CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1

INTRODUCTION

Though restrictions on child labour exist in most nations, many children do work. This vulnerable state leaves them prone to exploitation. The international labour office reports that children work the longest hour and are worst paid of all labourers (Bequele, 1988). They endure working conditions which include health hazards and potential abuse. Employers capitalize on the docility of the children, recognizing the fact that these children can not legally form union to change their condition. Such manipulations stifle the development of youths. Their working condition does not provide the stimulation for proper physical and mental development. They are as such deprived of the simple joy of childhood, relegated instead, to a life of drudgery.

2.2

PREVALENCE OF CHILD LABOUR The international labour organization reported that over 250 million children are at work

world wide, in countries at all levels of economic development. While child labour is found world wide, it is overwhelmingly a developing countries affair.18 It is most concentrated in Asia and Africa which together account for more than 90% of the total world child labour (ILO, 1993). Though there are more child workers in Asia than any where else, a higher percentage of African children participate in labour force (ILO, 1992). In percentage terms, Africa already has the highest incidence of child labour with approximately 41% of all children between 5-14 years old involved in economic activities, 21% in Asia and 17% in Latin America (ILO, 1992). 1

In a study conducted by weiner, Asia is led by India which has 44 million child labourers, giving it the largest child work force in the world, and in Pakistan 10% of all workers are between the ages of 10-14 years (Weiner, 1991). Child labour is also found to be common in south America with Brazil recording about 7 million children in child labour (ILO, 1992). However, participation rates of children in labour force are higher in the countries of sub-saharan Africa, where nearly half the children in the 10-14 age group are working. Estimates suggest that 27% of all children work in Benin republic, 515 in Burkina Faso and 49% in Burundi. In Kenya, Ethiopia, Niger and Uganda, the estimated rates are between 40-46%. In Mali 54% of children are estimated to be working. In cote divore Nigeria and Zimbabwe, the figures are between 20 30% (UNICEF, 1997). Nigeria was estimated to 12 million child workers (ILO, 1992). In 1998 the international Labour Office also estimated that 24.6% of children between 10-14 age group were working in Nigeria (UNICEF, 2000). Another study estimated that 39% of children in the age group of 5-14 are involved in child labour in nigeria (UNICEF). Also in a study conducted by Bolanle et al in Sagamu local government area of oyo state, Nigeria in 2005 the prevalence of child labour was found to be 64.5% (Syed, 1991). 2.3 CAUSES OF CHILD LABOUR Root causes of child labour are complex and often interrelated (UNICEF, 2003). Poverty, illiteracy, lack of awareness and some cultural beliefs and practices such as gender and age inequality, are some examples. Each country or region presents specific factors or different combination of multiple factors that are unique to each situation. Also, any analysis of child labour must take in to account the rapidly changing environment that can alter the child labour patterns at local and international levels. It is important to note that analyses of causes generally highlight the push factors on the so called supply side and tend to neglect the pull

factors or the demand dimension of the problem (Salah, 2001). However the pull factors are also of equal importance for effective counteractive measures against child labour. Among the push factors, poverty has been recognized by many reports and analyses as the most visible cause for child labour. In a study, children of parents of low socio economic status were significantly involved in labour activities (UNICEF, 2005). With promise of employment opportunities in larger cities or abroad, these extremely poor families may easily send their children away to work. Another strong determinant is the particular vulnerability of children and the female gender in most African societies which makes them easy target for child labouring. Deep rooted beliefs and attitudes that portray children and women as weaker and inferior lead to a cultural climate where the practice of child labour is perceived as morally acceptable. In a recent survey (UNICEF, 2000) in 3 African countries carried out in 2000, between 32% and 42% of all the children interviewed indicated that they are regularly physically abused. Other traditional practices include early marriage (PRB, 2000), early introduction of children in to labour and the placement of children in families of distant relatives or friends. As mention above, a common practice in Northern part of Nigeria is of giving children out to a Quranic instructor commonly known as Mallam who takes them away as Talibes or Almajirai to an informal quranic school (Madrissa or Tsangaya) often far away from their villages of origin. Their tender age and lack of means of livelihood in their new environment make them victims of all forms of exploitation, and street begging. Some times the abuse comes from the instructor himself or his family. Other push factors prominent in this environment include illiteracy, low school enrolment, loss of care givers (e.g. HIV/AIDS orphans, orphans due to natural disasters e.g. the Tsunami, earthquake and civil conflicts, divorce, separation and placement in institutions), as well as

