎝ g ⎠ velocity v , which is given by
r r
q = M gv (9 )
⎛ 1 f ⎞ hf ⎛ c ⎞ ⎛ 1 f ⎞ hf ⎛ c ⎞
= ⎜1 − ⎟ = ⎜1 − ⎟ =
⎜ 2 f ⎟ vr ⎜⎝ c ⎟⎠ ⎜ 2 f ⎟ c ⎜⎝ vr ⎟⎠ where Mg = mg 1−v2 c2 ; m g is given by
⎝ g ⎠ ⎝ g ⎠
Eq.(8), i.e., mg = χ mi .
⎛ 1 f ⎞ hf r
= ⎜1 − ⎟ n
⎜ 2 f ⎟ c r
(7 ) By comparing Eq. (9) with (7) we obtain
⎝ g ⎠ ⎛ ⎞
Equation above shows the existence of v=c
hf ⎜1 − f
⎜ 2f
⎟
⎟
(10)
M gc2 ⎝ g ⎠
a bipolar linear momentum transported by
the electromagnetic waves. For f < 2 f g the Mass–energy equivalence principle states that
anything having mass has an equivalent amount
resultant momentum transported by the of energy and vice versa. In the particular case of
photon is positive, i.e., If this momentum is photons, the energy of the photons, E = hf , has a
absorbed by a surface, pressure is exerted on
corresponding equivalent mass, M g , given by its
the surface, in the same direction of
propagation of the photon. These photons are energy E divided by the speed of light squared c²,
i.e.,
2
In order to provide the equilibrium the harmonic M g ≡ E c2 (11)
oscillator absorbs energy from the surrounding or
medium.
 3
M g c ≡ hf
2
(12) where N A and N B are respectively, the
Considering this expression, Eq. (10) can be number of attractive photons emitted from A
rewritten as follows and B , during the time interval Δt = 1 f .
⎛ ⎞ Equations (14) and (15) can be rewritten as
v = c ⎜1 −
⎜ 2f
f ⎟
⎟
(13) follows
⎝ g ⎠ ⎡ ⎛ f ⎞⎤
PA ≅ ⎢ N A hf ⎜1 − ⎟⎥ f = E g ( A ) f =
Equation (13) shows that the speed of the ⎜ ⎟⎥
electromagnetic waves in free space is not a ⎣⎢ ⎝ 2 fg ⎠⎦
constant. Thus, also the speed of light is not a
⎛ ⎞
constant. ⎜ 1 ⎟
Theories proposing a varying speed of light ≅⎜ ⎟ M g ( A )c 2 f (16)
have recently been widely proposed under the ⎜ V ⎟
2
⎜ 1 − A2 ⎟
claim that they offer a solution to cosmological ⎝ c ⎠
puzzles [7 , 8].
⎡ ⎛ f ⎞⎟⎤
It is known that the interactions are PB ≅ ⎢ N B hf ⎜1 − f = E g (B ) f =
communicated by means of the changing of ⎢⎣ ⎜ 2 f ⎟⎥⎥
⎝ g ⎠⎦
“virtual” quanta. The maximum velocity of these
quanta is a constant called maximum velocity of ⎛ ⎞
propagation of the interactions. Currently, it is ⎜ 1 ⎟
assumed that this velocity is equal to the velocity ≅⎜ ⎟ M g ( B )c 2 f (17 )
⎜ ⎟
of the electromagnetic waves in free space (c ) .
V2
⎜ 1 − B2 ⎟
⎝ c ⎠
This is the reason of the constant c to appear in
the relativistic factor (Eq. (10)). However, Eq. where E g ( A ) and E g ( B ) are respectively the total
(13) shows that the velocity of the energies of the particles A and B , given
electromagnetic waves in free space is not a
respectively by: Eg( A) = Mg( A)c = mAc 1−VA2 c2
2 2
constant. In addition, Eq. (13) shows that for
f > 2 f g the velocity of the photon is imaginary. and E g ( B ) = M g ( B ) c = mB c
2 2
1 − VB2 c 2 [6];
This means that the attractive photons are virtual V A is the velocity of the particle A in respect to
photons.
Now we will apply the concept of negative the particle B and VB is the velocity of the
radiation pressure, here developed, to the particle B in respect to the particle A .
Gravitational Interaction. Obviously, V A = VB .
According to Eq. (7), the resultant Thus, if r is the distance between the
momentum transported by the photons with mentioned particles, then the power densities of
frequency f > 2 f g is negative. If this momentum the attractive radiation in A and B are
is absorbed by a surface, pressure is exerted on respectively, given by
the surface, in the opposite direction of ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
PA ⎜ 1 ⎟ Mg( A)c f ⎜ 1 ⎟ Mg( A)
2

