‫بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم‬

Explanation of Abstract Algebra for

Non-Mathematicians
In mathematics, groups are used in order to abstract away from
calculating with concrete numbers (that is, in order to work with
symbols instead of numbers). Correspondingly, a group consists of
a set of abstract objects or symbols and of an "instruction for
calculations" (an operation) that indicates how these objects are to
be manipulated.
More precisely:

One speaks of a group whenever the following requirements are

fulfilled of a set together with an operation that always combines
two elements of this set, for example, a x b: In mathematics, a
binary operation is a calculation involving two input quantities, in
other words, an operation whose arity is two. ...
1. The combination of two elements of the set yields an
element of the same set (|Closure)
2. The bracketing is unimportant (Associativity): a × (b × c) = (a
× b) × c
3. There is an element that does not cause anything to happen
(Identity Element): a × 1 = 1 × a = a
4. Each element a has a "mirror image" (Inverse element) 1/a
that has the property to yield the identity element when
combined with a:
a × 1/a = 1/a × a = 1 In mathematics, the closure C(X) of an object
X is defined to be the smallest object that both includes X as a
subset and possesses some given property. ... In mathematics,
associative is a property that a binary operation can have. ... In
mathematics, an identity element (or neutral element) is a special
type of element of a set with respect to a binary operation on that
set. ... In mathematics, the inverse of an element x, with respect to
an operation *, is an element x such that their compose gives a
neutral element. ...

Special case:

1
If, in addition, one is also allowed to change the operands, that is if
a × b = b × a holds (Commutative), then we speak of an Abelian
(or commutative) group. In mathematics, an abelian group, also
called a commutative group, is a group (G, * ) such that a * b = b *
a for all a and b in G. In other words, the order in which the binary
operation is performed doesn't matter. ...

Examples of groups
(all of these are also Abelian groups):
• the integers with the addition operation "+" as binary
operation 1
• the rational numbers without zero with multiplication "x" as
binary operation and the number one as identity element. Zero
has to be excluded because it does not have an inverse
element. ("1/0" is undefined.)

The definition of groups is very general. This allows to regard as

groups not only sets of numbers with corresponding operations but
also other abstract objects and symbols that fulfill the required
properties, for example, polygons with their rotations and
reflections. (See also: dihedral group) The integers consist of the
positive natural numbers (1, 2, 3, …) the negative natural
numbers (−1, −2, −3, ...) and the number
zero. ...
In mathematics, a rational number (or informally fraction) is a ratio
of two integers, usually written as the vulgar fraction a/b, where b
is not zero. ... Look up polygon in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...
This article may be confusing for some readers, and should be
edited to enhance clarity. ...

*********

Definition
A group (G, *) is a set G with a binary operation * that satisfies the
following four axioms: In mathematics, a set can be thought of as
any collection of distinct objects considered as a whole. ... For the
algebra software named Axiom, see Axiom computer algebra
system. ...

2
 Closure: For all a, b in G, the result of a * b is also in G.
Associatively: For all a, b and c in G, (a * b) * c = a * (b * c).
Identity element: There exists an element e in G such that for
all a in G, e * a = a * e = a.
Inverse element: For each a in G, there exists an element b
in G such that a * b = b * a = e, where e is an identity
element.

Some texts omit the explicit requirement of closure, since the

closure of the group follows from the definition of a binary
operation. In mathematics, the closure C(X) of an object X is
defined to be the smallest object that both includes X as a subset
and possesses some given property. ...

Using the identity element property, it can be shown that a group

has exactly one identity element. See the proof below. This picture
illustrates how the hours on a clock form a group under modular
addition. ...

