EDUCATION IN BRITAIN

The British educational system has three levels: schools, further education (postschool) and higher education (universities). Schools are divided into state (maintained from public funds) and independent (privately financed) sectors, and there is no common organisation for the whole country. This course is concerned with the educational system in ngland and !ales, while Scotland and "orthern #reland have different school systems. $owever, further and higher education generally has much the same structure throughout Britain and is mostly funded by the state. The state education system State education is free (e%cept for some specialist tuition areas such as music) and compulsory for children between the ages of & and '(. Some )* per cent of children in ngland and !ales are educated in the state primary and secondary sectors. The +ocal ducation ,uthority (+ ,) provides education in Britain in each county. #t is financed partly by the government and partly by local ta%es. -ntil ').., planning and organisation were not controlled by central government. ach + , was free to decide how to organise education in its own area. #n September ').., however, the "ational /urriculum was introduced, which means that there is now greater governmental control over what is taught in schools.

Nursery (2-5) Primary (5-11) Infants (5-7); juniors (7-11) Secondary (11-16/18)

rammar

!om"re#ensi$e

Secondary modern

Nursery education (under & years): /hildren do not have to go to school until they reach the age of five, but there is some free nursery-school education before that age. $owever, + ,s do not have nursery-school places for all those who would li0e them and these places are usually given to families in special circumstances, for e%ample families with one parent only. Because of the small number of nursery schools, parents in many areas have formed play groups where children under & years can go for a morning or afternoon a couple of times a wee0. Primary education (& to '' years): 1rimary education ta0es place in infant schools (pupils aged & to 2 years) and 3unior schools (from . to '' years). Some + ,s have a different system, in which middle schools replace 3unior schools and ta0e pupils aged from ) to '' years. Private education (& to '. years): The independent school sector is separate from the state school system and caters for some 2.( per cent of all British children, from the ages of &-'. at various levels of education in some 4,566 schools. #ts financing depends upon investments and from the fees paid by the pupils7 parents, and can amount to several thousand pounds a term. Some parents choose to pay for private education in spite of the e%istence of free state education. 1rivate schools are called by different names to state schools: the preparatory (often called 8prep9) schools are for pupils aged up to '*, and the public schools are for '* to '. year-olds. These schools are very e%pensive and they are attended by about & per cent of the population. Some 4&6 public schools, such as ton, $arrow, and !inchester are the most famous of the independent schools. ton /ollege is probably the most famous public (i.e. private) school in the world. The boys are wearing specific school uniforms and, traditionally, members of the royal family have been attending this school for centuries. The independent sector is criticised for being elitist, socially divisive, and based on the ability to pay for education. #n this view, it perpetuates the class system.
British /ivili:ation Conf. dr. Monica Matei-Chesnoiu '

Pre-"re"aratory (%-8)

Pre"aratory (8-1&)

Pu'(ic sc#oo(s (1&-18)

)t#er inde"endent sc#oo(s (11/1&-18)

