ADDITIONAL READINGS

PLUTARCH. "Of the Tranquillity of the. Mind,"

"Whether Vice is Sufficient to Render a Man Un-
happy," in Moralia
AUGUSTINE. .The Happy Life
AQUINAS. Summa Contra Gentiles,BK I, ClI 100-102;
BK III, CH 17-63
DANTE.Convivio (The Banquet), FOURTH TREATISE,
CH 12
--. On World-Government or De Monarchia, BK
III, CI-I 16
HUME. An Inquiry Concerningthe Principles ofMorals
A. SMITH. The Theory ofMoraI Sentiments, PART VI
KANT. Lectures on Ethics
DOSTOEVSKY. Notes from Underground
--. The Idiot
II.
CICERO. De Finibus (On the Supreme Good)
--. Tusculan Disputations, V
SENECA. De Beata Vita (On the Happy Life)
SEXTUS EMPIRICUS. Against the Ethicists
--. Outlines of Pyrrh0 nism, BK lIt, CH 21-32
POMERIUS. The Contemplative Life
BOETHIUS. The Consolation of Philosophy, BK III
ABAILARD. Ethics (Scito Teipsum)
MAIMONIDES. The Guidefor the Perplexed, PART III,
CH 8-9
NICOLAS OF CUSA. The Vision of God
TERESA OF JESUS. The Way of Perfection
SUAREZ. Disputationes Metaphysicae, XXX (I I, 14)
JOHN OF THE CROSS. Ascent of Mount.Carmel
S. JOHNSON. History of Rasselas
HUTCHESON. A System of Moral Philosophy
VOLTAIRE. Candide
PALEY. Moral Philosophy, BK I, CH 6
IN ITS ORIGINAL Greek root, the word "history"
means research, and implies the act of judging
the evidences in order to separate fact from fic-
tion. The opening line of Herodotus is some-
times translated not "these are the histories of
Herodotus of Halicarnassus," but "these are
the researches ..."
The word "research" can, of course, mean
any sort of inquiry-into what is the case as
well as into what has happened. The title of one
of Aristotle's biological works, the History of
Animals, suggests that it is concerned with re-
searches about animals. The book does not deal
with natural history; it is not a history ofani-
mals in the sense of giving the stages of their
development in the course of time. The redun-
dancy of "historical research" can therefore be
excused on the ground that it is necessary to
distinguish between two kinds of inquiry or re-
search-scientific and historical.
Francis Bacon makes this' distinction when he
divides history into "natural,civil,ecclesiasti-
cal, and literary." Whereas the last three deal
with human things, the first is concerned with
the -non-human part of the natural world. At
the same time, this natural history is not, in
Bacon's judgment, the same. thing as "natural
philosophy," or what we would
tural science."
In this set of great books,natural history,
even, costIlic history, makes its appearance in
,works which we ordinarily classify as scienceor
philosophy; for example, Darwin's Origin of
Species, I,ucretius' On the Nature of Things, or
Plato's Timaeus.The great books of history
deal with man and society, not nature or the
universe. For the most part this is true also of
the great philosophies of history. They, too, are
primarily concerned with human civilization,
not the physical world.
711
INTRODUCTION
Chapter 34: HISTORY
ur language the term History," Hegel ob-
ryes, "unites the objective with the sub-
e side.. 11 It comprehends not less what
appenedthan the narration of what has hap-
cd. This union of the two meanings we must
cd as of a higher order than mere outward
ent; we must suppose historical narrations
yeappeared contemporaneously with
I cdeeds and events."
r .daily speech confirms Hegel's observa-
that "history" refers to that which has hap-
cd as well as to the record of it. We speak of
istory of a people or a nation, or of the
t events and epochs of history; and we also
a history the book which gives a narrative
unt of these rnatters.
's as if we used the word "physics" to name
the object of study and the science of that
et; whereas normaHy .we tend to use
ysies" for. the science and refer to its sub-
matter as the physical world. We do. not
that matter in motion is physics, but that
the object. of physics, one of the things a
icist studies. We might similarly have
tecd the convention of using "history" in a
ieted sense to signify a kind of knowledge
kind of writing, and then. called the phe-
ena written about or studied "historical"
not "history."
hat, however, is not the prevailing usage.
word "history" seems to have at least four
inct meanings. It refers to a kind of knowl-
e. It refers to a type of literature. It means
ctual sequence of events in time, which
itutes a process of irreversible change.
ean be either change in the structure of tht)
or any part of nature, or change in human
,in society or civilization,
istorical and historical writing
be about natural history or human history.
is classification of the kinds of knowledge,
THE GREAT IDEAS
1.
Listed below are works not included in Great Books ofthe Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups:
I. Works by authors represented in this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follo\vs the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
T. REID. Essays on the Active Powers ofthe NUl
Mind, III, PART III, CH 1-4
BENTHAM.. An Introduction to thePrinciplesofM
and Legislation, CH I
WORDSWORTH. The Prelude
SCHOPENHAUER. The World as Wt1t and Idea, v
BK IV; VOL III, SUP, CH 45-50
LEOPARDI. Essays, Dialogues, and Thoughts
WHEWELL. The Elements of Morality, BK
25
KIERKEGAARD. Philosophical Fragments
--. Concluding Unscientific Postscript
LOTZE. Microcosmos, BK VIII, CH 2
FLAUBERT. Madalne Bovary
EMERSON. The Conduct of Life
H. SIDGWICK. The Methods ofEthies, BK II, CH
BK III, CH 14; BK IV
IBSEN. A Doll's House
NIETZSCHE. Beyond Good and Evil
-.-. The Will to Power
HAUPTMANN. The Weavers
CHEKHOV. Three Sisters
MANN. Buddenbrooks
DEWEY and TUFTS. Ethics, PART II, CH 14-15
MOORE. Principia Ethica, CH 2-3
--. Ethics, CH 1-2
UNAMUNO. The Tragic Sense of Life
B. RUSSELL. What I Believe, CH 4)
--. Skeptical Essays, VIII
A. E. TAYLOR. The Faith ofa Moralist, SERIES
KIRK. The Vision of God
SANTAYANA. Some Turns of Thought in
Philosophy, CH 4
MARITAIN. Scholasticism and Politics, CH VII
ADLER. A Dialectic of Morals
LUBAC. Surnaturel
O'CONNOR. The Eternal Quest
For: The bearing of natural desire on the pursuit of happiness, see DESIRE 2a, 3a, 7b;t
sa-sa( I); WILL 7d.
The relation of happiness to death and the fear of death, see IMMORTALITY
DEATH Sa-Sc.
Other considerations of individual happiness in relation to the state or the common
see GOOD AND EVIL Sd; STATE 2f.
Basic notions involved in the Christian doctrine of supernatural happiness or eternal be
tude, see ETERNITY 4d; GOD 6c(4), 7d, 7g; IMMORTALITY se-sg; LOVE sa(2);
MENT Sd, se(I); SIN 3c-3d, 4d, 6d, 7; VIRTUE AND VICE Sb, Se; WILL 7e,e(2).
Another discussion of the beatitude of God, see GOD 4h.
710
THE GREAT IDEAS CHAPTER 34: HISTORY 712
Originally, research set the historian apart
from the poet and the maker of myths or leg-
ends. They told stories, too; but only the his-
torian restricted himself to telling a story based
on the facts ascertained by inquiry or research.
Herodotus deserves the title "father of history"
for having originated a style of writing which
differs from poetry in this extraordinary re-
spect. I-Ie tries to win the reader's beliefnot by
the plausibility of his narrative, but rather by
giving the reader some indication of the sources
of information and the reliability of theevi-
dence on ,vhich the narrative is based.
The poet tries to tell a likely. story, but the
historian tries to Inake credible statements
about particular past events. He makes an ex-
plicit effort to "veigh the evidence himself or, as
Herodotus so frequently does, to submit con-
flicting testimony to the reader's own judg-
ment. "Such is the account which the Persians
give of these matters," he writes, "but the
Phoenicians vary from the Persian statements";
or "this much I know from information given
me by the Delphians; the remainder of the
story the Milesians add"; or "that these were
the real facts I learnt at Memphis from the
priests of Vulcan"; or "such is the truth of this
matter; I have also heard another account
which I do not at all believe"; or again, "thus
far I have spoken of Egypt from my own obser-
vation, relating what I myself saw, the ideas
that I formed, and the results of my own re-
searches. What follows rests on accounts given
me by the Egyptians, which I shall now repeat,
adding thereto some particulars which fell un-
der my own notice."
Herodotus seems quite conscious of the dif-
ference between himself and Homer, especially
on those matters treated by the poet which fall
within his purview as an historian. TheTroj an
War lies in the background of the conflict with
which Herodotus is directly concerned-the
Persian invasion of Greece-for the Persians
"trace to the attack upon Troy their ancient
enmity. towards the Greeks."
Herodotus does not doubt that the siege of
Troy took place as Homer relates, but he learns
from the Egyptians a legend about the landing
of Paris and Helen on Egyptian soil and the de-
tention of Helen by Proteus, king of Menlphis.
"Such is the tale told me by the priests con-
cerning the arrival of Helen at the
teus. It seems to me that Homer a.'....
with this story, and while discarding
cause he thought it less (ldapted for epic
than the version \vhich he followed,
that it "vas not unknown to him."