economic and social changes. The estimated global number of children not attending school is 121 million, majority of whom are girls (UNICEF, 2004). Also, an assessment by the ILO have found that orphaned children are much more likely than non orphans to be working in domestic and other related services (UNICEF, 2005). On the other hand, the demand that drives child labour is multifaceted and in most cases not thoroughly analysed (Salah, 2001). With regards to the pull factors five distinct areas of concern deserve particular mention: sexual exploitation, other forms of economic exploitation, traditional practices, adoption and post conflict scenario. Nigeria has such a horrible, yet interesting, picture of child labour for a number of reasons. First of all Nigeria is the most populous country in Africa. A 1999 projection put the total number of Nigerians at 123.9 million out of which 64 million (52%) were children. Secondly the prevalence of poverty and illiteracy are high with about 65.6% of Nigerians living in absolute poverty as of 1999 (UNICEF, 2005). Overall literacy rate is only 49% (41% female and 59% male). These facts and the presence of other factors such as high demand for cheap labour and the cultural perception of child labour as morally right, make the country a ripe environment for existance of several forms of child labour, even more than other countries in the sub region. Poverty stricken and uneducated families are easily lured by false promise of better life and education for their children. And because of large family sizes the departure of a child or two may be considered a relief, as the parents no longer have to provide for such children.

Schooling problems also contribute to child labor. Many times children seek employment simply because there is no access to schools (distance, no school at all). When there is access, the low quality of the education often makes attendance a waste of time for the students. Schools in many developing areas suffer from problems such as overcrowding, inadequate sanitation and 4

apathetic teachers (Faraaz). As a result, parents may find no use in sending their children to school when they could be home learning a skill (for example, agriculture) and supplementing the family income. Because parents have so much control over their children, their perception of the value of school is a main determinant of child attendance. Parents who are educated understand the importance of schooling from personal experience. As a result, parental education plays a large role in determining child schooling and employment (Tienda, 1979). School attendance by a child is also highly correlated with family income (Ilon 1991). Therefore, when children drop out of school, it is not necessarily because of irresponsible parenting; it may be due to the family's financial situation. When these children leave school, they become potential workers. A major reason India has the largest juvenile workforce is because 82 million children are not in school The result is that only a minority get a quality education. For example, only 41 percent of Indians over the age of 15 are literate. This decreases to 33 percent in Bangladesh and 26 percent in Pakistan (Weiner, 1991). Poor families, however, are able to recognize good quality schooling and are frequently prepared to sacrifice child labor in order to invest in a good education for their children.

Traditional factors are also important. The established female role in certain countries dictates that women will not fit into traditional roles if they become educated (Bequele, 1988). There is a pervasive notion in some nations that educated females will not get married nor have children. Therefore, many families raise daughters solely to take over the household duties in order release the mother for paid labor. Such cultural practices restrict the education of females and promote child employment. The acceptance of social class separation perpetuates child labor as well (Weiner, 1991). For example, people of India's lower castes are expected to perform manual

labor and therefore are more apt not to attend school (Faraaz). 5

Often parents in developing countries assign different roles to their children. This has been called child specialization, and may increase the number of working children (Chernichovsky, 1985). This phenomenon involves certain siblings going to school while others work. Many times this depends on the birth order where the oldest is the one who attends school.

Rapid rural-to-urban migration is the cause for the increasing rate of child labor in urban areas of developing countries. Families leave the severity of agricultural working conditions for cities in order to search for economic opportunities that often do not exist. In the last 40 years, this movement has been drastic. In 1950, 17 percent of the population of the developing world lived in urban areas. This increased to 32 percent in 1988. By the year 2000 it is estimated that this proportion will increase to 40 percent, and to 57 percent by the year 2025 (UN, 1991). Such increases, coupled with worsening economic trends, force children and their families into urban poverty; children are soon required to work (Barker, 1991).