⎟ξ0 2 (18)
propagation of the photon.
Now consider two particles A and B with DA = 2 =⎜ ⎟ =⎜
4πr ⎜ 1− V2 ⎟ 4πr2 ⎜ V2 ⎟
1− 2 r
gravitational masses m A and m B , respectively. ⎝ c2 ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠
If both particles emit attractive radiation ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
( f > 2 f g ), then the powers PA and PB emitted PB ⎜ 1 ⎟ Mg( B) c f ⎜ 1 ⎟ Mg( B)
2

DB = 2 =⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ξ0 2 (19)
from A and B , according to Eq. (6), are 4πr ⎜ 1− V2 ⎟ 4πr2 ⎜ 1− V2 ⎟ r
respectively given by ⎝ c2 ⎠ ⎝ c2 ⎠

⎛ f ⎞⎟ where V = V A = VB ; ξ 0 is expressed by
PA = N A hf ⎜1 −
⎜ 2f ⎟
f (14)
⎝ g ⎠ c2 f
ξ0 = (20 )
⎛ f ⎞⎟ 4π
PB = N B hf ⎜1−
⎜ 2f ⎟
f (15) Let us now show that the gravitational
⎝ g ⎠ attraction between two particles A and B is
generated by the interchange of attractive
 4
photons (virtual photons with f > 2 f g ) , M g ( B ) ) is related to the product of M g ( A ) by
emitted reciprocally by the two particles. the flux density (power density) on A, due to the
It is known that the electric force on an (
mass M g ( B ) , D B = PB 4πr 2 . See Eq.(19 ) , )
electric charge A, due to another electric charge r r
B is related to the product of the charge of A i.e., FBA ∝ D B M g ( A ) . By analogy, the particle A
(q A ) by the flux density on A, due to the charge exerts an opposite force on the particle B, which
r r
(
of B, D B = q B 2
)
4πr , i.e., FBA ∝ D B q A . By is related to the product of the mass M g ( A ) by the
analogy, the charge A exerts an opposite electric flux density (power density) on B, due to the
force on the charge B, which is related to the mass M g ( A) of the particle A,
product of the charge of B (q B ) by the flux r r
density on B, due to the charge of A,
(rD
A = PA
r
4π r 2
. See Eq .(18) ),i.e., F AB = − F AB ,
r r
(r r
)
DA = qA 4πr 2 , i.e., FAB = − FAB ,
FAB ∝ D A M g ( B ) . Thus, we can write that
r r
∝ DAqB . r r DA Mg( A) DB Mb( B)
FAB These proportionalities are
FAB = −FBA = μˆ = − μˆ (23)
usually written by means of the following k0 k0
equations: Substitution of Eqs. (18) and (19) into Eq. (23)
r r
r r DA qB DB q A q A qB we get
FAB = −FBA = =− = μˆ (21) ⎛ ⎞
ε0 ε0 4πε0 r 2 r r ⎜ 1 ⎟⎛ ξ0 ⎞ Mg( A) Mg( B)
where ε 0 is the so-called permissivity constant FAB = −FBA = ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟
2 ⎜k ⎟ 2
μˆ (24)
⎜ 1− ⎟⎝ 0 ⎠
( )
V r
for free space ε0 = 8.854×10−12 F/ m . ⎝ c2 ⎠