Herodotus cites passages in the
Odyssey to corroborate this point. He is
to use the Homeric poems as one
formation, but not without checking
against conflicting accounts. "I
he ,vrites, "whether the story ,vhich the
tell about Troy is a fable or. not."
comes to the conclusion that Helen
within the \valls of the city to which the
laid siege for ten years, he tells the
reasons for thinking so. Homer, nn':XTP,tTA..
he narrates Helen's actions during
does not bother to establish the facts
matter or to give the reader cootrary
of "vhat took place. That is not the
as Herodotus recognizes. I t belongs
torian, not the poet. The story which
greater probability in fact may not be
ter story for the poet.
SINCE HE IS BOTH an investigator and
teller, the historian stands comparison
scientist. in one respect and with the
another. The special character of
kind of kno,vledge. distinct from
philosophy seems clear from its
singular or unique events of the
tist or philosopher is not concerned
has happened, but with the nature
Particular events may serve as PUllr1pnr,,'"
him, but his conclusions go beyond
of particular fact to generalizations
way things are or happen at any time
In contrast, the historian's research
ends with particulars. I-Ie uses
rectly observed by himself or testified
others as the basis for circumstantial
to matters which cannot be established
rect evidence. The method
veloped by the early historians may
cursor of scientific method, but the
evidence and the mode of argument
find in Hippocrates or Plato indicate
gence of the scientist and philosopher
procedure of the historian.
iIe contrast between history and science-'-
atfor the purpose of comparison may be
me, philosophy-is formulated in Aris-
1sstatementconcerning poetry, that it is
than history, because
)T tends to express the universal, history
irticular." History deals with what has
llyhappened, whereas poetry, like philos-
r may he concerned with .. whateveris or
e.
e comparison .leads to another. Unlike
y, history and science are alike in that
both attempt to prove what they say. But
tinction from science or philosophy, his-
resembles poetry, especially the great epic
ramatic poems, .in being narrative litera-
The historian and the poet both tell stories.
tHe poet and the historian-including,. of
e, a biographer like Plutarch-are also
lists, -they are moralists in the same way.
works do not contain expositions of
rpolitical doctrine, but rather concrete
plifications of theories concerning the con-
bf human life and social practices. That
explains why much of the content of the
historical books is cited in other chapters
fig with moral and political, even psycho-
aI, topics. But in this chapter we are con-
diwith history itself rather than with the
ulars of history. We are concerned with
ethods and aims of history as a kind of
ledge and literature; and we are concerned
the historical process. as a whole, the con-
ation of which belongs to the philosophy
story.
AIMS AND methods of writing hjstory are
5sed by the historian himself, as well as by
hilosopher. Philosophers like I-Iobbes, Ba-
or Descartes consider history largely from
oint of view of the kind of knowledge it is
the contribution it makes to the whole of
an learning. Historians like Herodotus,
sydides, Tacitus, and Gibbon state more
ifically the objectives of their work, the
ardsof reliability or authenticity by which
',c1etermine what is fact, and the principles
terpretation by which they select the most
rtant facts, ordering them according to
hypothesis concerning the meaning of the
ts reported.
713
I-Ierodotus writes,he tells us, "in the hope of
preserving from decay the remembrance of
what men have done,and of preventing the
great and \vonderful actions of the Greeks and
the barbarians from losing their due meed of
glory." Thucydidesproceeds in the belief that
the war between the Peloponnesians and the
Athenians "was the greatest movement yet
known in history, not only of the Hellenes, but
of a large part of the barbarian world I had
almost said of mankind." Not very different is
the declaration of Tacitus : "My purpose is not
to relate at length every motion, but only such
as were conspicuous for excellence or notorious
for infamy. This I regard as history's highest
function, to let no worthy action be ullcom-
memorated, and to hold out the reprobation of
posterity as a terror to evil words and deeds."
But though there seems to be a striking simi-
larity in the purpose of these historians, Tacitus
alone of the three avows a moral purpose. Fur-
thern10re, each of the three is conscious of the
individual way in which he has put his inten-
tioninto effect. Thucydides, for example, seems
to have Herodotus in mind when he fears that
"the absence of romance in my history will
detract somewhat from its interest; butif it be
judged useful by those inquirers who desire an
exact knowledge of the past.... I shall be con-
tent." Like Thucydides, Tacitus is an historian
ofcontemporary events and he fears comparison
\vith the historian of antiquity who can "en-
chain and refresh a reader's mind" with "de-
scriptions of countries, the various incidents of
battle, glorious deaths of great generals." His
own work may be instructive, he thinks, but
it may also give very little pleasure because he
has "to present in succession the merciless bid-
dings of a tyrant, incessant prosecutions, faith-
less friendships, the ruin of innocence, the same
causes issuing in the same results, and [he is]
everywhere confronted with a wearisome mo-
notony in [his] subject-matter."
As we have already noted, Herodotus>seems
satisfied to let the reader decide between con-
flicting accounts. Only occasionally does he in-
dicate which is more likely in his own judgment.
Thucydides claims that he has made a greater
effort to determine the facts. "I did not even
trust tny own impressions," he writes; the nar-
rative "rests partly on what I saw myself, partly
715
Ghristianity, \vere the first to attain the con-
sciousness that man, as man, is free."-
With the complete emancipation of mauin
the German-Christian world, history is con-
summated for Hegel. "The grand principle,'of
being is realized," he declares; "consequently
the end of days, is' fully' come.. " Another sign
of the finality of the world
seems to be" its reconciliation <of' Ghurch and
State: "European history', is "the exhibition, of
the growth of each of these principles severally
... then of an antithesis on the parrof both. '...
lastly, of the harmonizing of the antithesis."
In the German-Christian world," the secular
and the religious modes', Of 'life' are ultimately
harmonized, fused in a ,single order of "rational
Freedom."
APART FROM THE oppositionbetweenthephib
osophicaLand, theological approaches, here,' rep-
resented by,. Hegel and Augustine, there .seem
to be two main" issues' in thB:generaI theory', of
human history. The first concerns the pattern
of change;:" the" second, ,the- character" of, the
causes, at work.
The patternmost familiar because of its
prevalence in modern speculations!'is"that,of
progress or .evolution.The progressmay,:be
conceived as adialectical motion in the'realm
of Spirit, contrasted by Hegel with' the realm
of Matter or Nature" according as "the,essence
of Matter is Gravity: ... and the essence of
Spirit is Freedom." But it may also be thought
to occur, as in the dialectical materialism of
Marx and Engels, through the resolution of
conHictingmaterial or economic forces.
"The whole history of mankirtd,"Engels
writes in his preface to the Communist Mani-
festa, "since the dissolution of primitive tribal
society, holding land in common ownership,
has been a history of class struggles, contests
between exploiting and exploited, ruling and
oppressed classes; the .history of these class
struggles forms a series of evolutions in which,
now-a-days, a stage has been reached where the
exploi ted and oppressed class, the proletariat,
cannot attain its emancipation from the sway
of the' exploi ting and ruling class, the bour-
geoisie, without, at the saIne time, and once for
all, emancipating society at large from aU
exploitation, oppression, class-distinction and
GHAPTERS4 :HISTORY
11 ages, corresponding to, the seven days of
"The first age,as the first ,day,ex-
sfrom" Adam to the deluge; ,the second
the, deluge: to ,Abraham.... :From, Abra"'"o
to the adveat of Christ" there are, as the
gelistMatthew ,calculates" three" periods,
en ,of which '" are fQurteen,generations-
eriod from Abraham to David,asecond
David to the captivity, a third from ,the
tivity to the birth of Christ.in
re are thus five >ages in all. The;sixth is now
ing, and cannot be measured by any num-
of generations. . After this period God
1rest as on the seventh day, when He shall
us (who shall be the seventh day) rest:in
self.... The seventh shall be,our Sabbath,
h shall be brought >to ,a close, not by .an
ing, but by the.Lord'sday"as an eighth
eternal day, consecrated' by ,the resurrec-
of Christ, and prefiguringthe;cternal te-
not only of the spirit, hut also ofthe body
This is whatshaU,bein the end without
his same projection all es,..
ials, at Adam by
archangel, MicbaelinMilton's' "Paradise
,just before .Adam leaves the Garden of
fl.
nlikethe four major dispensationso which
l-lstine and Milton speak, Hegel's four
es of the world are epochs in the develop-
t of Spirit as manifestedin the State. They
se.cularly defined as the Oriental, the Greek,
Roman, and the Germall. world and are
asa "progress of the consciousness, ofFree-
;." I'he "various grades in the consciousness
reedom," Hegel writes, "supplv',uswith
inatural division of universal History...
Orientals have not attained the knowledge
t Spiri Man as such--is free; and because
cio not know this" they are not free. They
know that one isfree ... that one is there-
only a Despot; not a free man. The con-
sness of Freedom, first arose among the
ks, and therefore they were free; but they,
the Romans likewise, kne'N only that some
free-not man as such.. ;,. The ,Greeks,
reore, had slaves and their' whole life and
maintenance of their splendid 'liberty, was
licated with the institution of slavery.....
e"G'erman nations, under the influence .of
ONLY ONE OF THE great booksis, by tid
entirely to the philosoph
hIstory-to the formulation of a theory Wi
embraces the \vhole of man's career on e
This is Hegel's Philosophy, of History. A
tine's City of God presents an equally co
hensive vision, but. a comparison of the
suggests that they differ from oneanoth
philosophy from theology.
ThepQint of this comparison is not that
and His providence are omitted from the
s view.On the contrary, Hegel reg
the hIstory of the world as a "process ofd
opment ,and the realization of Spiri t---. t
the truetheodicy, the justification, of G
History. Only this insight can reconcile
with theHistory of the World-viz., tha:t
has happened arid is' happening everyd
not only not 'without God' but is essenti
His Work." .'