2.4 TYPES OF CHILD LABOUR Several forms of child labour exist world wide with some types more prevalent in some areas of the world. Some labour might be harmful while others are not. In 2006, an estimated 74 million children aged 5-17 years were working in hazardous situation and they contribute about half the total number of economically active children and more than 2/3 of those in child labour.18 in addition to this, estimated 8.4 million children are involved in other worst form of labour such as trafficking, forced and bonded labour, prostitution and pornography and other illicit activities.

2.4.1

DOMESTIC CHILD LABOUR

Domestic services are by far the most common line of work for female child labourers, but boys can also be domestic servant (Bequele, 1988). Domestic servants are basically children who work at a familys home and perform their common household tasks, such as caring for small children, cooking, cleaning the house and handling cleaning chemicals, using sharp kitchen utensils and lifting heavy items. These children undergo immense physical stress, making them subject to accidents while carrying out even the simplest of tasks. Sometimes the childs employers and their family members physically abuse the child. They are thrown into a cycle of violence until they are given out to the next family. In Guatemala and El Salvador tens of thousands of girls work as domestic servants, some as young as eight years old (ILO/OPEC, 2000). According to one local advocate in Guatemala, employers control nearly every aspect of a domestic workers life, including the salary she earns, the work she does, her working hours, the days she can go out, where she can go and even what language she should speak in the home and how she should dress (Child Domestic, 2004). Approximately 200,000 Indonesian girls and women work in Malaysia as household domestics. In order to pay recruitment and processing fees, they either take large loans requiring repayment at extremely high interest rates or the first four or five months of their salary is deducted. Girls expecting to spend one month in pre-departure training facilities are often trapped in heavily guarded centers for three to six months without any income, or may be trafficked into forced labor, including forced domestic work or forced sex work.

In west and central Africa, girls as young as seven provide a cheap workforce to families needing assistance with house work or small commercial trades (Lindert, 1976). Child domestics

work under constant threat of punishment and physical abuse. Many escaped following an incident of unendurable abuse, after which they lived abandoned in the street. It was estimated that there are 14 million child domestic workers in Africa (HRP, 2005). In the city of Cotonou, Benin republic, it was estimated that one-half of the households have a domestic servant and that around 85% are young girls. In Lome, Togo, 1/3 of the households were estimated to have a house girl, most of them children (UNICEF, 2000). The case of Nigeria is once again particular. According to the Child Welfare League of Nigeria, with the presence of a child domestic servant in virtually every household, Nigeria could be seen to have the largest number of child domestic workers in the world. Majority of these children end up being physically, emotionally and if they are girls, sexually abused (Ego, 1998).

2.4.2 AGRICULTURAL CHILD LABOUR Of the 250 million child labourers world wide, the vast majority- 70 percent, or some 170 million-are working in agriculture (CSUCS, 2004). The work is physically demanding because children must bend, knee, climb ladders, carry heavy loads of fruits and other exhausting activities. Among these chores, child labourers may also weed and cultivate soil, fix irrigation canals, and apply dangerous pesticides. They also are exposed to dangerous tools and have to use unsafe machinery they dont know how to operate. As agriculture is predominantly a rural phenomenon, where children are found working in agricultural and family farms.. There are also 15 million bonded child labourers working in agricultural sector in india (HRP, 25).

In Egypt, it was examined that in the cotton industry, Egypt's major cash crop, there was over one million children working each year to manually remove pests from cotton plants. In Ecuador, 8

there were nearly 600,000 children working in banana fields and packing plants. In the United States, it was estimated that 300,000 children work as hired laborers in large-scale commercial agriculture, planting, weeding, and picking apples, cotton, cantaloupe, lettuce, asparagus, watermelons, chilies, and other crops (SCUCS, 2004) agricultural child labour are concentrated in the rural areas. in Nigeria most children engaged in

