itself and the antigen gene. The antigen is later purified from the yeast cellculture.

By isolating antigens and producing them in the laboratory, it is possible to make vaccines that cannot transmit the virus or bacterium itself.This method also increases the amount of vaccine that can be manufactured because biotechnology vaccines can be made without using live animals.Using these techniques of biotechnology, scientists have developedantigen-only vaccines against life-threatening diseases such as hepatitis Band meningitis. Recently researchers have discovered that injecting small pieces of DNA from microbes is sufficient for triggering antibody production. Such DNA vaccines could provide immunization againstmicrobes for which we currently have no vaccines.Biotechnology is also broadening the vaccine concept beyond protectionagainst infectious organisms. Various researchers are developing vaccinesagainst diseases such as diabetes, chronic inflammatory disease, AlzheimersDisease and cancer.Various researchers are developing vaccines against diseases such asdiabetes, chronic inflammatory disease, Alzheimers Disease and cancer. 9. Agricultural Production Applications Many species of microorganisms interact with plants either as symbiontsor as pathogens, and scientists have taken advantage of this intimate

relationship in their efforts to improve agricultural production through biotechnology. For example, plant-pathogenic bacteria, inactivated throughthe deliberate deletion of genes essential for pathogenesis (such as the icenucleation gene) have been used successfully as competitors against natural pathogens. Similar efforts are being made to improve the properties for example, the host range of beneficial symbionts such as nitrogen-fixing bacteria. In most cases, however, the focus of improvement has been thegenetic constitution of a given plant that is, the production of transgenic plants. However, even these cases have exploited the natural capacity of the plant pathogen A. tumefaciens to introduce a portion of its plasmid DNA,TDNA, into plant cells.Theintroduction of exogenous genes fromother plants or microorganisms in this manner has resulted in the production of plants that are resistant to herbicides, insect pests, or viruses and that arenow planted on a vast scale, totaling more than 80 million hectaresworldwide. In the laboratory, some success also has been obtained in thecreation of transgenic plants that are broadly pathogen resistant or salttolerant. The next generation of transgenic plants will place more emphasison the improvement of the quality of an agricultural

product, and rice plants producing grains of higher nutritional values have already been obtained inthe laboratory.

Fruits and vegetables with an improved shelf life and flowers withnew and unexpected colors have also been successfully produced. Even the production of crops at higher yields may not be out of reach. A better understanding of the regulation of plant genes, however, is essential beforethese goals can be achieve . Walker.J and Rapley.R , (2002) .Molecular Biology and Bio technology. Fourth Edition. Royal Society of Chemistry5- Lodge.J , Lund.P & Minchin.S,( 2007) . Pharmaceutical Biotechnology Drug Discovery and Clinical Applications Pharmaceutical. Wiley-VCH VerlagGmbH & Co. KGaA Adelaide Centre for Bioethics and Culture ( 2012 ) http://www.bioethics.org.au/About%20Us.html Biopharmaceutical By means of the technique of biotechnology, the drugs biopharmaceuticals were urbanized. There are no chemicals concerned in the combination of these drugs, but microorganisms have completed it likely to expand them. Large molecules of proteins are typically the source of biopharmaceuticals. They when under attack in the body attack the hidden mechanisms of the disease and wipe out them. Now scientists are annoying to expand such biopharmaceutical drugs which can be treated against the diseases like hepatitis, cancer and heart diseases. Antibiotics Plants are used to create antibiotics for both human and animal use. An expressing antibiotic protein in stock feed, fed straight to animals, is less expensive than traditional antibiotic production, but this practice raise many bioethics issues, because the result is widespread, possibly needless use of antibiotics which may encourage expansion of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strain. Quite a few rewards to using plants to create antibiotics for humans are condensed costs due to the larger quantity of product that can be produced from plants versus a fermentation unit, ease of purification, and condensed risk of contamination compared to that of using mammalian cells and culture media.. 3. Flowers There is extra to agricultural biotechnology than just hostility disease or civilizing food quality. There is some simply aesthetic application and an example of this is the use of gene recognition and transfer techniques to improve the color, smell, size and other features of flowers. Similarly, biotech has been used to make improvement to other common ornamental plants, in particular,shrubs and trees. Some of these changes are similar to those made to crops, such as enhancing cold confrontation of a breed of tropical plant, so it can be grown in northern gardens. 4. Biofuels The agricultural industry plays a big role in the biofuels industry, as long as th e feedstocks for fermentation and cleansing of bio-oil, bio-diesel and bio-ethanol. Genetic engineering and enzyme optimization technique are being used to develop improved quality feedstocks for more efficient change and higher BTU outputs of the resulting fuel products. High-yielding, energy-dense crops can minimize relative costs