The difference is rather to be
ultimate source of insight concerning hu
development and destiny. Augustine
everything in the light of God's revelatio
His plan in Holy Writ; Hegel and other
losophersof history from Vico to Toynbee
and sometimes claim to find in the recor
history' itself the laws which and
pattern which inheres in the processio
events from the beginning to the end ofhu
time.
For Augustine, the great epochs of hist
are defined religiously. They are stages in
development of the city of God on earth,
the city of man. Man is viewed as dwellin
earth under four distinct dispensations, f
God: (I) in Paradise before the Fall; (2) in
world after expulsion from Eden and
the Promise and the Law were givent
Jews; (3), under the Law and
of Christ; (4) between, the first and se
coming under the dispensation of grace.
Augustine sometimes makes other di .
of history, but they are always primaril
gious. For example, he divides all of time'
714 ,'THEGREAT
onwhatotherssawfor me,the accuracy of the tragedy. Even if they all agreed on thea
report being always tried by the most severe tainment of fact, thegreathistorianswoul'
and detailed tests possible. My conclusions fer from one another as the great poets do;
have cost me, some labor from ,the, want of has a style and a vision as personal andp
coincidence between the accounts of thesa_me as Homer or Virgil, Melville or Tolstoy.
occurrences by different eye-witnesses." But he
thinks that ,his ,conclusions "may safely be re-
lied on," undisturbed "either by ,the laysofa
poet displaying the exaggeration,of his craft, or
by the compositions of the chroniclers \vhich
are attractive at truth's expense."
The historians' are aware of the difficulty of
combining truth-telling withstorytelling. Most
men, Thucydides remarks", are unwilling to
take enough pains "in the investigation of
truth, accepting readily the first story that
comes to hand." The 'difficulty, according" to
Tacitus, is the obscurity of the greatest events,
"sothatsometake for granted any hearsay,
whatever its source,others, turn truth into
falsehood, and' both err0rs find encouragement
\vith posterity."
Reviewing the. enormous scope of his \vork,
Gibbon,a,t the very end concludes that "-the
historian may applaud the, importa;nce,.,and
variety of his subject;"but,
scious ofhis own imperfections, he, must often
accuse the deficiency of his ,materials.' ':;Because
of the scarcity of authentic memorials, he 'tells
us in another place, the historian finds it hard
"to preserve a cleara,ndunbroken thread of
narration. ,Surrounded with imperfect frag-
ments,always concise, often obscure, and some-
tilnes contradictory, ,he is reduced ",to
to compare, and to conjecture; and though he
ought never to place his conjectures in the rank
of facts, yet the knowledge of human nature,
and of the sure operation ofits fierce and un-
restrained, passions, might, on some occasions,
supply the want of historical materials."
Glearly, the historians have different criteria
of relevance in determining the selection and
rejection of materials and different principles
of interpretation in assigning the causes which
explain what happened. These differences are
reflected in the way' each historian constructs
from the facts a grand story, conceives the line
of its plot and the characterization ofitsc:hief
actors. Herodotus, for example, has" beencom:-
pared with Homer 'as ,'writing in an,epic man-
ner; Thucydides, ,vi th the dramatic writers, of
THESE VIEWS ARE given further discussion in
the chapters on EVOLUTION, PROGRESS, and
WORLD. Whether or not the same pattern of
change obtains in the historical order of nature
as in the history of man and society, is a ques-
tion to be answered by those who deny as ,veIl
as by those whoaffirm progress. There is cyclical
change in nature, the same pattern of birth,
growth, decay, and death repeating itself gen-
eration after generation. That history too re-
peats itself wi th the rise and decline of ci ties
and civilizations, seems to be the ancient view.
It reappears in our day with Spengler and,
some,vhat qualified by the possibility of prog-
ress, with Toynbee.
"The cities which were formerly great,"
_Herodotus observes, "have most of them be-
CHAPTER 34: HISTORY
716 THE GREAT IDEAS
class-struggle." The four great economicsys- come insignificant; and such as are at pres
tems-the systems of slave labor, feudal serf- powerful were \veak in olden time. I
dom, industrial capitalism, and the communis- therefore, discourse equally of both, Cony'"
tic or classless society-are thus seen as the that prosperity never continues Icing in
stages of progress toward an ultinlate perfection stay." l ..ucretius finds the cyclical pattern
in ,vhich history COilles to., rest because it has in the succession of worlds and in the Succe
at last fully realized its controlling tendency. of civilizations. The myth of the golden age
The pattern of progress may be conceived Kronos and the earth-bound age of Zeus, whi
not as a dialectical motion involving conflict Plato tells in the Statesman, also applies 00
and synthesis, but rather, as by Kant, in terms to nature and society.
of an increasing actualization of the potentiali- According to the myth, "there is a t
ties for good in human life. Giving the name of when God himself guides and helps to roll
culture to "the production in a rational being world in its course; and there is a time, on
ofan aptitude for any ends whatever of his own completion of a certain cycle, when he lets
choosing," Kant declares, "it is only culture and the world being a living creature, and h
that can be the ultimate end which we have ing originally received intelligence from
cause to attribute to nature in respect of the author and creator, turns about and by a
human race." The progressive realization of herent necessity revolves in the opposite
culture consists in "the liberation of the will rection." Thus the history of the world
from the despotism of desires whereby, in our through "infinite cycles of years," and one
attachment to certain natural things, we are succeeds another in an endless round.
rendered incapable of exercising a choice of There is still a third view which sees hist
our own." In these terms history moves toward as neither cyclical nor simply progressive.
a perfection which can never be fully achieved gil reverses the order of the Platonic myth
on earth, for man's "own nature is not so con- placing the golden age in the future. It da
stituted as to rest or be satisfied in any posses- with Rome, where, in the words of the
sion or enjoyment whatever." Eclogue, "the majestic roll of circling centu
As conceived by the evolutionist, progress begins anew: Justice returns, returns old
mayor may not attain its limit, but in either urn's reign, with a new breed of men sent do
case its manifestation in u ~ n history appears from heaven ... and the iron shall cease,
to be analogous to as well as an extension of the golden race arise."
line of development along which the world or Rome for Virgil is not only the beginni
all of living nature has gradually advanced. of the golden age; it is also the consummati
of history. In the Aeneid Jupiter himself
clares that he has given the Romans "do
ion wi thoutend"- that he has ordained
them "neither period nor boundary of
pire." The "gowned race of Rome" shall
"the lords of the world"; then "war shall ce
and the iron ages soften." Thus, Jupiter s
"is it willed," and so "a day will come in
lapse of cycles." The perpetuity of Rome se
to leave little room for any further essen
progress and no chance for another cycle
decay and regeneration.
The Christian dogma of the fall of man fr
grace and his return through divine mediati
to grace and salvation seems to give histo
pattern that is partly Platonic in the seque
which makes the loss of a golden age the oc
sion for striving to regain it. But it also see
be Virgilian in part. The epochal transitions
history happen only once.. The coming of
rist is an absolutely singular event, after
ich there is no essential progress in man's
ndition until the Last Judgment at the end
the world.
aMMON TO THESE diverse conceptions. of the
ttern of history. is the problem concerning
ecauses which are at work as history unfolds.
'atever the factors, they will operate. in the
ure as they have in past, unless the milleni-
is already upon us or about to dawn. From
knowledge of their o\vn. past or from their
perception ofdivine providence, men de-
easense of the future; but they look for\vard
that future differently according as some
rt oEit will stem from choices freely tnade, or
ccording as all of it is inexorably determined
by causes beyond their. control.
The basic alternatives of fate and freedom,
of necessity and contingency, God's ,vill and
an's choice, are considered in the chapters on
(SHANCE, FATE, and NECESSITY AND CON-
TINGENCy.Sometimes ,the issue is resolved in
the same way for the course of nature and the
course of history: necessity reigns in both; as
there is contingency in the events of nature, so
there is freedom in the acts of history. Some-
times the processes of nature and history are
distinguished: the motions of matter are gov-
erned by inviolable laws; whereas the motions
of men are directed by laws which leave them
free to work out a destiny which is determined
by, rather than determines, the human spirit.
Those who do not deny freedom entirely in
the realm of history seldom give it unlitnited
scope. What men can do is conditioned from
below by the operation of material forces, and
nom above by what Hegel calls "God's pur-
pose with the world." The vast "arras-web of
Universal History" is woven by the interaction
between God's will (the Absolute Idea) and
human purposes or interests, which Hegel calls
"the complex of human passions."
History for him is "the union of Freedom
and Necessity," where "the latent abstract
process of Spirit is regarded as Necessity, while
that which exhibits itself in the conscious will
of men, as their interest, belongs to the domain
of freedom." But this freedom which coheres
717
with necessity seems to belong more to the
human race as a whole than to individual men.
The individual man is tossed aside if he tries
to obstruct the path of history. He is powerless
to change its course.
Not even great men can make or determine
history. They are great only because, sensing
the next phase of the historical process, they
identify themselves with the wave of the future
and conform their purposes to the march of
events-the dialectical development of the Ab-
solute Idea. A few men thus become "world-
historical individuals" because theiro'\vn "par-
ticular aims involve those large issues . which
are the will of the World-Spirit." They have
"an insight into the requirements of the time
-what ,vas ripe for development ... the very
Truth for their age, for their world; the species
next in order, so to speak, and which was al-
ready formed in the womb of time."
Like Hegel and unlike the ancient historians,
Tolstoy also regards the leadership of great
men as illusory. To believe in the efficacy of
heroes or great men, he thinks, is to commit the
fallacy of the man "who, watching the. move-
Inents of a herd of cattle and paying no atten-
tion to the varying quality of the pasturage in
different parts of the field, or to the driving
of the herdsman, attributes the direction the
herd takes to the animal which happens to be
at its head."