The inverse of an element can also be shown to be unique, and

the left- and right-inverses of an element are the same. Some
definitions are thus slightly more narrow, substituting the second
and third axioms with the concept of a "left (or right) identity
element" and a "left (or right) inverse element."
A group (G, *) is often denoted simply G where there is no
ambiguity in what the operation is.
*******
Basic concepts in group theory
Order of groups and elements

The order of a group G, usually denoted by |G| or occasionally by

o(G), is the number of elements in the set G. If the order is not
finite, then the group is an infinite group, denoted |G| = ∞.
The order of an element a in a group G is the least positive
integer n such that an = e, where an is multiplication of a by itself n
times (or other suitable composition depending on the group
operator). If no such n exists, then the order of a is said to be
infinity.

Subgroups

3
A set H is a subgroup of a group G if it is a subset of G and a
group using the operation defined on G. In other words, H is a
subgroup of (G, *) if the restriction of * to H is a group operation on
H. In group theory, given a group G under a binary operation *, we
say that some subset H of G is a subgroup of G if H also forms a
group under the operation *. More precisely, H is a subgroup of G
if the restriction of * to H is a group... redirects here. ...

If G is a finite group, then so is H. Further, the order of H divides

the order of G (Lagrange's Theorem). Lagrange's theorem, in the
mathematics of group theory, states that if G is a finite group and
H is a subgroup of G, then the order (that is, the number of
elements) of H divides the order of G. It is named after Joseph
Lagrange. ...

Abelian groups
A group G is said to be an Abelian (or commutative) group if the
operation is commutative, that is, for all a, b in G, a * b = b * a. A
non-Abelian group is a group that is not Abelian. The term
"Abelian" is named after the mathematician Niels Abel. In
mathematics, an Abelian group, also called a commutative group,
is a group (G, * ) such that a * b = b * a for all a and b in G. In other
words, the order in which the binary operation is performed doesn't
matter. ... Niels Henrik Abel (August 5, 1802–April 6, 1829),
Norwegian mathematician, was born in Finnøy. ...

Cyclic groups
A cyclic group is a group whose elements may be generated by
successive composition of the operation defining the group being
applied to a single element of that group. This single element is
called the generator or primitive element of the group. In abstract
algebra, a generating set of a group is a subset S such that every
element of G can be expressed as the product of finitely many
elements of S and their inverses. ... In mathematics, a composite
function, formed by the composition of one function on another,
represents the application of the former to the result of the
application of the latter to the argument of the composite. ...
A multiplicative cyclic group in which G is the group, and a is the
generator:

4
An additive cyclic group, with generator a:

If successive composition of the operation defining the group is

applied to a non-primitive element of the group, a cyclic subgroup
is generated. The order of the cyclic subgroup divides the order of
the group. Thus, if the order of a group is prime, all of its elements,
except the identity, are primitive elements of the group. In abstract
algebra, a generating set of a group is a subset S such that every
element of G can be expressed as the product of finitely many
elements of S and their inverses. ... In mathematics, a prime
number (or a prime) is a natural number which has exactly two
distinct natural number divisors: 1 and itself. ... In mathematics, an
identity element (or neutral element) is a special type of element of
a set with respect to a binary operation on that set. ...

It is important to note that a group contains all of the cyclic

subgroups generated by each of the elements in the group.
However, a group constructed from cyclic subgroups is itself not
necessarily a cyclic group. For example, a Klein group is not a
cyclic group even though it is constructed from two copies of the
cyclic group of order 2. In mathematics, given a group G under a
binary operation *, we say that some subset H of G is a subgroup
of G if H also forms a group under the operation *. More precisely,
H is a subgroup of G if the restriction of * to H is a group
operation... This article is about the mathematical group. ...
Notation for groups
Groups can use different notation depending on the context and
the group operation.
• Additive groups use + to denote addition, and the minus sign
- to denote inverses. For example, a + (-a) = 0 in Z.
• Multiplicative groups use *, , or the more general
'composition' symbol to denote multiplication, and the
superscript -1 to denote inverses. For example, a*a-1 = 1. It is
very common to drop the * and just write aa-1 instead.