2.4.3 CHILD SOLDIERS Children were reported to engage in war and other communal conflicts in various part of the world. The children ranging from 8-18 years of age are forced to kill. They have handle very dangerous objects such as knives, pistols, rifles, grenades and whatever else the army is able to use. Out of the 300,000 child soldiers around the world, it is estimated that 120,000 of these are African children who have been forced and recruited to take part in wars and fighting in some African countries. Sudan, Sierra Leone, Uganda, Rwanda and Burundi, to name a few African countries, are all shamed by the tragedy of child soldiers (Ebigbo, 2000). Under the influence of drugs and alcohol, often they are the perpetrators of such brutality, some of the time against their own family members. In Nigeria, there is no evidence of under 18s in the armed forces. Children only participate in armed vigilante and youth groups and take role in religious and communal clashes (UNICEF, 2004). 2.4.4 CHILD TRAFFICKING Children are found to be trafficked to and from all regions of the world. For the transfer of children to be qualified as trafficking, there should be the conclusion of a transaction, the intervention of an intermediary and the motive to exploit. The UNICEF enlisted it among the hazardous forms of labour that was put to about 70% of the worlds 246 million10 child 9

labourers. According to another report, 50% of all trafficked victims world wide are children

(US Department of State, 2004).

Age varies significantly depending on the purpose of trafficking, with the average age been about 15 years for most developing countries. One report has shown that 90% of trafficked domestic workers in West and central Africa were girls (UNICEF, 2005). Some of them as young as 13 (mainly from Asia and Eastern Europe) are trafficked as mail order brides. In most cases these girls are powerless and isolated and are at great risk of violence. Nigeria is a source, transit and destination country for trafficked women and children (ANPPCAN, 2005). According to a BBC report, no one exactly knows the scale of child trafficking problem in the country (Borzello, 2004). A UNICEF report put an estimate of the total number of child labourers in Nigeria at 12 million (UNICEF, 1995 and ILO, 1950), with a whooping 200,000 trafficked within West Africa alone. Also based on a nation wide survey on child trafficking, approximately 19% of school children and 40% of street children have been trafficked for forced labour (US Department of State, 2004). Areas mostly affected are Imo (Owerri), Port Harcourt, Calabar, Lagos, Kano, Sokoto and Maiduguri. The age of the children varies especially among girls, but the average age is put at 15 years (Ebigbo). Patterns and routes of child trafficking show some regional variation in Nigeria.. A study also showed that over 70 % of the minors who worked as street prostitutes in Italy have been trafficked predominantly from Albania and Nigeria (US Department of State, 1999). According to another ILO statement, the incidence of child prostitution is also rising. Local NGOs estimate that more than 700 children of both sexes were recaptured on the Benin-Togo and Benin-Nigeria borders during 1997 (CATW, 1998) and returned to their families. Countries of destination differ some what between the northern and southern part of the country. While

10

Italy, Belgium, Netherlands and other Western countries have been identified as destination for most trafficked children from the south, children from the north are mainly trafficked to Saudi Arabia, Morocco and some other Middle Eastern countries. 2.4.5 BONDED CHILD LABOUR

Bonded child labour is child labor in which, a child below 18 years of age is working against debt taken by himself/herself or his/her family members without or with the child's consent, under conditions that restrain his/her freedom and development, making him/her vulnerable to physical and other forms of abuse and deprives him/her of his/her basic rights (Weiner, 1991; This is also called debt bondage) Bonded child labor is caused when a poor family needs money (for food, a sickness, etc.) to pay for something.

Apart from agriculture, which accounts for 64 percent of all labor in India (UNICEF, 1995), bonded child laborers form a significant part of the work force in a multitude of domestic and export industries. Approximately fifteen million children work as bonded laborers in India.

2.4.6 STREET CHILDREN

In contrast with child domestic workers, some children work in the most visible places possible on the streets of developing world cities and towns (UNICEF, 1996). They are everywhere: hawking in markets and darting in and out of traffic jams, plying their trade at bus and train stations, in front of hotels and shopping malls. .