Great men are only celebrated puppets,
pushed ahead on the moving front of history.
The motion of history derives its force and
direction from the individual acts of the in-
numerable nameless men who comprise the
human mass. The act of the individual counts
little. The mass motion is a complex resultant
of slight impulses tending in many directions.
But however slight the impulse each man gives,
his contribution to history is a free act, con-
ditioned only by the circumstances under
which he makes a choice and by the divine
providence which grants. him the freedom to
choose. Like "every human action," history,
according to Tolstoy, thus "appears to us as a
certain combination of freedom and inevita-
bility. "
DIFFERENT FROM speculations on a grand scale
concerning the whole historical process is that
OUTLINE, OF TOPICS
2. The light and lesson ofhistory:itsrole in tHe education of the mincl and in the guidance
of human conduct
719
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 473b
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART II, 213b-c
30 BACON: Advancelnent ofLearning, 32d-39a esp
38c..39a I Novum Organum, BK I,
APH 87, 123b
31 DESCARTES: Rules, III, 3b-d I Discourse, PART
I,43a-b
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 628 287a I Vacuum, 355a-
3S6a
35 LOCKE: HUlnan Understanding, BK {V,eH XVI,
SECT I 368d-370a
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT VIII, DIV
65, 479b-c; SECT XII, DIV 132, S09c
37 FIELDING: Ton1 Jones, 19a..:20a; 49b-50c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 88a-d; 97c-98d
passim; 211a; 398b; 471c-d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 337c
44 BOSWELL:Johnson, 203a-b;
46 HEGEL: Philosophy ofRight, INTRO, par 3, 10a-
11c; PART III, par 355, 112d / Philosophy of
History, INTRO, 153a-158a; 193d-
194a; PART I, 230c-231b; 248c; PART III,
286a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK x, 430d-431a;
BK XI, 469a-470c; BK XitI, 563a-b; EPILOGUE
II 675a-696d passim
53 JAMES: Psychology, 863b! [En 2]
REFERENCES
CHAPTER,34: HISTORY
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, ,vhich are the volume and page
numbers of the passages referred to. Forexample, in 4 HOMER: Iliad, BK II [
26
5--
28
3J 12d, the
number 4 is the numberof the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the
sage is in section d of page 12.
PAGE SECTIONS : When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the
upper and lower halves of the page. For example., in53 JAMES: Psychology, 116a-119b, the passag.e
begins in the upper half ofpage 116 and ends In the lower half of page 119 When the text IS
printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower of
hand side of the page, the letters cand d to the upper and lower halves of thenght-hand SIde of
the page. For example, in 7 PLATO: 163b-164c, the begins the lower half
of the side of page 163 and ends In the upper half of the nght-hand slcleof page
16
4.
AUTHOR'sDIVIStoNS: One or more of the main divisions of a work (such as PART., BK, CH,
SECT) are sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, in brackets, are given
tain cases; e.g., Iliad, BK II [265-2831 12d.
BIBLE REFERENCES: The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James
and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e.g., OLD TESTA-
MENT: Nehe1niah, 7:45-(D) II Esdras, 7:4
6
.
SYMBOLS: The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especia.lly
relevant parts of a whole reference; "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed
tently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.
For additional information concerning "the style of the references, see the 'Explanation of
Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
History as knowledge and as literature: its
kinds and divisions; its distinction from
poetry, myth, philosophy, and science
6 HERODOTUS: History,BK II, 71a-73b esp 72a-b;
75b; BKIV, 127a-b; BK VII, 242c-d
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK I, 354a-d
r, PLATO: Cratylus, 112b I Republic, BK II,
324a I Timaeus, 447a I Critias, 479d I Laws,
BK III 663d-677a
9 ARISTOTLE: Poetics, CH 9 [145Ia36-b32] 686a-c;
eH 23 695a-c
PLUTARCH: Theseus, 1a-c / Romulus 15a-30a,c
passim, esp 15a-18d I Themistocles, 102a,c
/ Pericles, 128d-129a I Tim0 leon, 195a-b I
Cimon, 390b-d I Alexander, 540b,d-541a I
Dion, 794c-795a
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK III, 60d; BK IV, 71d-72b;
BK XI, 107c; BK XIII, 133b I Histories, II,
228a-b
18 AUGUSTINE: Christian Doctrine, BK II, CH 27-
28650a-d
23 HOBBEs: Leviathan, PART I, 67b-c; 71c-d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 24a-c; 41c-42a; 199a-
200d; 305d-306a; 347c-350d; 457a-b
26 SHAKESPEARE: Richard III, ACT III, SC I [72-
88] 123c-d I Henry V, PROLOGUE 532b,d
On the practical side, political \vriters
Machiavelli, Montesquieu, and the Fede{
use history to exemplify or confirm their.
eralizations. They agree with Thucydides
"anexact knowledge of the past is an aid to
interpretation of the future, ,,,hich in
course of human things must resemble if it d
not reflect it." Most men, adds Tacitus, "Ie
wisdom from thee fortunes of others."
It" is on these grounds that the greatb(i)
of history belong with, treatises on morals
politics and in the company of philosoph'
and theological speculations concerning
nature and destiny of man. Liberal edUcat
needs the particular as" well as the unive
and, these are combined in the great histori
narratives. Apart from their utili ty, they h
the originality of conception, the poetic q
ity, the imaginative. scope which rank th
with the great creations of the human mind.
THE GREAT IDE.AS 718
4. The philosophy of history
4a. Theories of causation in the historical process
(I) The" al ternatives of fate or freedom, necessity or chance
(2) Material forces in history: economic, physical, and geographic factors
(3) Worlclhistoryasthe development of Spirit: the stages of the dialectic of
history
(4) The role of the individual in history: the great man, hero, or leader
4b. The laws and patterns of historical change: cycles, progress, evolution
4C. The spirit of the time as conclitioning the poli tics and cuIture of a period
s.The theology of history
sa. The relation of the gods or God to human history: the dispensarions ofprovidence
Sb. The city ofGod and the city of man; church and state
1. Historyas knowledge and as literature: its kinds and clivisions; its distinction from
poetry, myth, philosophy, arid science
3. The writing of history: research ancl narration
3a. The determination' and choice 'of fact: the classification of historical clata
3b. The explanation or interpretatiori of historic fact: the histotian's treatment of
causes
type of. philosophizing about history, which
considers its place in education-the light it
affords to themind:-and the lessons it teaches
for, the guidance of conduct.
Montaigne, for example, 'makes thereacling
of history and biography the winclow through
which a man looks out upon the world. "This
great world," he writes, "is the mirror wherein
weare to behold ourselv.es, to be able to know
ourselves as we ought to clo,inthe true bias."
Only against the large scene history reveals
and amidst the variety of human nature it
exhibits canamantruly know himself and his
own time. In a similar vein, Gibbon declares
that "the experience of history exalts and en-
largesthe horizon of our intellectual view."
Hegel, on the other hand, insists that "what ex-
perience anclhistory teach is, that peoples '. ancl
governments never have learned anything from
history, or acted on principles deduced,fromit.
IDEAS
CHAPTER 34: 720
2. The light and lesson of history: its role in the
education of the mind and in the guid-
ance of human conduct
OLD TESTAMENT: Deuteron01ny, 6:20-25; 7:
6
-
11,17-19; 8; 16:1-12; 29 / joshua, 24: 1- 2 7-
(D) Josue, 24:1-27 / I San'luel, 12:6-25-
(D) I Kings, 12:6-25 / Ezra, 4:7-23-(D)
I Esdras, 4:7-2 3/ l\Tehemiah, 9-(D) II Esdras,
9 / Psalms, 44 :1-3; 78; 81; 105-106; 136 esp
13
6
:
10
-
2
4-(D) Psahns, 43:1--4; 77; 80; 104-
105; 135 esp 135:10- 24 I Ecclesiastes, 1:11;
2:16 / Isaiah, 46:8-II-(D) Isaias, 46:8-
1
1
/ jere1niah, 2:1-9-(D) jere1nias, 2:1-9 I
Ezekiel, 20:1-44-(D) Ezechiel, 20:1-44
ApOCRYPHA: . Wisdom of SoI0171011, 2:2--4-(D)
aT, Book of Wisd01n, 2 :2-4
NEW TESTAMENT: II Peter, 2 / jude
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK IX [485-65] 62a-63b
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK 1, 2b; BK v, 175b;
BK VIII, 273b-c; BK IX, 309d-310a
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK I,
354b-e; 37ge-d
7 PLATO: Timaeus, 452b I Statesman, s87d I
Philebus, 612a I LatlJs, BK III 663d-677a esp
667a-b; BK XII, 788a
8 ARISTOTLE: Sophistical Refutations, CH 34
[I83bI6-I84b8] 2s3a-d IAletaphysics, BK I,
CH 3-10 SOle-SlId esp CH 3 [983bI-7] 501c-d,
CH I0511e-d; BK II, ClI I [993
a
30- bI 9]Sllb,d-
s12a; BK III 513b,d-s22a,c. passim, esp CH I
[995
a2
3-
b
4] S13b,d; BK XII, CH I[I069a25-29]
s98b; CH 8 [Io74bI--I4] 604d-60sa/ Soul, BK I
631a-641d passim, esp CH 2 [403b20-23] 633a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK X, CH 9
436c I Politics, BKVII, CH 10 [I329
a
4o-
b
35]
5.33d-s34b I Rhetoric, BK I, CH 4 [I360a30-37]
600d; BK II, CH 20 [1393a25-b3] 641a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK VI, SECT 46 278c-d;
BK VII, .SECT I 279b; SECT 49 282d; BK IX,
SECT 28 293d-294a; BK x, SECT 27 299d;
BK XI, SECT 26 306b
14 PLUTARCH: Pericles, 121a-122b I Tim0 leon,
19sa-b; 201b-202c / Nicias, 423a-e / Alexan-
der, s40b,d-541a /Cato the Younger, 634a-c /
Demetrius, 726a-d
15 TACITUS: Anl1als, BKIII,58b-d;60d; BKIV,71d-
72b I Histories, BK I, 189d-190a; BK III, 25sb-e
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK II, par I 9a; BK x,
par 3-6 72a-73a; BK XI, par I 89b-e / City oJ!'