Similarly, the magnetic force that a For V = 0 Eq. (24) reduces to

magnetic pole B exerts on another magnetic pole r r ⎛ξ ⎞ m m
A is related to the product of the pole intensity FAB = −FBA = ⎜⎜ 0 ⎟⎟ A 2 B μˆ =
p A of the pole A by the flux density on A, due ⎝ k0 ⎠ r
to the pole intensity pB of the pole B, m A mB
(D = p B 4πr , 2
)
i.e.,
r r
FBA ∝ D B p A .
By
=G μˆ (25)
B r2
analogy, the pole A exerts an opposite magnetic where G = 6.67 × 10 −11 N .m 2 .kg −2 is the
force on the pole B, which is related to the
Universal constant of Gravitation.
product of the pole intensity p B of the pole B Equation (25) tells us that
by the flux density on B, due to the pole intensity ξ 0 k0 = G (26)
r r r r
(
p A of the pole A, D A = p A 4πr 2 , i.e., ) By substituting ξ 0 given by Eq. (20) into this
FAB = − FAB , FAB ∝ D A q B . Usually these expression, we obtain
proportionalities are expressed by means of the ξ0 c2 f
following equations: k0 = = (27)
r r G 4πG
r r DA pB DB pA pA pB
FAB = −FBA = =− = μˆ (22) From the above exposed, we can then
μ0 μ0 4πμ0 r 2 conclude that the gravitational interaction is
caused by the interchange of virtual photons with
where μ 0 is the so-called permeability constant
frequencies f > 2 f g (attractive photons). In this
(
for free space μ 0 = 4π × 10 −7 H / m . ) way, the called graviton must have spin 1 and
In the case of the forces produced by the not 2. Consequently, the gravitational forces are
action of attractive photons emitted reciprocally also gauge forces because they are yielded by the
from the particles A and B, their expressions can exchange of virtual quanta of spin 1, such as the
be deduced by using the same argument electromagnetic forces and the weak and strong
previously shown in order to obtain the nuclear forces.
expressions of the electric forces and magnetic Now consider the emission of N attractive
forces. That is, the force exerted on the particle
photons with frequency f > 2 f g (gravitons)
A (whose gravitational mass is M g ( A ) ), by
another particle B (whose gravitational mass is
 5
from a particle with mass mi 0 . According to Eq. this case, the equation (29) will be rewritten as
follows:
(8) , and considering that q = U v , we get
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mgn ⎪ ⎢ ⎛ Nn hf f ⎞ ⎥⎪
mg ⎧⎪ ⎡ ⎤⎫
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎜ ⎟ −1 ⎬ =
2
⎛ U ⎞ ⎪ 1−
χ= ⎢
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ −1⎥⎬ (28) mn0 ⎪ ⎜ mn0c 2
2 f g ⎟ ⎥⎪
mi0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎝ mi0 cv⎠ ⎥⎪ ⎢ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎩ ⎣ ⎦⎭ ⎩ ⎣ ⎭
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤ ⎫
Substitution of Eq. (6) and (13) into Eq. (28)
⎪ ⎢ ⎛⎜ N hf f ⎞⎟ ⎥⎪
gives = ⎨1− 2 1+
⎢ ⎜ m c2
1−
⎟
−1 ⎬
⎥
(32)
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ i0 2 f
⎧ ⎡ ⎛ Nhf ⎞
2 ⎤⎫ ⎩ ⎣
g ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪⎭
mg ⎪ ⎟ − 1⎥⎪⎬ (29)
= ⎨1 − 2⎢ 1 + ⎜
f
1−
mi 0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎜ mi 0 c 2
2 fg ⎟ ⎥ Also, in this case, the obtained expression is
⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪⎭ exactly the same expression for the proton and
the electron (the term N mi 0 is a constant). In
In case of protons, for example, the number of
attractive photons emitted from a proton, N p , short, the result is the same for any particle with
non-null mass.
can be expressed by means of the following
( )
By solving equation below
relation: N p = N m p 0 mi 0 , where N is the
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ N hf ⎞ ⎪
−1⎥⎬ =
number of attractive photons emitted from the ⎜ f ⎟
⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎜ 1−
⎥
particle with mass mi 0 ; m p 0 is the rest inertial
⎪
2
2 f g ⎟⎠
⎩ ⎢
⎣ ⎝ mi 0 c ⎥⎦⎪⎭
mass of the proton. In this case, the equation (29)
will be rewritten as follows: ⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ ⎞
2
⎛ f ⎟ ⎥⎪⎪
⎞
⎧ ⎡ ⎫ ⎪ N h
⎞ ⎤⎥⎪ −1⎥ = χ (33)
2⎜
⎛ N p hf
2
⎜
⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎜ ⎟ f 1−
mgp ⎪ ⎢
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎜ 1−
