Lawrence Kohlberg was, for many years, a professor at Harvard University.

He became famous for his work there beginning in the early 19 !s. He started as a developmental psychologist and then moved to the field of moral education. He was particularly well"known for his theory of moral development which he populari#ed through research studies conducted at Harvard$s %enter for &oral 'ducation. His theory of moral development was dependent on the thinking of the (wiss psychologist )ean *iaget and the +merican philosopher )ohn ,ewey. He was also inspired by )ames &ark -aldwin. .hese men had emphasi#ed that human beings develop philosophically and psychologically in a progressive fashion. Kohlberg believed...and was able to demonstrate through studies...that people progressed in their moral reasoning /i.e., in their bases for ethical behavior0 through a series of stages. He believed that there were si1 identifiable stages which could be more generally classified into three levels. Kohlberg$s classification can be outlined in the following manner2 LEVEL Pre-conventional Conventional Post-conventional STAGE SOCIAL ORIENTATION 1 Obedience and Punish ent ! Individualis " Instru entalis " and E#chan$e % &Good bo'($irl& ) La* and Order + Social Contract , Princi-led Conscience

The .irst level o. oral thin/in$ is that generally found at the elementary school level. 3n the first stage of this level, people behave according to socially acceptable norms because they are told to do so by some authority figure /e.g., parent or teacher0. .his obedience is compelled by the threat or application of punishment. .he second stage of this level is characteri#ed by a view that right behavior means acting in one$s own best interests. The second level o. oral thin/in$ is that generally found in society, hence the name 4conventional.4 .he first stage of this level /stage 50 is characteri#ed by an attitude which seeks to do what will gain the approval of others. .he second stage is one oriented to abiding by the law and responding to the obligations of duty. The third level o. oral thin/in$ is one that Kohlberg felt is not reached by the ma6ority of adults. 3ts first stage /stage 70 is an understanding of social mutuality and a genuine interest in the welfare of others. .he last stage /stage 80 is based on respect for universal principle and the demands of individual conscience. 9hile Kohlberg always believed in the e1istence of (tage 8 and had some nominees for it, he could never get enough sub6ects to define it, much less observe their longitudinal movement to it. Kohlberg believed that individuals could only progress through these stages one stage at a time. .hat is, they could not 46ump4 stages. .hey could not, for e1ample, move from an orientation of selfishness to the law and order stage without passing through the good boy:girl stage. .hey could only come to a comprehension of a moral rationale one stage above their own. .hus, according to Kohlberg, it was important to present them with moral dilemmas for discussion which would help them to see the reasonableness of a 4higher stage4 morality and encourage their development in that direction. .he last comment refers to Kohlberg$s moral discussion approach. He saw this as one of the ways in which moral development can be promoted through formal education. ;ote that Kohlberg believed, as did *iaget, that most moral development occurs through social interaction. .he discussion approach is based on the insight that individuals develop as a result of cognitive conflicts at their current stage. Kohlberg based his theory upon research and interviews with groups of young children. + series of moral dilemmas were presented to these participants and they were also interviewed to determine the reasoning behind their 6udgments of each scenario. Kohlberg was not interested so much in the answer to the <uestion of whether Hein# was wrong or right, but in the reasoning for each participant$s decision. .he responses were then classified into various stages of reasoning in his theory of moral development.