God, BK I, CH 8-9 133a-13sa; BK IV, cn 33-34
206e-207a,c; BK v, CH 25 228b-c; BK XI, CH 18
331d-332a; BK xv, CH 21 41sb-416a; BK XVII
449a-472a,c esp CH 3 450e-4s1c; BK XXII, CH
30, 618a-b I Christian Doctrine, BK II, CH 28
650a-d; CH 39 654c-6ssb
20 AQUINAS: SUl111na Theologica, PART I-II, Q97,
AI, ANS 236a-d
21 DANTE: DIvine C01nedy, PARADISE, VI [31-
111
]
113d-114d; XI [43-1391 122c-123c; XII [22-126]
123d-12sa; XV [88]-XVI [1541 129b-132a; XVII
[Io3-142 ] 133b-e
22 CHAUCER: Monk's Tale434a-448b
23 Prince, CH VI, Bc-d;
XV, 22a-b; CH XVIII 2sa-26a
23 I-IOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, s3c-s4a
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and
s8a-s9d
25 Essays, 24a-e;
198e-200d; 4s5d-456b
26 SHAKESPEARE: 2nd Henry IV,
[45-96J 483b-d
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART I,
33a
30 BACON: Advancement
34b; 85a-e / Novum '11'>,U-I,<IA-II'L-
126d-127b
31 DESCARTES : Discourse, PART I,
32 MILTON: Areopagitica, 384b-386b
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 619-641
uum, 3ssa-3s8b
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH VIII,
112 47c-S1b passim, esp SECT 103
Human Understanding, BK IV, CH XVI,
369d-370a
35 HUME: Human Understanding,
65,479b-c
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK III,
IV, 428a-43sa
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK V,
40 GIBBON: Declne and Fall, 33c;
41 GIBBON: D.ecline and Fall, 13d;
312b; 326d-328a,e
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 5a-8d;
Fund. Prin. Metaphysic of Morals,
/ Practical Reason, 3s7e-d
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER I, 30b;
37b-e; NUMBER 6, 39a; 'NUMBER
NUMBER 18-20 71a-78b; NUMBER
NUL-vIBER 70, 211b-d
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 4s6a- b
44 BOSWELL: johnson, xiia-e; 3e-4c;
259a; 314c-315b; 347c-d; 458d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of
ls6a; 157b-c; 168d-169d;
184b; PART I, 230c-231b; PART IV,
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART I [570-585]
50 MARX: Capital, 7b-d
50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist J.Y1L:lltl"eSlO.
42sb
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers. Karamazov,
291b-d
3. The writing of history: research
tion
ApOCRYPHA: II Maccabees,
II Machabees, 2:23-32
6 HERODOTUS: !iistory, BK I
1a,c, 2b, 4d-sa, 23a-b; BK II,
VII, 242c-d
6 1'nUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War,
35sa passirn; 373c; BK v, 489a-b
9 ARISTOTLE: Rhetoric, BK III, CH
660d; CH 16 670e-672a
PLUTARCH: Thernistocles, l02a,c /
128d-129a I. !inl0Ieon, 195a-b leunon,
,390b-d / Nzczas, 423a-c / De1nost!tenes,
I Dion, 794c-79sa
TACITUS: Annals, BK I, 1a-b; BKII, 44d-45a;
B:KIII, 48c; 49c-d; 60d-61a; BK IV, 66b-<:t; 71.d-
72b; BK XII, 118d; BK XVI, 179d I Rzstones,
B:KI, 189a-b; 190a; BK III, 2s5b-c
f!OBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 67b-e
MONTAIGNE: Essays, 24a-e; 41b-42a; 68b-
69a' 198c-200d; 347c-3s0d; 4ssd-457b
Don Quixote, PART I, 23e-d
BACON: Advancement ofLearning, 32d-38e esp
4b-3sa I Novum Organum, BK I, APH 97-98
126c-127b; APH IOI-I03127e-128a
PASCAL: Pensees, 622-628 286a-287a
STERNE: Tristran1 Shandy, 209b-210b
FIELDING: Tom jones, 19a-20a; 49a-sOc
GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 1b; 87a; 96c-d;
2I3a-214b; 234b; 240b-e;648d-64ge
GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 112a-b; 161a-163d;
186a-b; 2ssb-e; s98a,e; 635d [11 57]; 639a-d
[n I]; 7s5d-7s6a [n 41]; 756d-7s7a [11 61]; 790d-
791a,c [n 98]
BOSWELL: johnson, xia-xiiia; 1a-4e; se-d;
99a; 120c; 217a-b
HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 153a-
IS8a; 181b-182e; PART I, 230e-231b; PART III,
28Sd-286a
MELVILLE: Moby Dick, 195a-201a
1 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK III, 134a",c; BK
IX, 366d-367b; BK X, 40sa-406e
T'he. determination and choice of fact: the
classification of historical data
igHERODOTUS: llistory, BK I, 2b; 17e; 23a-b; BK
II, 49a-s6b passim; 59a; 60a; 60e-61h; 69b-d;
71a-73b; 76a-b; 76d; 77b-c;80b-e; BKIII,
89c-d; 97d-98a; 99b-c; 114a-b; 11sb-d; BK IV,
I27a-b; 142e-d; ls0b-Is1e; ls8a-b; . BK V,
161b; 168b-e; BK VII, 221b-e; 242e-.d; 254c-d;
BK VIII, 261b-e; 281d-282b; BK IX, 30Sd;
306b
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK 1, 349a-
3sSa; 373c; BK II, 391e-d; 39ge; BK III, 439b;
442c-443a; BK V, 487d; 500d-s01a; BK.VI,
5.23c-524d passim .
4 PLUTARCH: Theseus 1a-15a,c paSSIm, esp 1a-c
/ ... Romulus lsa-30a,c passim, esp lSa.;.18d /
Lycurgus,32a-b / Nun1a 49a-b /
Themistocles, 102a,c / Ca1ntllus, 111a-b; 116a-
117a passim / Pericles, 128d-129a /
191d-192b / Aristides, 262b,d-263e / Clmon,
390b-d / Nicias, 423a-c / Pompey, s02d /
Alexander, s40b,d-s41a / Cato the Younger,
634a-e / Demosthenes, 691b,d-692b; 698b-
699a / Galba, 859d
15 TACITUS: Annals., BK III" A8c; 4ge; 60d-61a;
BK IV, 71d-72b; BK VI, 87d;BK XI,
107c; BK XIII, 133b; BK XIV, 157c; BK XVI,
179d / /-listories, BK I, .189a-b; 190a-b; BK II,
228a-b; BK III, 2s5b-c
721
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK II, par I 9a; BK
X, par 4-572a-c / City of God, BK X, CH 14
307c-308a; BI< xv, CH 1-5 397b,d-400e; BK
XVII, CH 1-2 449a-4s0e; BK XVIII, CH 40
495a-b; BK XXII, CH 30, 618c-d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 67b-c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 41b-4.2a; 68b.. 69a; 81a-c;
199a-c; 30sb-306a; 347c-350d; 4s7a-b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 13d-14b;
32d-39c esp 32d-33d
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART VI, 64a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 626 286b; 628 287a; 786-787
32sb
36 STERNE: Tristran1 Shandy, 209b... 210b
37 FIELDING: Tom fones, 19a-20a; 49b-50c
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK IV, 428a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 88a-d; 96b,d; 97c-
98d passim; 103c; 201b-204d passim, esp
203a-b; 212b-214b esp 729b-e [n 31], 213a-d;
232b-234a,c esp 232c, 736d [11 182]; 295e-
296c; 354e-d; 413b-d; 428b-e; 471e-d; 648d-
649b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 311a-312b; 337e;
sOle-s03a; 639a-d [n I]; 660d [11 149J; 7I0a-b
[n I]; 7S6d [n 60]
44 BOSWELL: johnson, Ib... c; 2d-4b; se-d; 27c-d;
119a;139a; 177d-178a; 210d;254b; 286b; 311d-
312a; 347e-d; 359d-360a; 425a; 458d; 57sb
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History,. INTRO, ls3a-
154c; 155b; 180e-182e; 196d-199d esp 199d;
203b-206a,c; PART I, 209b-210c; 230e-231b;
247d-248a; PART IV, 319a-b
50 MARX: Capital, 86d [n 4]
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK XIII, 582b-d;
s84a-b
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 450d-451a
3h. The explanation or. interpretation of his-
toric fact: the historian's treatment of
causes
6 HERODOTUS : History, BK II, 51a-54b; BK III,
96e; 97d-98a; BK VI, 201b-c; 204b-c; UK VII,
221a-b; 226c; 237a-b; 238d-239c; 2s0b-d; BK
VIII, 26Sb; BK IX, 289c; 292a; 309d",310a
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK I, 349a-
35sc; 371b-e; 384b-386d passilu; BK V,
489a-b; BK VIII, s86b-d
14 PLUTARCH: Romulus, 17b-18d I Camillus,
107b-d; 109c-l10a / Coriolanus, 191d-192b /
Timoleon. 201c-d / Flamininus, 307d-308a /
Cimon, 390b-d I Demosthenes, 698a-699a /
Dion, 794d-79sa / Marcus Brutus, 815b-c;
822a-b
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK III, S8b-d; BK VI, 91b-d;
BK XVI, 179d / Histories, BK I, 189b-190b
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK I, PREF 129a-d;
CH 36 149c-d; BK V, CH 1 207d-208c; CH 11-26
216e-230a,c
25 Essays, 200b
30 BACON: Advancen1ent of Learning, 34c; 37a
35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH VIII, SECT 100-
1I247c-s1b
THE GREAT IDEAS
722
(3. The writing of history: research and narra-
tion. 3b. The explanation .or interpreta-
tion of historic fact: the historian!s treat-
ment of causes.)