f ⎟ −1 ⎬ = ⎢ mi 0 c 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜ 2 f ⎟ ⎥⎬
⎪ ⎝1 ⎝ g ⎠ ⎪
mp0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎜ mp0c2 2 f ⎟ ⎥ ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ 424 3 ⎥⎦⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎢ ⎝ g ⎠
⎥⎦⎪⎭ cons tan t ⎭
⎧ ⎡ ⎫ we get:
⎞ ⎤⎥⎪
2
⎪ ⎢ ⎛ N hf ⎛
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎜
f ⎟ −1 ⎬ (30) f ⎞⎟ mi20 c 4 ⎛ χ 2 − 6χ + 5 ⎞
⎢ ⎜ mi0c2
1−
2 f ⎟ ⎥ ⎜
f 1−2
=
⎜ 2 f ⎟ N 2 h2 ⎜
⎜ ⎟⎟ (34)
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ g ⎠
⎥⎦⎪⎭ ⎝ g ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
⎩ ⎣
In the case of, electrons, for example, the Note that, for N = N max , the value of f in Eq.
number of attractive photons emitted from an (34) becomes equal to f min . But, the minimum
electron N e , can be expressed by means of the frequency of the gravific photons is very close to
following relation: N e = N (me 0 mi 0 ) , where 2 f g , then we can write that f = f min ≅ 2 f g .
me 0 is the rest inertial mass of the electron. In Under these circumstances, Eq. (33) shows that
this case, the equation (29) will be rewritten as we have that χ = χ min ≅ 1 . Consequently, both
⎧ ⎡ ⎫
⎞ ⎤⎥⎪
2 terms of the Eq. (34) become approximately
mge ⎪ ⎢ ⎛ Ne hf f equal to zero. On the other hand, for
= ⎨1− 2 1+ ⎜ 1− ⎟ −1 ⎬ =
N = N min = 1 (one gravific photon) the value of
me0 ⎪ ⎢ ⎜ me0c
⎝
2
2fg ⎟ ⎥
⎠ ⎦⎥⎪
⎩ ⎢
⎣ ⎭ f in Eq. (34) becomes equal to f max (the
⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎛ N hf ⎞ ⎥⎪ maximum frequency of the gravific photons) and
= ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎜ (31)
f ⎟ −1 ⎬
1− Eq. (33) shows that, in this case, χ = χ max , i.e.,
⎢ ⎜ mi0c 2
2fg ⎟ ⎥
⎪ ⎢ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦⎪
⎩ ⎣ ⎭
This is exactly the same expression for the proton ⎧ ⎡ ⎤⎫
⎪ ⎢ ⎛
2
⎞ 2 ⎛ ⎞ ⎥⎪
⎪ ⎟ f max⎜1− max ⎟ −1⎥⎪⎬ = χ max (35)
(Eq. (30). N h f
⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ ⎜⎜
mi0 c 2 ⎟⎠ ⎜ 2f ⎟ ⎥
In the case of, neutrinos, for example, the
number of attractive photons, N n , emitted from ⎪ ⎢ ⎝14 2 4 3 ⎝ g ⎠ ⎪
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ constant
⎥⎦⎪
⎭
a neutrino can be expressed by means of the
following relation: N n = N (m n 0 mi 0 ) , where
By solving this equation, we obtain:
m n 0 is the rest inertial mass of the neutrino. In
 6
⎛ f max ⎞ m c 2 4
⎛χ 2
− 6χ max + 5 ⎞ f min ≅ 2 f g ≤ f ≤ f max >> 10 mi 0
64
(42)
2 ⎜
f max 1− ⎟= i0
⎜ max
⎟ (36)
⎜ 2f ⎟ h 2 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ g ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠ This expression shows then that the
The energy density D at a distance r frequency spectrum of the gravific photons must
from the mentioned particle can be expressed by:
hf (1 − f 2 f g )( f
be above the spectrum of the gamma rays
U Δt ) (neutrino mass: mi 0 ≅ 10 −37 kg [9]). Thus,
D= = (37 )
S 4π r 2
considering that the highest energy of gamma ray
Substitution of Eq.(36) into Eq. (37) yields
detected is approximately 3 × 10 13 eV [10] 3 , in
⎛ m c 4 ⎞⎛ χ 2 − 6χ max + 5 ⎞ mi 0 terms of frequency f γ max ≈ 10 Hz , then we
(38)
28
D = ⎜ i 0 ⎟⎜⎜ max ⎟ 2
⎟ r
⎜ 4π h ⎟
⎝ ⎠⎝ 4 ⎠ can assume that the characteristic value, 2 f g , in
By comparing Eq. (38) with equations (18) and the Eq.(34), in spite to be greater than f γ max , it
(19), we can conclude that
should be very close it, because the spectrum of
⎛ mi0c 4 ⎞⎛ χmax
2
− 6χmax + 5 ⎞
⎜
⎜ 4π h ⎟⎜
⎟⎜ ⎟ = ξ0
⎟ (39) the attractive photons should make limit with the
gamma rays spectrum (See Fig.2). Thus, we can
⎝ ⎠⎝ 4 ⎠
write that
By comparing this equation with Eq.(20), we
obtain
2 f g ≳ f γ max ≈ 1028 Hz (43)
⎛ χ 2 − 6 χ max + 5 ⎞ mi 0 c 2
f max = ⎜⎜ max ⎟⎟ (40) It is very unlikely that there are gamma
⎝ 4 ⎠ h rays in the Nature with frequency much greater
than the aforementioned value, but if they exist,
Now, taking Eq. (8), where the term Δp mi0 c is they would only show that the value of 2 f g
putted in the following form: would be situated above the value indicated by
Δp mi0c = (v c)(1− v2 c )
1
2 −2 Eq (43).
[6], we get