11

A report from the state juvenile court stated that, on average, three street children are killed every day in Rio, many by police at the request of merchants who consider the begging, thieving and glue-sniffing a major nuisance (Ebigbo, 2003). Many have dropped out of school or never attended classes. On the streets, they shine shoes, wash and guard cars, carry luggage, hawk flowers and trinkets, collect recyclables and find a myriad other ingenious ways to make money. Unhealthy and unfair. Some are able to combine some schooling with their street work, but nevertheless many are exploited and cheated by adults and peers and must spend many hours earning their survival. In northern Nigeria where the Moslem religion is predominantly practiced and begging is allowed, young boys and girls lead handicapped adults about on the streets to beg. They receive a pittance for their services. Apart from this, because many parents believe that good parenting means that children should be brought up strictly and with religious training they send mostly male, but also some female children, to the Koranic scholars who are versed in teaching the Koran. Many of the Mallams do not have western education. Hawking by boys and girls is thus widespread and parents clearly recognize that the practice holds dangers for children. In the eastern and western parts of Nigeria children may attend morning or afternoon school and hawk goods out of school hours, though there are some children who trade on the streets the whole day. Their income helps their families or house-madams financially or pays for school fees. Although most Nigerian children return home at the end of the day, a growing number, including girls, subsist and exist on the streets (Oloko, 1989 and Ebigbo, 1985). The street child density study was undertaken in which fieldworkers were posted to the busy streets of Kaduna (in the North), Ibadan (in the West) and Enugu (in the East). Over a one-week

12

period, 414 children per street were counted in Enugu, 1959 per street in Kaduna, and 1931 per street in Ibadan. At the end of the study they found that there is a street density population of 44.4, 195.9 and 193.1 working children per hour per street in Enugu, Kaduna and Ibadan respectively (Ebigbo, 2003). There was a 1:1 male/female ratio in Enugu; there were 20 percent more girls than boys in Kaduna and there was a 1:2 male/female ratio in Ibadan. In Enugu more children were observed on the streets in the evening, indicating that more children attended school in the morning and traded in the evening to supplement family income. In Kaduna and Ibadan there was no marked contrast in the number of children working in the mornings and evenings. This seems to indicate that a large number of children do not go to school at all but are engaged all day in active trading (Ebigbo, 2003).

2.4.7 CHILD PROSTITUTION

Child prostitution is defined by the United Nations as "the sexual exploitation of a child for remuneration in cash or in kind, usually but not always organized by an intermediary (parent, family member, procurer, teacher, etc.)" (www. dol.gov). The sexual exploitation of children is considered to be one of the worst forms of child labor and a form of bonded labour.

While it is believed that those under 15 make up a small minority of child prostitutes, some observers note a trend towards greater demand for ever younger children in the sex industry, particularly in Asia but also in Latin America.

In Nigeria, commercial sex work is gradually becoming a profession solely for children where the average age for commercial sex work is 16 years. Many school leavers survive by prostitution and many street children turn to commercial sex as a means of income generation. 13

Child prostitution is more prevalent in the oil rich Niger Delta regions of Port Harcourt, Bonny and Akwa Ibom, as well as other big cities like Lagos (CSEC). Many School leavers survive either by selling drugs or by prostitution. There is a proliferation of both foreign and local pornographic materials which are easily accessible to children and which are in some cases targeted at young people.

2.5

CONCEQUENCES OF CHILD LABOUR

As it remains a wide spread problems especially in developing countries, child labour, has predominantly negative effects on health and development of the children involved and also on the socioeconomic picture of the country in short or long term. Certain forms of child labor, particularly those done outside of the households, have known effects on the well-being of child labourers. The impact of child labourers exposure to various forms of work-related abuse may encompass the physical, psychological and emotional dimensions, and ultimately undermining the childs welfare. The short-term effects of engaging in child labor, particularly the worst forms, are the ones more immediately experience by the child and the household. Evidently, the short-term positive impact of child labor is the increase in household income because of the added worker effect. However, the emphasis will be more on the negative consequences of child labour by taking into account schooling affects health effects and psycho-emotional effects on the child. Expectedly, these short-term effects resonate in the long term. And the emphasis will also be on the socio-economic long-run effects on the macro economy, which are consistent with the effect of child labor on the household level.