econdary education ('' to '(;'. years): Since the ')55 ducation ,ct of 1arliament, free secondary education has been available to all children in Britain. /hildren must go to school until the age of '(, and pupils may stay on for one or two years if they wish. Secondary schools are usually much larger than primary schools and most children < over .6 per cent < go to a comprehensive school at the age of ''. These schools are not selective, which means that students do not have to pass an e%am to go there. #n ')(&, the +abour =overnment introduced the policy of comprehensive education. Before that time, all children too0 an e%am at the age of '', called the 8''>.9 ,ppro%imately the top 46 per cent were chosen to go to the academic grammar schools. Those who failed the ''> (.6 per cent) went to secondary modern schools. , lot of people thought that this system of selection at the age of '' was unfair on many children. Therefore, comprehensive schools were introduced to offer suitable courses for pupils of all abilities. Some + ,s started to change over to comprehensive education immediately, but some were harder to convince and slower to act. , few + ,s still 0eep the old system of grammar schools, but most + ,s have now changed over completely to non-selective education in comprehensive schools. Comprehensive schools: /omprehensive schools want to develop the talents of each individual child. Therefore, they offer a wide choice of sub3ects, from art and craft, woodwor0 and domestic science to the sciences, modern languages, computer studies, etc. /lasses are mi%ed (both girls and boys) and pupils are often put into 8sets9 for the more academic sub3ects, such as mathematics or languages. Sets are formed according to ability in each sub3ect, so that for e%ample the children in the highest set for maths will not necessarily be in the highest set for ?rench. ,ll pupils move to the ne%t class automatically at the end of the year. , typical day at school starts at .:56 a.m., with the first of the many bells ringing throughout the building. 1upils must then go to registration, which lasts until ) o7cloc0. ,fter registration, lessons begin. Si%th form pupils, for e%ample, must attend the sub3ect lessons that they choose, either at @A7 level or @,7 level standard. ?or instance, during the nglish lesson students usually read a set @,7 level te%tboo0, and then comment and discuss the language and style. ,fter this, students have two free study-periods. Students may study privately in these periods. ,fter two free periods, in the above e%ample, si%th-grade students have three lessons of =eography, one before morning brea0 and two afterwards. Buring brea0, pupils buy drin0s, sweets, and crisps from the school tuc0-shop. These brea0s are called @elevenses,7 because they usually occur at eleven. ?or lunch, pupils bring sandwiches, but hot and cold meals are available in the school canteen. +essons recommence at two o7cloc0. Cost +ower Si%th pupils have social education on a !ednesday afternoon, which is held in the library, and ta0en by the head master. This lesson starts until *:'& < the end of the school day. The pupils in comprehensive (secondary) schools in Britain have to wear a school uniform. This usually means a white blouse for girls (perhaps with a tie), with a dar0-coloured s0irt and a matching pullover. The colours may be grey, brown, navy-blue, dar0-green or similar. Boys wear a shirt and tie, dar0 trousers and dar0-coloured pullovers. 1upils of both se%es wear bla:ers < a 0ind of 3ac0et < with the school badge on the poc0et. They often have to wear some 0ind of hat on the way to and from school < caps for the boys, and berets or some other 0ind of hat for the girls. Shoes are usually blac0 or brown and should be sensible < no high heels. Doung people in Britain often do not li0e their school uniform, especially the hats and shoes. Sometimes they do not wear the right clothes. Schools will often give them a warning the first time that this happens, but will then punish them if they continue not to wear the correct uniform.
British /ivili:ation Conf. dr. Monica Matei-Chesnoiu 4