⎧ ⎡ 2 ⎤⎫
mg⎪ ⎢ ⎛⎜ v c ⎞⎟ ⎥⎪
χ = = ⎨1− 2⎢ 1+ −1
⎜ 1−v2 c2 ⎟ ⎥⎬⎪
(41) 1031
1030 Gravific photons
mi0 ⎪
⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎩ ⎢⎣ 2fg 1029
⎭ 1028
1027
1026
In practice, how close c the velocity v can 1025
approach? At the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) 1024 Gamma rays
1023
the protons each have energy of 6.5 TeV, giving 1022
total collision energy of 13 TeV. At this energy 1021
1020
the protons move with velocity 1019 X rays
v = 0.999999990c . Possibly this value will can 1018
1017
be increased up to v = 0.999999999999c , in
the next experiments at the LHC. In this case, Eq.
(41) gives χ ≅ −10 7 . Since χ max is obviously,
Fig. 2 – The Gravific Photons Spectrum (above
very greater than this value, then we can
2 f g ≈ 10 Hz ).
28

conclude that the term χ max2

(
− 6 χ max + 5 4 in )
Eq. (40) is very greater than 1014 ; showing,
therefore, that the maximum frequency f of the
gravific photons (See Eq. (40)) is very greater
( )
than 1014 mi 0 c 2 h ≅ 10 64 mi 0 . Thus, we can 3
The largest air shower detected is from a particle of
define the frequency spectrum of the gravific
around 4 × 10 eV but this is thought to be from a
20
photons by means of the following expression:
cosmic ray particle rather than photon.
 7

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