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK IV, 428a
39 SMITH: Wealth ofNations,BK II,148d-149a;
BK V, 305b-309a,c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 179a-d; 190a-d;
200a-201b; 207b; 211a-c; 232b-233c; 294a-
296d; 409b-410a; 456c-457a,c;
esp 631a-632a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 244b-245a;386a-b;
451c-453a,c
44 BOSWELL:]ohnson, 166c
46 HEGEL: Philosophy ofRight,INTRO, par 3, 10a-
lIb; PART II, par 124 44b-d I Philosophy of
History, INTRO, 154c-158a; 165a-166d; 182d-
184b; PART IV, 368d-369a,c
50.MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 430b-
433d passim
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK IX, 342a-344b;
BK X, 389d-390a; 40Sa-b; 430b-432c; 447c-
44Sc; BK XI, 469a-470c; BK XIII; 563a'-564a;
582b-d; BK XIV, 588a-58ga; 610d-611c; BK
XV, 619c-620a; EPILOGUE II 675a-696d
4. The philosophy of history
4a. Theories of causation in the historical
process
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics,BK v 502a-519d passim
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK I [449-4
82
J
6c-7a; BK II [II05-II74l29a-30a,c; BKV [65-
191 62a-e; [170-194] 63b-c; [772-14571 71a-
80a,c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK v, SECT 8 269d-
270b; BK IX, SECT 28293d-294a
18 AUGUSTINE:City ofGod,"BKI, PREp129a-d;
CH 3
6
149c-d; BK II, CH 2-3 150c-151c; 'BK IV,
CH 33 206c-d;BK V, CH 1 CH 11-26
216c-230a,c; BK XI, CH 18 331d..B32a;BK XII,
CH 21 357a-b; BK XIV, CH 28-BK CH I
397a-398c; BK XV, CH 2r:-22 41Sb-416e; BK
XVIII, CH 1-2 472b,d-473d
21 DANTE: Comedy, HELL, VII [61-9
6
1
10b-e; PURGATORY, XVI [52....114] 77b'-78a
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH XIV, 21b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 348a,c
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 456d-457a,c;
630b,d-634a,c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 451c-453a,c
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 3, 33c
43 MILL: Representative Government, 327b,d-332d
passin1
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, 'PART II, par 115
42b-e; PART III, par 340-360 110b-114a,c esp
par 34
2
11Oc-d, par 347 111 ADDITIONS,
153 141d / Philosophy 6fl-listory,INTRo, 156d-
170b; 190b-201a,c'esp 190b-d, 194b-196a;
PART I, 258b-d; PART II, 262e-263d; 274a-
275a
4to4-
49 DARWIN: Descent ofMan, 323a-328d
50 MARX: Capital, 6d-7d; Sa-lId passim; 35
36e-d [fn 2]; 181d [fn 3];
50 MARX-ENGELS: Manifesto,'41
417a,c; 419b,d-425b paSSIm; 428b-d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK IX, 342a-34
BK XI, 469a-472b; BK XIII, 563a-S7Sa; BE.: x.
588a-590c; 609d-613d; BK XV, 618b-62
EPILOGUE I, 645a-650e; EPILOGUE II 6
696d
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov,BK
345a-e
53 JAMES: Psychology, 361b
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, ',7
789b esp 787a-788d; 791b-d; 7g9a-802
NeuJ Introductory Lectures, 834b-e;8
884c
4a(1) The alternatives of fate or freedom
cessity or chance .,
6 HERODOTUS: Hzstory, BK I, 21d-22a; BE.:
291b-e
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian 13K IV, 462
7 PLATO: Laws, BK IV, 679a-c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK V, SECT 826
270b
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK I [254-296] 110a-111a
14 PLUTARCH: Romulus, 18d; 20b-e I Camillu
10ge-110a I Coriolanus, 188d-192b I Timole
19Sa-213d esp 201a-203b I Philopoe
300b-c ! Demosthenes, 698b-699a I Ma
Brutus, 814d-81Sc; 822a-b
15 TACITUS: Annals, HK III, 49c; BK IV, 69
BK VI, 9tb-d /Histories, BK I, 194b; BK
232d-233a
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK V, eH 1
208c; CH II-26216c-230a,e
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL,VII [61-
10b-c; PURGATORY, XVI [52-1291 77b-78a
23 A1ACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH VI, 8d-9b; CHX
35a-36b
26 SHAKESPEARE: Julius Caesar, ACT IV,SC
[215-224] 590d
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 609b-c; 630b
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 590a-b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy ofRight, PART III, par 3
110b-e; par 342-345 110c-l11b; par 34
8111
Philosophy of History, INTRO, 153a-190b:e
156d'-158a, 158e-160b, 161d-162a, 166b-16B
170d-172b, 178a-17ge; 203a-206a,c; PART
258b-d; PART II, 283d-284a,c; PART II
285a-b; 300a-301e
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART II [10,849-8721 264a-
50 MARX: Capital, 6d; 7b-c; lOb-lIb; 174a
378b-d
50 MARX-ENGELS; Communist Manifesto, 421
422c passim
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK III, 143a-c;
IX, 342a-344b; BK x, 389a-391c; \ BKX
563a-b; BK XV, 618b-621b; 626d-630a.; E
LOGUE I, 64Sa-6S0c; EPILOGUE II 675
696d
2) to 4b CHAPTER 34: HISTORY 723
FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, SOld- esp 212e-213d I Flamininus, 307d-308a /
802a,e Lysander, 358b-d I Rompey 499a-538a,e /
Caesar 577a-604d I AntQny 748a-779d esp
(2)'Material forces in llistory:economic, 750a-b I Marcus Brutus 802b,d-824a,c
physical, and geographic factors 15 TACITUS: Annals, BK II, 44d-45a
6 HERODOTUS : History, BK II, SOa-56e esp 51b-d; 23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH VI 8e-10a; CH XX,
BI( III, 114b-c; BK VII, BK IX, 314a,c 30d; CH XXV-XXVI, 35e-37d
6THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK I, 24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK IV,
C349b-d; 350d; 352a-d; 372c-d 267e-270b
7 PLATO: Timaeus, 444d-445b / Statesman, 32 MILTON: Lord Gen. CromuJe1l69a::-b
587b-58ge I Laws, BK III, 663d-666d; BK IV, 38 Spirit of Laws, BK x, 65d-
677a-678e 68a
MONTESQUIEu:Spirit of Laws, BK I, 3e-d; BK 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 362a-b / Political Eco.n-
VIII, 56b-57c; BK XIV 102b,d-l08d; 13K XVII- omy, 373c-374a / Social Contract, BK II, 400c-
XVIII,122a-12ge; BK XXI 153a-1734 402a
9 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK I,3a-6d; 8b- 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 633d-634a,e
lOb; 34a-b; 71a-d; BK III, 173b-d; 177c-179a;41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 220b; 251d-253a,c;
BK IV, 189c-191a; BK v, 30Sb 327d-328a,e; 492a
309a,c .. ' . . .. .. , 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 72, 217d-218a
oGIBBON: Decline and Fall, 90c-d;236e- 43 Representative GoVer121nent, 332a-c
237a . 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right,PART I,p;lr 93
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall,220b:-225a paSSIm, 36a-b; par 102 39a-b; PART II, par 124 44b\.d;
esp 224b;338b-e;355e-d;4.27b-428a PART III, par 167 60b; par 318 105b;par344
43 MILL: Representative Government, 327b,d-332d lIla; par 348 111d; par 350 112a; ADDITIONS,
passim, esp 331b-332d 58 125c; 186 14gb I Philosophy of Hzstory,
6.HEGEL:Philosophyof Right, !.'ART III, par ; . 'INTRo,162a-170b; 184b-d; PART I, 241d-242b;
346 111b I Philosophy of Hzstory, INTRO, 273a; 275d-276a;,280b-281a;
190b-201a,c esp 194a-:195c, 199d- 281d-282d; 283c-d; PART III, 298a-b; 300a-
201a,c; 203.a-b; PART I, 236d-237a;243d... 301c; PART IV, 360b-e;361d-362a; 366b
244c;.248e-d; PART II,259d-260a;,PART III, 47 GOETHE,: Faust, PART I [57:580] l6a
286b . 48 MELVILLE:. Moby Dick, 107a-b
9 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 323a-328cpassim, 51 TOLSTOY: rVar and Peace passim, esp BK I,
esp 323a-b 8d-lOd,. BK III, 143a-e, 162b-164a,c,BK .IX,
'MARX: Capital, 6d-:7d; 10b-11d;25c-:d; 35b- 342a-344b, BK X, 389a-391e, 405a-b,430b-
36c; 86c; 181d[fn31; 187a-c;239b-241a;377e- 432c, 447e-448e, 465c-467a, BK XI, 469a-470e,
378d 497c-49ge,507a, BKXUI, S63a-575a, HK
SO MARX-ENGELS: CQ1J1munist Manifesto 41.5a- 610d-:611c, BK XV, 61ge-621b, EPILOGUE I,
434d 419)),d, 4:21d-422a, 427a-b, 645a-650c, EPILOGUE II 675a-696d passim
428b-d 54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents,E300a-b
54 FREUD: New Introductory Lectures,834c; 882e- / New Introductory 834b-c
883b; 884c 4b.The laws and patterns of historical change;
(3) World history as the cycles, progress,evolution
stages of th.e dlalectlc of 6 HERODOTUS: ]listory, BK I, 2b
tory 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian "I,349a-
46 HEGEL: Philosopby ofRight, PART III,par 279, 352a
94b-d;par 340"--360 110b-114a,c; ADDITIONS, 7 PLATO: Republic,,:BK VIII, 403a-:d/, Tilnae,us,
153 141d / Philosophy ofHistory, INTRO) lS6c- 444d-445b. / Statesman, 587b-589c I Laws,
162a; 163a-165b; 166b-e; 169d-171b; 176b-c; BK III, 663d-666d
177d-190b; 203a-206a"c;PART IV, 3.68d-36.9a,e 8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BKly, eH 141223b24-30]
303c-d I Metaphysics, BK XII, CH 8 [I074bII-I3]
The role of the individual in history: the 605a
'great man, hero, or leader 12 LUCRETIUS : Nature of Things, BK. II [1105-
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK I, CH2[I253a29-3I1 1174] 29a-30a,e; BKV [65-19] 62a-e; [170-
446d 194] 63b-c; [772-14571 71a-80a,e
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK VI [756-892]: 231a-235a; 12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK II, SECTJ4258d;
BK. VIII [608-731] 275a-278b BK VI, SECT 46 278c-d; BK VII, SECT I 279b;
14. PLUTARCH: Theseus 1a-1Sa,c esp 9a-dl Romu- SECT 49 282d; BK IX, SECT 28 293d-294a;BK
ius lSa-30a,c / Lycurgus 32a-48desp 47a-48e X, SECT 27 299d
/ Numa Pompilius 49a-61d esp 59c-60l? I 13 VIRGIL: Eclogues, IV 14a-15b / Aeneid,BK VIII
Solon 64b,d-77a,c I Pericles 121a-141a,e esp [36-336] 267b-268a
12ge-130b, 140c-141a,e I Timoleon 19Sa-213d 14 PLUTARCH: Sulla, 372a-c
THE GREAT IDEAS
CHAPTER 34: HISTORY
724
(4. The philosophy of history. 4b. The laws and
patterns of historical change: cycles, prog-
evolution.)