Improvin! Education" Ine#uality and election in Education in Britain ducational Eualifications are a principal determinant of 3ob opportunities. mployers use e%amination results as a way of screening applicants, usually prescribing a minimum level of Eualification for any position. The type of school attended can be an important factor in the employers7 decision and it affects the acEuisition of certificates important in determining long-term life chances. Schools are thus a vital lin0 in the allocation of individuals to places in the wor0force. Sociologists have pointed out that levels of achievement are systematically related to the social characteristics of the pupil. ' There are differences in Eualifications related to ethnic origin, gender, and class. #ndians are, on average, better Eualified than whites, though this is partly a conseEuence of their being younger: younger generations have higher levels of Eualification because educational provision has e%panded rapidly in the recent past. /lass origins are also important: the children of white-collar wor0ers are much better Eualified than their peers from manual bac0grounds. thnicity and gender interact with class in the determination of educational attainment. ,ccording to sociologist +inda CcBowell, writing on ineEuality in education in Britain, 8Social class has continued to be associated with the length of education and level of achievement. The class bac0ground of university students, for e%ample, has changed little in the post-war period, although the number of students has increased.94 Similarly, Fobbins, Brennan and Sutton indicate, citing numerous research reports, that 8there is a close lin0 between social class and education. =enerally it can be said that the educational system wor0s to the advantage of middle-class children and, despite many reforms, to the disadvantage of wor0ingclass children.9* Fesearch shows that &..G of the male population went to private primary schools, and (.& G to private secondary schools. $owever, there are great differences between the social classes in the numbers who were privately educated. ,ppro%imately a third of class # (professional) males had a private education. #n contrast, only one third of one per cent of /lass H## (uns0illed manual) had a private primary education and 3ust over one per cent had a private secondary education. ,t university level, many of the changes towards a @mar0et7 university system made after the ').6s have resulted in challenging the conventional definition of academic freedom. #nstitutions are no longer completely free to choose what they teach and success is increasingly measured by economic criteria. This increases pressure to concentrate on particular sub3ects at the e%pense of @less relevant7 areas. #n many cases, colleges and local authorities have started courses and recruited staff only to find government funding withdrawn before alternative sources could be identified. This tendency of integrating ,nglo-,merican university studies into a pattern suitable to the mar0et economy has been visible since the last two decades of the twentieth century and is another source of ineEuality in higher education. Anly those who can afford it can attend undergraduate or postgraduate courses in Britain, because the system of student loans and scholarships is drastically reduced, especially for international students. Educational re$orm #n the late ').6, the /onservative =overnment made important changes to the British educational system. Ane of the most fundamental changes was the introduction of a new National Curriculum. The aim was to provide a more balanced education. #n secondary schools, for e%ample, .6G of the timetable must be spent on the @core curriculum.7 This must include nglish, Cathematics, Science and a Codern +anguage for all pupils up to the age of '(. ,t the same time, the new curriculum places greater emphasis on the more practical aspects of education. S0ills are being taught which students will need for life and wor0, and @wor0 e%perience7 < when pupils who are soon going to leave school spend some time in a business or industry < has become a standard part of the school programme. Together with the "ational /urriculum, a programme of Fecords of ,chievement was introduced. This programme is 0nown as F ,/$, and it attempts to set learning ob3ectives for each term and year in primary school, and for each component of each sub3ect at secondary school. This has introduced much more central control and standardisation into what is taught. Cany people thin0 this will raise educational standards, but
'

"icholas ,bercrombie and ,lan !arde, with Ieith Soothill, John -rry, and Sylvia !alby, Contemporary British Society: A New Introduction to Sociology (/ambridge: 1olity 1ress, '))5), *('-(4. 4 Cichael Ball, ?red =ray and +inda CcBowell, The Transformation of Britain: Contemporary Social and Economic Change (+ondon: ?ontana 1ress, ').)), 4.'. * +ynton Fobins, Tom Brennan and John Sutton, People and Politics in Britain (+ondon: Cacmillan ducation, ').&), '). British /ivili:ation * Conf. dr. Monica Matei-Chesnoiu