associated with harvesting and transportation (per unit of energy derived), resulting in higher value fuel products. 5. Plant and Animal Reproduction Enhancing plant and animal behavior by traditional methods like cross-pollination, grafting, and cross-breeding is time-consuming. Biotech advance let for specific changes to be made rapidly, on a molecular level through over-expression or removal of genes, or the introduction of foreign genes Transgenics and Xenotransplantation Advances in technology have made it possible for human and animal biological material to be mixed in a permanent way. Xenotransplantation refers to the transplantation of animal tissues and organs into human recipients, either without or with genetic modification of the animal to minimise tissue rejection. Transgenics refers to the mixing of human and animal genes. For example, human genes can be introduced into sheep so that certain valuable human proteins will be expressed in the sheeps milk. Another variant of human/animal mixing has recently occurred in the context of stem cell research. Researchers have introduced the human nuclear genome into enucleated eggs of cows, pigs and rabbits to produce a cloned human/animal hybrid, termed a cybrid. There is no intention to implant any of the embryos for further development. Human and animal cells can also be mixed in the early embryo to produce a chimera. Important ethical questions arise about such mixing and some of the concerns centre on safety issues. Will the introduction of animal tissues into humans lead to new viral outbreaks? Other complex ethical questions surround the question of human dignity and whether it is an affront to human dignity for such intimate mixing of human and animal biological material to occur. And whether there are issues with some techniques that do not apply to others? Euthanasia Euthanasia is the on purpose and painless taking of the life of another individual, by act or faux pas, for compassionate intentions. The word euthanasia generally refers to the taking of human life on appeal of that individual the euthanasia is voluntary. On the other hand, euthanasia may also take place without the appeal of individual who subsequently euthanasia is non-voluntary. Involuntary euthanasia talk about to the taking of a individuals life contrary to that individuals expressed desire/direction. Even though death may be make happen by an action or faux pas of medical staff through treatment in hospital, euthanasia only take place if death was wished-for. For example, if a doctor arrange for a dying patient additional morphine with the purpose of get rid of pain but knowing that his actions may make haste death, he has not accomplished euthanasia unless his purpose was to grounds death (Principle of Double Effect). Euthanasia may be well-known from a run through called physician-assisted suicide, which take place when death is carried about by the individuals own hand. All performs of euthanasia and physician-assisted suicide are illegal in Australia. Stem Cells