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK III, 51b-52b; 58b-d
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK x, CH' 14
307c-308a; BK XI, CH 18 BK
XV-XVIII 397b,d-507a,c; BK XXII, CH 30,
618c-d
20 AQUINAS: SUlnma Theologica, PART I-II, Q97,
A I, ANS 236a-d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, VII [67-'-961
10b-c; XIV [94-'120] 20c-d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 439c-440b; 443a-b;
465a-c
26 SHAKESPEARE: 2nd Henry IV, ACT III, SC I
[45-91] 483b-c / Julius Caesar, ACT IV, SC III
[218-224] 590d
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART II, III,
121a-b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 544d-545d; 632a-
634a,c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 62c-d; 349a
42 KANT: Judgement, 584d-587a
43 MILL: Liberty, 300d-301c
46 I-IEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par
340 110b-c; par 344 111a; par 347 111b-c; par
354-360 112c-114a,c / Philosophy of History,
INTRO, 161a-c; 174d-175c; 178a-179c; 187a-c;
203b-.296a,c; PART I, 235d-236a;258b-d;
PART II, 259c-d; 282d-284a,c; PART III,
286c-287a; 308a-b; PART IV, 315b-317d;342d-
343a
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 323a; 327a-330a,c
esp 327b
50 MARX: Capital, 10b-l1d;377c-378d
50 MARX-ENGELS: COlnmunist Mani.ftsto, 416c-d
51 TOLSTOY: fVar and Peace, BK XI, 469a-472b;
EPILOGUE I, 645a-650c; EPILOGUE II 675a-
696d
54 FREUD: Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 651d-
652d / Civilization and Its Discontents, 781a-
789b esp785c; 799a-802a,c / New Introductory
Lectures, 834c; 882c-883a; 883c
4c. The spirit of the time as conditioning the
politics and culture of a period
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 354234b
38 Rouss EAU: Inequality, 362a-d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PREF, 6c-7a;
INTRO, par 3 10a-12c; PART III, par 218 72c-d
/ Philosophy of History, INTRO, 173a-175c;
177c-178a; 182d-183a; 185a-186d; 187d-189a;
PART I, 211a-219d esp 219c-d; 219d-235c esp
220b-221a, 222a-223a, 233b-235c; 247b-257c;
PART II, 259d-260c; 263d-281b; PART III, 286c-
298a
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART I [570-580] 16a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE I, 645a-
646c
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK XI,
34Sa-c
5. The of history
5a. The relation of the gods or God'
human history: the dispensations
providence
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 3; 6-9 passim; 16-
1
7;
21:1--24; 22:1-18 esp 22:IS-18; 28:1
1
-
1
6-
45: 1- 13; 46:1-4 / Exodus,
paSSIm; 23:20-33 / Deuteronomy, 4: 1-4-
7-11 passim; 29 / Joshua, 6:1-20; 10;
24: 1- 25-(D) Josue, 6:1-20; 10; 24:1- 25 /
I Samuel, 12:6-25-(D) I Kings, 12:6-25 /
Nehemiah, 9:1-IO:29-(D) II Esdras, 9:1-
10:29/ Psalms, 44: 1-3; 78; 81; 15-106; 136
esp 136 :10- 24 -(D) Psahns, 43:1-4; 77;
80; 14-15; 1.35 esp 135:10--24. / Jeremiah,
43 :8-13; 44 :30; 46-{D) jeremzas, 43 :8-13;
44 :30; 46
ApOCRYPHA: judith passim, esp 5-6, 8-16-(1.))
OT, Judith passilu, esp 5-6, 8-16
NEW TESTAMENT: Romans, I-II / I Corinthians
15 :19-55 / Galatians, 3-4 / II Thessalonians'
1:7-2:14 / Hebrews passim / II Peter, 3 :3-13 ;
Revelation-- CD) Apocalypse
5 AESCHYLUS: Persians 15a-26d esp [737-908]
23a-24d / Prometheus Bound40a-51d esp [436-
52] 44c-45a
6 HERODOTUS: Hist@ry, BK I, 21d-22a; BK VI,
204b-c;. VII, 214d-220b esp 218b-2201>;
237a-b; 238d-239a; 250b-d; BK VIII, 273b-c;
BK IX, 309d-310a
7 PLATO: Protagoras, 44a"45a / Symposium,
157b-159b / Republic, BK VI, 378a-b / Critias
478a-485d / States1nan, 587a-589c / Laws,
BK IV, 679a-b; 682d-683d; BK X, 765d-
768d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK III, CH 22 195a-
201a; BK IV, CH I 213a-223d; CH 3224b.. d; CH
7232c-235a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK II, SEqT I I
BK III, SECT II 262a-b; BK VI, SECT 44
278b-c
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid 103a-379a
14 PLUTARCH: Romulus, 18d; 28b-29c I Numa
Pompilius, 50d-51c / Camillus, 107b-d /
Coriolanus, 188d-192b / Sulla 372a-c /
Demosthenes, 698a-699a / Marcus Brutus,
822a-b
15 TACITUS: Histories, BK I, 189b-190a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK XIII, par 49-51
/ City of God, BK I, PREF 129a-d; CH
36 149c-d; BK II, CH 2-3 150c-151c; BK IV, CH
33-34 206c-207a,c; BK V, CH 11-26'216c-
230a,c; BK X, CH 14 307c-308a; BK XI, cH I
322b,d-323a; CH 18 331d-332a; BKXII, CH 21
357a-b; BK XV, CH I 397b,d-398c; CH 21.....22
415b-416c; BK XVII, CH 1-.3 449a-451c; UK
XVIII, cH 1-2 472b,d-473d; BK XXII, CH 30,
618c-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica,
A I, REP I 370a-371a
b
20 AQUINAS: Sumn1a Theologica, PART I-II, Q98,
A6 244c-245b; Q 106, AA 3-4 PART
II-II, Q I, A 7 385c-387a; PART III, Q I, AA 5-6
707a-709c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, II [13-27] 2d;
VII [61-96] 10b-c; PURGATORY, XVI [52- 129]
77b-78a; XXIX 97d-99b; XXXII [37]-xXXIII
[78] 102d-l05a; PARADISE, VI [I'-III] 113c-
114d; VIII [91-148J 117d-118c; XI [28-39] 122b;
XII [37-45] 124a; XVIII [52]-XX [148] 134a-
138b passim; xxx [I24]-xXXII [138] 153a-156a
23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH XXVI, 36b-37a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 306a-d
26 SHAKESPEARE: Richard III 105a-148a,c esp
ACT V, SC III 143b-147d
30 BACON: Advancement ofLearning, 19b-d; 35b;
37c-38a / Novum Organum, BK I, APH 93 125d-
126a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART I, APPENDIX 369b-372d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost 93a-333a esp BK I [1-
26J93b-94a, BK III [80-134J 137a-138a, BK v
[224-245] 180a-b, [519-54.3] 186b-187a, BK VI
[169-188] 200a, BK VII [139-173] 220a-221a,
BK x [1-21] 274b-275a, [616-64] 288a-b, [720-
844] 290a-292b, BK XI [334]-BK XII [605] 306b-
332a / Samson Agonistes [60-67] 340b-341a;
[3oo-325J 346a-b; [373'-419J 347b-348b; [667-
709J 354a-355a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 611-613 282b-283a; 619-736
284b-317b esp 655 292b, 699 302b
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 292d-293b
46 HEGEL: Philosophy ofRight, PART III, par 343
110d-l11a / Philosophy ofHistory, INTRO, 156c-
160b; PART III, 303c-309d; PART IV, 321b-d;
368d-369a,c
48 MELVILLE: lv!oby Dick, 8Sa
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK IX, 343b-c;
EPILOGUE II, 675a-677b; 680b-c; 684b-d
Sb. The city of God and the city of man; church
and state
OLD TESTAMENT: Psalms, 2; 46 :4; 48 :1,8; 72 :8-
II; 87:3; loc8; I27:1-(D) Psalms, 2; 45:S;
47: 1,9; 71:8-11; 86:3; 100:8; 126:1 / Isaiah,
60:14-(D) Isaias, 60:14 / Daniel, 2:44;
4:3",4; 7: 14-(D) Daniel, 2:44; 3:100; 4:3
1
;
7: 14
725
ApOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 6:2'--4-(D)