Level 10 Preconventional 1oralit' Sta$e 1 - Obedience and Punish ent .he earliest stage of moral development is especially common in young children, but adults are also capable of e1pressing this type of reasoning. +t this stage, children see rules as fi1ed and absolute. =beying the rules is important because it is a means to avoid punishment. Sta$e ! - Individualis and E#chan$e +t this stage of moral development, children account for individual points of view and 6udge actions based on how they serve individual needs. 3n the Hein# dilemma, children argued that the best course of action was the choice that best"served Hein#>s needs. ?eciprocity is possible at this point in moral development, but only if it serves one$s own interests. Level !0 Conventional 1oralit' Sta$e % - Inter-ersonal Relationshi-s =ften referred to as the 4good boy"good girl4 orientation, this stage of moral development is focused on living up to social e1pectations and roles. .here is an emphasis on conformity, being 4nice,4 and consideration of how choices influence relationships. Sta$e ) - 1aintainin$ Social Order +t this stage of moral development, people begin to consider society as a whole when making 6udgments. .he focus is on maintaining law and order by following the rules, doing one>s duty and respecting authority. Level %0 Postconventional 1oralit' Sta$e + - Social Contract and Individual Ri$hts +t this stage, people begin to account for the differing values, opinions and beliefs of other people. ?ules of law are important for maintaining a society, but members of the society should agree upon these standards. Sta$e , - 2niversal Princi-les Kohlberg>s final level of moral reasoning is based upon universal ethical principles and abstract reasoning. +t this stage, people follow these internali#ed principles of 6ustice, even if they conflict with laws and rules. Criticis s o. 3ohlber$4s Theor' o. 1oral 5evelo- ent6 ,oes moral reasoning necessarily lead to moral behavior@ Kohlberg$s theory is concerned with moral thinking, but there is a big difference between knowing what we ought to do versus our actual actions. 3s 6ustice the only aspect of moral reasoning we should consider@ %ritics have pointed out that Kohlberg$s theory of moral development overemphasi#es the concept as 6ustice when making moral choices. Aactors such as compassion, caring and other interpersonal feelings may play an important part in moral reasoning. ,oes Kohlberg$s theory overemphasi#e 9estern philosophy@ 3ndividualistic cultures emphasi#e personal rights while collectivist cultures stress the importance of society and community. 'astern cultures may have different moral outlooks that Kohlberg$s theory does not account for.

Carol Gilli$an *as born on Nove ber !7" 18%," in Ne* 9or/ Cit'0 She has received her doctorate de$ree in social -s'cholo$' .ro :arvard 2niversit' in 18,) and be$an teachin$ at :arvard in 18,;0 Then in 18;< she beca e a research assistant .or the $reat theorist o. oral develo- ent" La*rence 3ohlber$0 Eventuall' Gilli$an beca e inde-endent and be$an to critici=e so e o. 3ohlber$4 s *or/0 :er o-inions *ere -resented in her .a ous boo/" & In a di..erent Voice6 Ps'cholo$ical Theor' and >o en 4 s 5evelo- ent & *hich *as -ublished in 187!0 She .elt that 3ohlber$ onl' studied & -rivile$ed" *hite en and bo's0 & Gilli$an said that this caused a biased o-inion a$ainst *o en0 She .elt that " in 3ohlber$ 4 s sta$e theor' o. oral develo- ent" the ale vie* o. individual ri$hts and rules *as considered a hi$her sta$e than *o en4s -oint o. vie* o. develo- ent in ter s o. its carin$ e..ect on hu an relationshi-s0 & Gilli$an 4 s $oal is *as to -rove that *o en are not & oral id$ets & " she *as $oin$ a$ainst an' -s'cholo$ical o-inions0 Another .a ous theorist" ?reud thou$ht *o en 4 s oral sense *as stunted because the' sta'ed attached to their others0 Another $reat theorist " Eri/ Eric/son " thou$ht the tas/s o. develo- ent *ere se-aration .ro other and the .a il' " I. *o en did not succeed in this scale" then the' *ere obviousl' lac/in$0 There.ore Gilli$an 4 s $oal *as a $ood cause0 :er theor' is divided into three sta$es o. oral develo- ent be$innin$ .ro & sel.ish " to social or conventional oralit' " and .inall' to -ost conventional or -rinci-led oralit' 0 & >o en ust learn to deal to their o*n interests and to the interests o. others 0 She thin/s that *o en hesitate to @ud$e because the' see the co -le#ities o. relationshi-s0

*re %onventional "*erson only cares for themselves in order to ensure survival ".his is how everyone is as children 3n this transitional phase, the person $s attitude is considered selfish, and the person sees the connection between themselves and others. %onventional "?esponsibility "&ore care shown for other people. "Billigan says this is shown in the role of &other C 9ife "(ituation sometimes carries on to ignoring needs of self. 3n this transitional phase, tensions between responsibility of caring for others and caring for self are faced. *ost %onventional "+ceeptance of the principle of care for self and others is shown. "(ome people never reach this level.