14

2.5.1 Short-run consequences The general short-run consequences are as follows: Schooling Effects There is universal agreement about the negative impact of child labour on the education of a child labourers. Child labour interferes with school attendance and school performance, and it increases the probability that the child becomes a school dropout. In the medium and long run, this leads to low education and skills and low capacity to earn, thus bringing about the mutual feedback between child labour and education in the medium and long runs. Evidence was provided65 to the aforementioned, revealing that school participation decreases with age of the child labourers. About 53 percent of the surveyed child laborers do not attend school. School participation among child laborers aged 5 to 12 was about 80 percent. This drops to 60 percent by age 13 and to 22 percent by age 17 (Alonzo, 2002). Health and Safety Effects. It violates childrens right and exposes them to health risks for they are prone to physical, emotional and sexual abuse. Increasing number of victims of most harmful child labour such as child trafficking exposes children to HIV/AIDS, STIs, and other infectious diseases As coping mechanisms, child prostitutes may also indulge in substance abuse, which may have insidious effects on their physical and mental states if left unchecked. A study by Pacis reports that child domestic workers experience physical abuse73many are being injured, beaten, or tormented, some even to death. Others were forces to drink poisonous fluids such as bleach and anti-clog liquids.

15

Psycho-emotional Effects The worst forms of child labor also expose children to psychological and emotional abuses and harm. This in itself is a crime against the childs rights, which should be prevented at all costs. From a psycho-social viewpoint, the reality of child labor essentially leads to the loss of the childs semblance of childhood. It was pointed out that64, socially, the children felt that they have less time for recreation, play and even to socialize with other people outside of their work. This lack of socialization at play may have both psychological and emotional effects on child labourers. These abuses started immediately after they were deployed to their work. He further said that many child domestic workers have stunted intellectual, emotional and physical development. Some have experience rape, molestation and other acts of sexual abuse. 2.5.2 Long-run consequences Child labor is basically the short-run coping mechanism of poor families during times of crises.. In the medium and long run, the practice of child labor provides a coping mechanism of the poor and disadvantaged in a community and society that is wanting in economic development and social protection. As it were, the negative consequences of child labor experienced in the household level, resonates on the aggregate level and in the long run. The costs of foregone education and the lack of skills acquisition and health, emotional and psychological damages will surely have an effect on current and future efficiency and productivity. Macroeconomic, endogenous growth theory argues that the contribution of human capital to economic development results in increasing returns to scale and positive externalities which are key to economic development and sustained growth (Lim, 2002). It was said (Anker, 2000) that

16

Child labor leads to reduction in human capital and reduction in skilled and educated labour, a reduction in healthy and productive labour, and a reduction in the quality of the labor force by reducing socialization and interpersonal skills. High incidence and prevalence of child labour, therefore leads to massive productivity and efficiency losses in the medium and long-term.

2.6 SOCIAL AND DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH CHILD LABOUR Engagement in economic activities at an early age and participation especially in hazardous and exploitative work could have a devastating effect on children's physical and mental development and might also cause irreversible damage leading to permanent disability . The exploitative nature of child labor was clearly shown by a study conducted in Colombia where domestic servants under 15 years of age were found to be working 50 hours a week on average (Forastieri, 2002). ILO surveys have shown that there are at least 180 million children aged 5 to 14 years engaged in fulltime work in the developing countries (ILO, 2002). Surveys conducted in Brazil, Colombia, Ghana, India, Indonesia, Senegal and Turkey have also shown that, on average, 25 % of children in that age group were engaged in some form of economic activity. That survey found that for one-third of them it was a principal activity and for the remaining two-third, it was a secondary activity (Forastieri, 2002). In Ethiopia, as in most developing countries, children are forced to engage in economic activities from an early age (CSA, 1994). Child labourers both in rural and urban areas carry out unpaid work at home or in family enterprises (CSA, 1999).

Studies conducted in Nigeria found out that, girls, primary school pupils and Moslem children were all significantly involved in child labour than their counterparts. The leading occupational activity was street trading. Three hundred and eighty seven girls were engaged in street trading 17

compared to 308 boys (45.7% versus 37.2 %,). No child was involved in bonded labour or prostitution.2 It was also found that Over 80% of the study children lived with one or both parents, 15.2% with other relatives and very few (0.3%) with unrelated guardians and also as many as 82.8% of working children were assigned economic tasks by one or both parents. Also 89.8% of the children performed these tasks in order to contribute to the family economy for feeding and for school fees.2 However the study also shows that child labour decreased with increasing parental education. This trend was clearer with respect to maternal education. child labour rates also increased with decreasing parental socio-economic status (Syed, 1991).

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