some teachers argue that they have lost the ability to respond to the needs and interests of their pupils, which may be different from pupils in other areas. ,s part of the F ,/$ programme, new tests have been introduced for pupils at the ages of 2, '', '*, and '(. The aim of these tests is to discover any schools or areas that are not teaching to high enough standards. $owever, many parents and teachers are unhappy. They feel that it is a return to the days of the ''> and that the tests are unfair because they reflect differences in home bac0ground rather than in inability. Some teachers also fear that because of preparation for the tests, lessons will be more restricted, with a lot of time being spent on Cathematics and nglish, for e%ample, while other interesting sub3ects which are not tested may be left out. ducational reform is bringing other changes too. /ity Technology /olleges (/T/s) are new super-schools for scientifically gifted children who < the =overnment hopes < will be scientists and technological e%perts in the future. These schools are partly funded by industry. #n addition to the /T/s, since ').., the =overnment has given ordinary schools the right to opt out of (choose to leave) the + , if a ma3ority of parents want it. 1reviously all state schools were under the control of the + ,, which provided the schools in its area with money for boo0s, etc., paid the teachers and controlled educational policy. "ow schools that opt out will receive money directly from the =overnment and will be free to spend it as they li0e. They can even pay teachers more or less than in + , schools if they want to, and they can accept any children, not only those coming from the neighbourhood. Cany people fear that this will mean a return to selection, because these schools will choose the brightest children. The =overnment says that the new schools will mean more choice for parents. E%ams ,t the age of '5 or '&, in the third or fourth form of secondary school, pupils begin to choose their e%am sub3ects. #n ').., a new public e%amination < the =eneral /ertificate of Secondary ducation (=/S ) < was introduced for '( year-olds. This e%amination assesses pupils on the wor0 they do in the 5 th and &th year at secondary school. 1upils who stay on into the si%th form or who go on to a Si%th ?orm /ollege ('2 year-olds in the +ower Si%th and '. year-olds in the -pper-Si%th) usually fall into two categories. Some pupils will be reta0ing =/S s in order to get better grades. Athers will study two or three sub3ects for an , +evel (,dvanced +evel) =/ e%am (=eneral /ertificate for ducation). This is a highly specialised e%am and is necessary for -niversity entrance. Since '))., there has been a new level of e%am: the ,S +evel (,dvanced Supplementary), which is worth half an , +evel. This means that if pupils wish to study more than two or three sub3ects in the si%th form, they can ta0e a combination of , and ,S +evels. &eavin! school at si%teen Cany people decide to leave school at the age of '( and go to ?urther ducation (? ) /ollege. $ere, most of the courses are lin0ed to some 0ind of practical vocational training, for e%ample engineering, typing, coo0ing or hairdressing. Some young people are given @day release7 (their employers allows them time off wor0) so that they can follow a course to help them in their 3ob. ?or those '(-year-olds who leave school and who cannot find wor0 but do not want to go to ? /ollege, the =overnment has introduced the Douth Apportunities Scheme (DA1S). This scheme places young, unemployed people with a business or industry for si% months so that they can get e%perience of wor0, and pays them a small wage. They generally have a better chance of getting a 3ob afterwards, and sometimes the company they are placed with offers them a permanent 3ob. 'i!her education #f a student obtains the reEuired e%amination results at , level, he or she may go on to an institution of higher education, such as a university or other college. The student, after a prescribed period of study and after passing e%aminations, will receive a degree and become a graduate of that institution. #n the past, only a small proportion of the age group in Britain proceeded to higher education, but now the student numbers have rapidly increased. British universities There are 5( universities in Britain. $owever, after reforms in '))4, when e%isting institutions such as polytechnics were given university status, there are now some '66, with '.4 full-time students in '))&. The Apen -niversity and the #ndependent -niversity of Buc0ingham are additional university-level institutions. The universities can be classified into four types. The ancient universities of A%ford and /ambridge (composed of their many colleges) date from the twelfth century and until the nineteenth century they were
British /ivili:ation Conf. dr. Monica Matei-Chesnoiu 5