OT, Book of fllisdom, 6:3-S
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 6:3.3; 17:24-27;
22:15-22- CD) AJatthew, 6:.33; 17 :23-26;22:IS-
22/ Mark, 12:13-17 / Luke, 12:31; 20:21-26 /
john, 18 :.3.3-37 / Acts, 5:29 / Romans, 13 :1-8
/ I Corinthians, 15 :24-25 / Ephesians, 2 :19 /
Colossians, 1:12-13/ I Timothy, 2 :1-3 / Titus,
3:1 / I Peter, 2:13'--17
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK II, CH 5, 143d-
144a; CH 14, 155a-b
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK III, SECT II 262a-b;
BK IV, SECT 23 265c
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK I, PREF 129a-d;
CH 35 149b-c; BK IV, CH 33-34 206c-207a,c;
BK V, CH 15-16 220d-221b; CH 25 228b-c; BK
XI, CH I BKXIV, CH 28-BK XV,
CH 5 397a-400c; BK XV, CH 21-22 415b-416c;
BK XVII, eH 1-.3 449a-451c; BK XVIII, CH 1-2
472b,d-473d; BK XIX, CH 5 513d-514b; CH II
516d-517b; eH 14 520a-d; CH 17 522b-S23a;
CH 19-26 523b.,.529a / Christian Doctrine, BK I,
CH 10 627b
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, II [20-30] 2d-
3a; XIV [94-120] 20c-d; XXXIV [61-68] 5Id-
52a; PURGATORY, VI [91-96] 61d; XIII [91-96]
72d; XVI [52-1.32] 77b-78b; XXIX 97d-99b;
XXXII [37]-xXXIII 178] 102d-105a; PARADISE,
VI [I-III] 113c-114d; XVIII [52]-XX [148J
134a-138b passim; xxx [124]-xXXII [138J
153a-156a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 151a-c; 160a-c;
PART III, 177c-180a; 191b-204a;.240a-c; PART
III-IV, 245c-249b; PART IV, 266a-c; 275a-
278d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK XII [485-551] 329b-
331a
38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK IV, 435a-439c
esp 437c-438c
42 KANT: Science of Right, 442c-d; 444a-c /
judgement, 509d510a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 175c-
177d; 205d-206a,c; PART I, 245d-247b; PART
III, 308b-c; 311b-d; PART IV, 315d; 316a-d;
331b-342a; 348a-369a,c
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK II, 28d-
32c
POLYBIUS. Histories, VOL II, BK XII (XVII-XXVIII)
LUCIAN. The Way to Write History
ADDITIONAL READINGS
MONTESQUIEU. Considerations on the Causes ofthe
Grandeur and Decadence ofthe Romans
GIBBON. An Essay on the Study ofLiterature, LXXVIII-
LXXXII
KANT. The Idea ofa Universal History on a Cosmo-
Political Plan
HEGEL. The Philosophy of Mind, SECT II, SUB-SECT C
(CC, 'Y)
J. S. MILL. A System of Logic, BK VI, CH 10-1 I
W. JAMES. "Great Men and Their Environment,"
in The Will to Believe
727
CHAPTER 34: HISTORY
LAMPRECHT. What Is History?
T. HARDY. The Dynasts
PETRIE. Revolutions of Civilization
Mind and Society, VOL IV, CH 13
SPENGLER. The Decline ofthe West
PENTY. A Guildsman's Interpretation of History
BUKHARIN. Historical Materialism
BEARD. The EconotnicB4SisofPpiitics
'SHOTWELL. The History of History
BERDYAYEV. The Meaning of History ..
TROELTSCH. Der Historismus und seine Uberwindung
TEGGART. Theory of History
DAWSON. Progress and Religion
BECKER. Everyman His Own Historian
STURZO. The Inner Laws of Society, INTRO
COLLINGWOOD. The Idea ofHistory
CROCE. History, Its Theory and Practice
--. History as the Story of Liberty
KENT. Writing History
ORTEGA Y GASSET. Toward a Philosophy of History
CASSIRER. The Myth ofthe State, PART III (15-17)
M. R. COHEN. The Meaning of Human History
NEFF. The Poetry of History
SCHRECKER. Work andHistory
A. J. TOYNBEE. A Study o.l History
----'-. Civilization on Trial, CH 1-3, 13
LOwITH.Meaning in History
E
LET. Introduction aI' histoire universelle
lcll .,' d l'h' .
Cll
EZ
. a la sczence e zstozre
CARLYLE. On HIStory . .
. On Heroes, Hero- Worship. and zn
History
ERSON. "History," in Essays, I
MTE. The Positive .P'hilosophy, BK VI .
. System of PosztltJe Poltty, YOL III, SQclal l)y-
namics .
NKE. fjber die Epochen der neueren Geschzchte
TZE. 1.'1icrocosmos, .VII . .
cKLE. History of Czvz!zzatlon zn England
OUDE. The Science of History
RCKllARDT.Force anc!.Freedom, CH.
TZsCHE.. The Use and Abuse of Hzstory
NOUVIER.Essais de critique generale, IV
Vchronie
Lehrbuc-h derhistorischenMethode
ADAMS. The Law oj Civilization and Decay
ToN. Essays on. Freedom and CH I
NGLOIS af?d SEIGNOBOS. lntroductlon to the Study
afHistory
ADLEY. Collected Essays, VOL I( I}
SKE. Essays: l-listorical and Literary, VOL'lI(I} ..
The Degradation oj the DemocratIc
Dogma
BURY. The Science of History
THE GREAT IDEAS
I.
II.
Listed below are works not included in Great Books ofthe Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups:
1. Works by authors represented in this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, cons'ult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas..
BODIN. Method for the Easy Comprehension a
History
BOSSUET. Discours sur l'histoire universelle
VICO. The New Science
VOLTAIRE. "I-fistory," in A Philosophical Dictionar
--. The Philosophy of History
HERDER. Outlines of a Philosophy of the History
Man
CONDORCET. Outlines of an Historical View oft
Progress ofthe Human Mind
SCHELLING. The Ages ofthe World
SCHOPENHAUER. The World as Will and Idea, VOL II
sUP, CH 38
GUIZOT. General History of Civilization in Europ
LECT I-II
MACAULAY. "History," in Miscellaneous Essays
F. SCHLEGEL. The Philosophy of History
726
CROSS-l?EFERENCES
For: The general consideration of history as a kind of knowledge, see KNOWLEDGE 5a (5); MEMo
AND IMAGINATION 3d; TIME 6e; and for other comparisons of history with poetry, scienc
and philosophy, see NATURE 4c; PHILOSOPHY Id; POETRY 5b;SCIENCE 20.
The educational significance of history or of historical examples, see EDUCATION 4d; VIRT
AND VICE 4d(4).
Other discussions of the logic or method of historical research, see LOGIC 4c ; REASONING 6
The theory of historical causation, see CAUSE 8; and for the factors ofchance and fate, :Ere
dom and necessity, see CHANCE 6b; FATE 6; LIBERTY 6a; NECESSITY ANDCONTINGEN
5f; PROGRESS Ia; WILL7b.
The idea of progress in the philosophy of history, see EVOLUTION 7c ; PROGRESS I-IC; and Ii
a cyclical theory of history, see LABOR Ia; MAN 9a; PROGRESSIC.
Other discussions of a materialist philosophy of history, see DIALECTIC 2d; LABOR 7c-7cG.3J
MATTER 6; OPPOSITION 5b; PROGRESS Ia; WAR AND PEACE 2C;WEALTH II.
Other of history as a dialectical process in the development of Spirit, s,
DIALECTIC 2d-2d(2); LIBERTY 6a; MIND PROGRESS 4b.
The role of the great man or hero in history, see HONOR 5d.
The historian or philosopher of history as a prophet, see FATE 6.
Other expressions of historical relativism, see CUSTOM AND CONVENTION g-gb; RELATIO
6-6c; UNIVERSAL AND PARTICULAR 7-7c.
Divine providence in relation to the events of history and to the issue of necessi ty and fre
dom in history, see FATE 4; GOD 7b; LIBERTY sa-5b; WILL 7b.
Other discussions of the city of God and the city of man, or of the issue of church and
see RELIGION 4; STATE 2g.