5
 • Function groups use • to denote function composition, and
the superscript -1 to denote inverses. For example, g • g-1 = e. It
is very common to drop the • and just write gg-1 instead.
Omitting a symbol for an operation is generally acceptable, and
leaves it to the reader to know the context and the group
operation.

When defining groups, it is standard notation to use parentheses in

defining the group and its operation. For example, (H, +) denotes
that the set H is a group under addition. For groups like (Zn, +) and
(Fn*, *), it is common to drop the parentheses and the operation,
e.g. Zn and Fn*. It is also correct to refer to a group by its set
identifier, e.g. H or , or to define the group in set-builder notation.
This article does not cite any references or sources. ... In set
theory and its applications to logic, mathematics, and computer
science, set-builder notation is a mathematical notation for
describing a set by indicating the properties that its members must
satisfy. ...

The identity element e is sometimes known as the "neutral

element," and is sometimes denoted by some other symbol,
depending on the group:
• In multiplicative groups, the identity element can be denoted
by 1.
• In invertible matrix groups, the identity element is usually
denoted by I.
• In additive groups, the identity element may be denoted by 0.
• In function groups, the identity element is usually denoted by
f0.
If S is a subset of G and x an element of G, then, in multiplicative
notation, xS is the set of all products {xs : s in S}; similarly the
notation Sx = {sx : s in S}; and for two subsets S and T of G, we
write ST for {st : s in S, t in T}. In additive notation, we write x + S,
S + x, and S + T for the respective sets (see cosets). In
mathematics, if G is a group, H a subgroup of G, and g an element
of G, then gH = { gh : h an element of H } is a left coset of H in G,
and Hg = { hg : h an element of H } is a right coset of H in G...

********
Examples of groups

6
 Examples of groups and List of small groups
Some elementary examples of groups in mathematics are given on
Group (mathematics). ... The following list in mathematics contains
the finite groups of small order up to group isomorphism. ...

An Abelian group: the integers under addition

A familiar group is the group of integers under addition. Let Z be
the set of integers, {..., −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ...}, and let the
symbol "+" indicate the operation of addition. Then (Z,+) is a
group. The integers are commonly denoted by the above
symbol. ... 3 + 2 = 5 with apples, a popular choice in textbooks[1]
This article is about addition in mathematics. ...

Proof:
• Closure: If a and b are integers then a + b is an integer.
• Associativity: If a, b, and c are integers, then (a + b) + c = a
+ (b + c).
• Identity element: 0 is an integer and for any integer a, 0 + a
= a + 0 = a.
• Inverse elements: If a is an integer, then the integer −a
satisfies the inverse rules: a + (−a) = (−a) + a = 0.
This group is also Abelian because a + b = b + a.

If we extend this example further by considering the integers with

both addition and multiplication, which forms a more complicated
algebraic structure called a ring. (But, note that the integers with
multiplications are not a group) In ring theory, a branch of abstract
algebra, a ring is an algebraic structure in which addition and
multiplication are defined and have similar properties to those
familiar from the integers. ...

An Abelian group: the nonzero integers under

multiplication modulo P a prime
The nonzero integers under multiplication modulo p a prime form a
group. The only non trivial group property to prove is that each
element has an inverse. Let a be a nonzero integer not equal to
one. Any nonzero integer that p divides equals zero under
multiplication mod p. a*a cannot equal a or p will divide a. If a*a
equals one, we have found the inverse and we are done. If a*a

7
does not equal one, then a*a*a cannot equal a or a*a or again p
will divide a. Continuing in this manner we can construct a*a*a...a
up to p-2 times. If we have reached this far, a*a*a...a p-1 times will
equal one as there are no more numbers that a*a*a..*a p-1 times
can equal.

Cyclic multiplicative groups

In the case of a cyclic multiplicative group G, all of the elements an
of the group are generated by the set of all integer exponentiations
of a primitive element of that group: In mathematics, multiplicative
group in group theory may mean any group G written in
multiplicative notation (rather than additive notation for an abelian
group) for its binary operation or in particular the multiplicative
group of a field F, namely F{0} under multiplication, written F* or
redirects here. ...