virtually the only nglish universities and offered no places for women. $owever, other older universities were founded in Scotland, such as St ,ndrews ('5''), =lasgow ('5&6), ,berdeen ('5)5), and dinburgh ('&.*). , second group comprises the @redbric07 or civic universities such as +eeds, +iverpool, and Canchester, which were created between '.&6 and ')*6. The third group consists of universities founded after the Second !orld !ar and in the ')(6s, li0e Susse%, Dor0, and ast ,nglia, many of which are in rural areas. The fourth group are the @new universities7 created in '))4, when polytechnics and some other colleges attained university status. =ood , +evel results in at least two sub3ects are necessary to get a place at one. $owever, good e%am passes alone are not enough. -niversities choose their students after interviews, and competition for places at university is fierce. ?or all British citi:ens, place at university used to bring with it a grant from their +ocal ducation ,uthority. The grants cover tuition fees (paid directly to the institution and resulting in tuition being free for students) and some of the living e%penses. The amount depended on the parents7 income. #f the parents did not earn much money, their children would receive a full grant that covered all their e%penses. $owever, the +abour =overnment radically changed this situation by abolishing the student grant. Students now have to pay at least K',666 tuition fees and their maintenance, usually through loans from the Student +oan /ompany. They start to pay bac0 their loan when they reach certain salary levels. Cany students have now to finance their own higher education, and some students are already in financial difficulties. These changes in funding have resulted in a drop in the number of students provisionally applying for university entry. The competition to enter universities is now very strong, and students who do not do well at , level may be unable to find a place. Some '6 per cent of students now drop out of higher education because of wor0, financial or other problems, but the ma3ority aim for a good degree in order to obtain a good 3ob, or to continue in higher education by doing research (masters7 degrees and doctorates). Cost '. and ') year-olds in Britain are independent people, and when the time comes to pic0 a college, they usually choose one as far away from home as possible. #t is very unusual for university students to live at home. ,lthough parents may be a little sad to see this happen, they usually approve of the move, and see it as a necessary part of becoming an adult. The three university terms are ten wee0s each, and during vacation times, families are reunited. !hen they first arrive at college, first year university students are called @freshers.7 Aften freshers will live in a $all of Fesidence on or near the college campus, although they may move out into a rented room in their second or third year, or share a house with friends. Buring the first wee0, all the clubs and societies hold a @freshers7 fair,7 during which they try to persuade the new students to 3oin their society. An the day that lectures start, groups of freshers are often seen wal0ing around huge campuses, map in hand and a worried loo0 on their faces. They are learning how difficult it is to change from a school community to one of many thousands. Studying in universities has similar patterns. ,s well as lectures, there are regular seminars, at which one of a small group of students (probably not more than ten) reads a paper he or she has written. Then, the tutor and the rest of the group discuss the paper. Ance or twice a term, students will have a tutorial. This means that they see a tutor alone to discuss their wor0 and their progress. #n A%ford and /ambridge, and some other universities, the study system is based entirely around such tutorials, which ta0e place once a wee0. ,ttending lectures is optional for @A%bridge7 students. ,fter three or four years (depending on the type of course at the university), these students will ta0e their finals. Cost of them (over )6 per cent) will get a first, second, or third class degree and be able to put B, (Bachelor of ,rts) or BSc (Bachelor of Science) after their name. (urther and adult education ,n important aspect of British education is the provision of further and adult education, whether by voluntary bodies, trade unions and other institutions. Self-governing colleges of further education, technical colleges and other institutions provide a wide range of educational opportunities. These colleges, the !or0ers7 ducational ,ssociation (! ,), evening institutes, local societies and clubs provide adult education. ,dult courses may be vocational (relating to employment) or recreational (for pleasure), and cover a variety of activities and programmes. Some 5 million students of varying ages are ta0ing further and
British /ivili:ation Conf. dr. Monica Matei-Chesnoiu &

adult education courses in one form or another. The +abour government sees further and higher education as a part of a lifelong learning process. TA&)IN* POINT Bo you thin0 secondary education should be selective or comprehensiveL !hat are the advantages and disadvantages of both systemsL !hat do you thin0 are the advantages of school uniformL ,nd the disadvantagesL #s it a good thing to leave home at the age of '.L !hat are the advantages and disadvantagesL Cany British people believe that if you do nothing more than study hard at university, you will have wasted a great opportunity. !hat do they mean, and do you agreeL $ow do British universities differ from universities in FomaniaL !hat do you li0e and disli0e about the British systemL Bo you thin0 that the educational system should be solely devoted to elitist standards, or it should be designed to address a ma3ority of studentsL Biscuss the statement that ethnicity affects educational attainment, though it is mediated by class and gender. ,pply to the situation of the access of international students to higher education in Britain.

British /ivili:ation Conf. dr. Monica Matei-Chesnoiu