The promise of new therapeutic avenues for the treatment of a range of conditions has led researchers to consider the use of stem cells. These cells have the capacity to become some or even all of the 206 different cell types found in the human body. It has even been suggested that one day stem cells may be able to form whole organs and hence contribute to organ transplantation therapies. Stem cells come in a wide variety of types. Adult stem cells have been found in nearly every tissue of the human body, where they carry out a role in tissue regeneration. Embryonic stem cells are located in the human embryo at the blastocyst stage (5 to 6 days of age). Embryos at this age are often unwanted in reproductive technology treatment, and some parents have donated them for research. Cord blood stem cells are derived from the umbilical cord which is often still routinely discarded at birth. The key ethical issues concern the destruction of human embryos for stem cell derivation. On the grounds that the human embryo is a human life with moral value justifying its protection, the extraction of embryonic stem cells is unethical. The use of adult stem cells and umbilical cord blood stem cells have generally been considered to be free of any particular ethical issues. In fact they have been applauded as ethically superior alternatives to the use of embryonic stem cells. One limitation to the possible use of embryonic stem cells in therapy is that they will likely be rejected by the recipient. In an attempt to overcome this researchers are attempting to produce cloned human embryos to derive genetically near-identical stem cells for possible treatment. Reproductive Technology Assisted reproductive technology (ART) is a medical intervention developed to improve an infertile couples chance of pregnancy. Infertility is clinically accepted as the inability to conceive after 12 months of actively trying to conceive. The means of ART involves separating procreation from sexual intercourse - the importance of this association is addressed in bioethics. Some techniques used in clinical ART include: artificial insemination; in vitro fertilisation (IVF); gamete intra-fallopian transfer (GIFT); gestational surrogate mothering; gamete donation; sex selection and preimplantation genetic diagnosis. Issues addressed in bioethics are the appropriate use of these technologies and the techniques employed to carry out procedures for quality and ethical reviews. Assisted reproductive technology and its use directly impact the foundational unit of society the family. ART enables children to be conceived who have no genetic relationship to one or both of their parents. Children can also be conceived who will never have a social relationship with one or both of their genetic parents, e.g. a child conceived using donor sperm. Non-infertile people in todays society including both male and female homosexual couples, single men and women, and post-menopausal women are seeking the assistance of ART. Concerns in all situations include the child and his or her welfare, including the right to have one biological mother and father. The fragmented family created by ART can disconnect genetic, gestational and social child-parent relationships which have typically been one and the same in the traditional nuclear family.

Other important bioethical issues include the appropriate use of pre-implantation genetic diagnostic screening, use, storage and destruction of excess IVF embryos, and research involving embryos. ART research requires human participants, donors and donated embryos, oocytes and sperm. Ethical issues that arise in ART research surround the creation and destruction of embryos. One approach in bioethics involves preserving justice, beneficence, non-maleficence and the autonomous interests of all involved. Bioethicists contribute to ethical guidelines and moral evaluations of new technologies and techniques in ART as well as topublic discourse that leads to development of national regulations and restrictions of unacceptable practices. Research Ethics Research involving people, their data or tissue, requires proper ethical conduct that respects them and demonstrates responsible conduct which reflects a genuine concern for their betterment and that of the community. The values of ethical conduct in research include respect for human beings, justice, beneficence, research merit and integrity. Respecting human beings, by recognising everyones inherent value and human dignity, ought to govern interactions with research participants. Doing so shows respect for autonomous individuals (who have the capacity to make decisions and determine their own life) and to protect those who are vulnerable and unable to express their autonomy. Justice recognises human equality, which involves fairly distributing the benefits and burdens of research and treating all participants fairly. Beneficence in research involves the consideration and awareness of possible harms and benefits to the participants and their community. Merit and integrity in research is essential for any research to be ethically justified research must show that it is a potential benefit to the community by improving understanding or knowledge, that the research is well designed to achieve the proposed aims, is conducted honestly and respectfully, and upholds fundamental medical research principles. Ethical research must always identify, gauge and minimise any risks that pose a threat to participants and their communities. Risks may be managed or justified by the potential benefit of the research. Voluntary, non-coerced consent is required, based on a persons autonomous capacity to be involved in research. This demonstrates that they have made a voluntary choice based on understanding information regarding the study. Some studies may involve participants unable to provide informed consent. These special cases include pregnant women and the human foetus in utero or ex utero, embryos, children and some disabled people. Guidelines for ethical considerations specific to participants can be found in the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research 2007 (NHMRC). http://www.bioethics.org.au/Resources/Resource%20Topics/Bioethics%20OA.html