In this example if a is 2 and the operation is the mathematical

multiplication operator, then G = {..,2 − 2,2 − 1,20,21,22,23,..} =
{..,0.25,0.5,1,2,4,8,..}. The modulo m may bind the group into a
finite set with a non-fractional set of elements, since the inverse
(and x − 2 , etc.) would be within the set. Modular arithmetic
(sometimes called modulo arithmetic, or clock arithmetic because
of its use in the 24-hour clock system) is a system of arithmetic for
integers, where numbers wrap around after they reach a certain
value — the modulus. ... In mathematics, a set is called finite if
there is a bi-jection between the set and some set of the form {1, 2,
..., n} where is a natural number. ...

Not a group: the integers under multiplication

On the other hand, if we consider the integers with the operation of
multiplication, denoted by "·", then (Z,·) is not a group. It satisfies
most of the axioms, but fails to have inverses: In mathematics,
multiplication is an elementary arithmetic operation. ...
• Closure: If a and b are integers then a · b is an integer.
• Associativity: If a, b, and c are integers, then (a · b) · c = a ·
(b · c).
• Identity element: 1 is an integer and for any integer a, 1 · a
= a · 1 = a.

8
 • However, it is not true that whenever a is an integer, there is
an integer b such that ab = ba = 1. For example, a = 2 is an
integer, but the only solution to the equation ab = 1 in this case
is b = 1/2. We cannot choose b = 1/2 because 1/2 is not an
integer. (Inverse element fails)
Since not every element of (Z,·) has an inverse, (Z,·) is not a
group. It is, however, a commutative monoid, which is a similar
structure to a group but does not require inverse elements. In
abstract algebra, a branch of mathematics, a monoid is an
algebraic structure with a single, associative binary operation and
an identity element. ...

An Abelian group: the nonzero rational numbers

under multiplication
Consider the set of rational numbers Q, the set of all fractions of
integers a/b, where a and b are integers and b is nonzero, and the
operation multiplication, denoted by "·". Since the rational number
0 does not have a multiplicative inverse, (Q,·), like (Z,·), is not a
group. In mathematics, a rational number is a number which can
be expressed as a ratio of two integers. ... For other senses of this
word, see zero or 0. ...

However, if we instead use the set of all nonzero rational numbers

Q {0}, then (Q {0},·) does form an abelian group.
• Closure, Associativity, and Identity element axioms are
easy to check and follow because of the properties of integers.
• Inverse elements: The inverse of a/b is b/a and it satisfies
the axiom.
We don't lose closure by removing zero, because the product of
two nonzero rationales is never zero. Just as the integers form a
ring, the rational numbers form the algebraic structure of a field,
allowing the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division. In mathematics, a ring is an algebraic structure in which
addition and multiplication are defined and have properties listed
below. ... In abstract algebra, a field is an algebraic structure in
which the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division (except division by zero) may be performed, and the same
rules hold which are familiar from the arithmetic of ordinary
numbers. ...

A finite non-Abelian group: permutations of a set

9
 This example is taken from the larger article on the Dihedral
group of order 6
For a more concrete example of a group, consider three colored
blocks (red, green, and blue), initially placed in the order RGB. Let
a be the action "swap the first block and the second block", and let
b be the action "swap the second block and the third block".

Cycle diagram for S3. A loop specifies a series of powers of any

element connected to the identity element (1). For example, the e-
ba-ab loop reflects the fact that (ba)2=ab and (ba)3=e, as well as
the fact that (ab)2=ba and (ab)3=e The other "loops" are roots of
unity so that, for example a2=e.
In multiplicative form, we traditionally write xy for the combined
action "first do y, then do x"; so that ab is the action RGB → RBG
→ BRG, i.e., "take the last block and move it to the front". If we
write e for "leave the blocks as they are" (the identity action), then
we can write the six permutations of the set of three blocks as the
following actions: Image File history File links This is a lossless
scalable vector image. ... Image File history File links This is a
lossless scalable vector image. ... In group theory, a sub-field of
abstract algebra, a group cycle graph illustrates the various cycles
of a group and is particularly useful in visualizing the structure of
small finite groups. ... Permutation is the rearrangement of objects
or symbols into distinguishable sequences. ... In mathematics, a
set can be thought of as any collection of distinct objects
considered as a whole. ...
• e : RGB → RGB
• a : RGB → GRB
• b : RGB → RBG
• ab : RGB → BRG
• ba : RGB → GBR
• aba : RGB → BGR
Note that the action aa has the effect RGB → GRB → RGB,
leaving the blocks as they were; so we can write aa = e. Similarly,

10
 bb = e,
•
• (aba)(aba) = e, and
• (ab)(ba) = (ba)(ab) = e;
so each of the above actions has an inverse.

By inspection, we can also determine associativity and closure;

note for example that
• (ab)a = a(ba) = aba, and
• (ba)b = b(ab) = bab.
This group is called the symmetric group on 3 letters, or S3. It has
order 6 (or 3 factorial), and is non-Abelian (since, for example, ab
≠ ba). Since S3 is built up from the basic actions a and b, we say
that the set {a,b} generates it. In mathematics, the symmetric
group on a set X, denoted by SX or Sym(X), is the group whose
underlying set is the set of all bi-jective functions from X to X, in
which the group operation is that of composition of functions, i. ...
For factorial rings in mathematics, see unique factorization
domain. ...

More generally, we can define a symmetric group from all the

permutations of N objects. This group is denoted by SN and has
order N factorial.

One of the reasons that permutation groups are important is that

every finite group can be expressed as a subgroup of a symmetric
group SN; this result is Cayley's theorem.
**********
Simple theorems
• A group has exactly one identity element.
Proof: Suppose both e and f are identity elements. Then, by
the definition of identity, fe = ef = e and also ef = fe = f. But
then e = f.
Therefore the identity element is unique.
• Every element has exactly one inverse.

Proof :-

11
 Suppose both b and c are inverses of x. Then, by the
definition of an inverse, xb = bx = e and xc = cx = e. But
then:
xb = e = xc
xb = xc
(multiplying on the left by
bxb = bxc
b)
eb = ec (using bx = e)
b=c (neutral element axiom)
Therefore the inverse is unique.
The first two properties actually follow from associative binary
operations defined on a set. Given a binary operation on a set,
there is at most one identity and at most one inverse for any
element. In predicate logic and technical fields that depend on it,
uniqueness quantification, or unique existential quantification, is an
attempt to formalize the notion of something being true for exactly
one thing, or exactly one thing of a certain type. ...
• You can perform division in groups; that is, given elements a
and b of the group G, there is exactly one solution x in G to the
equation x * a = b and exactly one solution y in G to the
equation a * y = b.
• The expression "a1 * a2 * ··· * an" is unambiguous, because
the result will be the same no matter where we place
parentheses.
• (Socks and shoes) The inverse of a product is the product of
the inverses in the opposite order: (a * b)−1 = b−1 * a−1.
Proof: We will demonstrate that (ab)(b-1a-1) = (b-1a-1)(ab) = e,
as required by the definition of an inverse.
(ab)(b − 1a − 1) = a(bb − 1)a − 1 (associativity)
= aea − 1 (definition of inverse)
−1
= aa (definition of neutral element)
=e (definition of inverse)
And similarly for the other direction.
These and other basic facts that hold for all individual groups form
the field of elementary group theory. In mathematics, especially in
elementary arithmetic, division is an arithmetic operation which is
the inverse of multiplication. ... An equation is a mathematical
statement, in symbols, that two things are the same (or
equivalent). ... In mathematics, a group (G,*) is usually defined as:
G is a set and * is an associative binary operation on G, obeying
the following rules (or axioms): A1. ...

12
Constructing new groups from given ones
Some possible ways to construct new groups from a set of given
groups:
• Subgroups: A subgroup H of a group G is a group.
• Quotient group: Given a group G and a normal subgroup N,
the quotient group is the set of cosets of G/N together with the
operation (gN)(hN)=ghN.
• Direct product: If (G,*) and (H,•) are groups, then the set
G×H together with the operation (g1,h1)(g2,h2) = (g1*g2,h1•h2) is a
group. The direct product can also be defined with any number
of terms, finite or infinite, by using the Cartesian product and
defining the operation coordinate-wise.
• Semi direct product: If N and H are groups and φ : H →
Aut(N) is a group homomorphism, then the semi direct product
of N and H with respect to φ is the group (N × H, *), with *
defined as
(n1, h1) * (n2, h2) = (n1 φ(h1) (n2), h1 h2)
• Direct external sum: The direct external sum of a family of
groups is the subgroup of the product constituted by elements
that have a finite number of non-identity coordinates. If the
family is finite the direct sum and the product are equivalent.
In group theory, given a group G under a binary operation *, we
say that some subset H of G is a subgroup of G if H also forms a
group under the operation *. More precisely, H is a subgroup of G
if the restriction of * to H is a group... In mathematics, given a
group G and a normal subgroup N of G, the quotient group, or
factor group, of G over N is intuitively a group that collapses the
normal subgroup N to the identity element. ... In mathematics, a
normal subgroup N of a group G is a subgroup invariant under
conjugation; that is, for each element n in N and each g in G, the
element g−1ng is still in N. The statement N is a normal subgroup
of G is written: . There are... In mathematics, if G is a group, H a
subgroup of G, and g an element of G, then gH = { gh : h an
element of H } is a left coset of H in G, and Hg = { hg : h an
element of H } is a right coset of H in G... In mathematics, one can
often define a direct product of objects already known, giving a
new one. ... In mathematics, the Cartesian product is a direct
product of sets. ... In group theory, a semidirect product describes
a particular way in which a group can be put together from two
subgroups, one of which is normal. ... Given two groups (G, *) and
(H, ·), a group homomorphism from (G, *) to (H, ·) is a function h :

13
G -> H such that for all u and v in G it holds that h(u * v) = h(u) ·
h(v) From this property, one can deduce that h maps the identity
element... In group theory, a group G is called the direct sum of a
set of subgroups {Hi} if each Hi is a normal subgroup of G each
distinct pair of subgroups has trivial intersection, and G = <{Hi}>; in
other words, G is generated by the subgroups {Hi}. If G is...
Proving that a set is a group
There are two main methods in proving that a set is a group:
• Prove that the set is a subgroup of a group;
• Prove that the set is a group using the definition.
The first method is generally referred to as the "subgroup test" and
requires that you prove the following if trying to prove that H is a
subgroup: In group theory, given a group G under a binary
operation *, we say that some subset H of G is a subgroup of G if
H also forms a group under the operation *. More precisely, H is a
subgroup of G if the restriction of * to H is a group... In Abstract
Algebra, the one-step subgroup test is a theorem that states that
for any group, a subset of that group is itself a group if the inverse
of any element in the subset multiplied with any other element in
the subset is also in the subset. ...
• The set H is a non-empty subset of G (i.e. has the identity
element inside)
-
• H is closed under the same operation as G. (ab is in H and a
1
is in H for all a,b in H)
The second method requires that you prove all the axioms and
assumptions in the definition for a set G: The empty set is the set
containing no elements. ...
• G is non-empty;
• G is closed under the binary operation;
• G is associative;
• e is in G (usually follows from non-emptiness);
• G consists of units.
For finite groups, one only needs to prove that a subset is non-
empty and is closed under the ambient group's operation. The
word unit means any of several things: One, the first natural
number. ... In mathematics, a set is called finite if and only if there
is a bi-jection between the set and some set of the form {1, 2, ..., n}
where is a natural number. ...

Generalizations

14
In abstract algebra, we get some related structures which are
similar to groups by relaxing some of the axioms given at the top of
the article. Abstract algebra is the field of mathematics that studies
algebraic structures, such as groups, rings, fields, modules, vector
spaces, and algebras. ...
• If we eliminate the requirement that every element have an
inverse, then we get a monoid.
• If we additionally do not require an identity either, then we
get a semi group.
• Alternatively, if we relax the requirement that the operation
be associative while still requiring the possibility of division, then
we get a loop.
• If we additionally do not require an identity, then we get a
quasi-group.
• If we don't require any axioms of the binary operation at all,
then we get a magma.
Groupoids, which are similar to groups except that the composition
a * b need not be defined for all a and b, arise in the study of more
involved kinds of symmetries, often in topological and analytical
structures. They are special sorts of categories. In abstract
algebra, a branch of mathematics, a monoid is an algebraic
structure with a single, associative binary operation and an identity
element. ... In mathematics, a semi group is an algebraic structure
consisting of a set S closed under an associative binary
operation. ... In mathematics, associativity is a property that a
binary operation can have. ... In mathematics, especially in
elementary arithmetic, division is an arithmetic operation which is
the inverse of multiplication. ... In abstract algebra, a quasi-group
is a algebraic structure resembling a group in the sense that
division is always possible. ... In abstract algebra, a quasi-group is
a algebraic structure resembling a group in the sense that division
is always possible. ... In abstract algebra, a magma (also called a
groupoid) is a particularly basic kind of algebraic structure. ... In
mathematics, especially in category theory and homotopy theory, a
groupoid is a concept (first developed by Heinrich Brandt in 1926)
that simultaneously generalizes groups, equivalence relations on
sets, and actions of groups on sets. ... In mathematics, category
theory deals in an abstract way with mathematical structures and
relationships between them. ...

Super groups and Hopf algebras are other generalizations. The

concept of super group is a generalization of a that of group. ... In

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mathematics, a Hopf algebra, named after Heinz Hopf, is a bi-
algebra H over a field K together with a K-linear map such that the
following diagram commutes Here Δ is the co-multiplication of the
bi-algebra, ∇ its multiplication, η its unit and ε its co-unit. ...

Lie groups, algebraic groups and topological groups are examples

of group objects: group-like structures sitting in a category other
than the ordinary category of sets. In mathematics, a Lie group,
named after Norwegian mathematician Sophus Lie (IPA
pronunciation: , sounds like Lee), is a group which is also a
differentiable manifold, with the property that the group operations
are compatible with the smooth structure. ... In algebraic geometry,
an algebraic group is a group that is an algebraic variety, such that
the multiplication and inverse are given by regular functions on the
variety. ... In mathematics, a topological group G is a group that is
also a topological space such that the group multiplication G × G
→ G and the inverse operation G → G are continuous maps. ...
In mathematics, group objects are certain generalizations of
groups which are built on more complicated structures than
sets. ... In mathematics, category theory deals in an abstract way
with mathematical structures and relationships between them. ...

Abelian groups form the prototype for the concept of an abelian

category, which has applications to vector spaces and beyond. In
mathematics, an abelian category is a category in which
morphisms and objects can be added and in which kernels and co-
kernels exist and have nice properties. ... In mathematics, a vector
space (or linear space) is a collection of objects (called vectors)
that, informally speaking, may be scaled and added. ...

Formal group laws are certain formal power series which have
properties much like a group operation. In mathematics, a formal
group law is (roughly speaking) the formal power series analogue
of a Lie group. ... In mathematics, formal power series are devices
that make it possible to employ much of the analytical machinery
of power series in settings that do not have natural notions of
convergence. They are also useful to compactly describe
sequences and to find closed formulas for recursively defined
sequences; this is...

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prepared by / Ahmed Hyder Ahmed – faculty
of science

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