Journal of Applied Geophysics 59 (2006) 162 175 www.elsevier.

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The influence of soil moisture on magnetic susceptibility measurements

G. Maier a,*, R. Scholger a, J. Scho n b
a

Department of Applied Geosciences and Geophysics, University of Leoben, Peter-Tunner-Str. 25-27, 8700 Leoben, Austria b Joanneum Research, 8700 Leoben, Austria Received 30 November 2004; accepted 14 October 2005

Abstract An important methodological question for magnetic susceptibility measurements is if a variation of the soil conductivity, as a result of a change in soil moisture, influences the measured susceptibility values. An answer to this question is essential because an accurate magnetic susceptibility mapping requires a grid of comparable magnetic susceptibility values, which indicate the magnetic iron-mineral contents of the soils. Therefore, in the framework of the MAGPROX project (EU-Project EVK2-CT-1999-00019), the study aims at investigating the influence of soil moisture and the possible correlation between magnetic susceptibility and electric conductivity. This approach was realised by model experiments in the laboratory and a field monitoring experiment, which was performed in an analogical manner as the model. For the laboratory experiment, a plastic tub with a water in- and outflow system and installed lines of electrodes was used. The measurements were carried out with layers of different magnetic material within the experimental sand formation under varying water saturation conditions. For the field experiment, which was carried out from July to December 2003, two test sites were selected. The magnetic susceptibility was measured by means of the recently developed vertical soil profile kappa meter SM400 and a commonly used Bartington MS2D probe. The electric resistivity was recorded using a 4-point light system (laboratory) and a ground conductivity meter EM38 (field). The knowledge of the resistivity of the sand formation enabled an estimation of porosity and water saturation in consideration of the Archie equations. The laboratory experiment results showed a very slight variation of measured magnetic susceptibility under different degrees of moisture, indicating mainly the influence from the diamagnetic contribution of the water volume. A measurement error in connection with the measurement method, for example caused by an interfering effect of soil conductivity variations, was not found. The authors conclude, that in practical use of the investigated instruments for topsoil magnetic susceptibility mapping in the field, the influence of soil moisture and resulting soil conductivity can be neglected, especially compared to the influence of the contact between measurement loop and soil. The study presented here verifies the magnetic susceptibility data reproducibility and comparability, which provides the basis for magnetic susceptibility monitoring. Additionally, new application approaches of magnetic susceptibility measurements were proposed, which show again the versatility and the potential of the method. D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Magnetic susceptibility; Electric conductivity; Soil moisture; MAGPROX

1. Introduction
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +43 1 40440 23334; fax: +43 1 40440 623334. E-mail address: guenter.maier@omv.com (G. Maier). 0926-9851/$ - see front matter D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jappgeo.2005.10.001

During the last few years magnetic susceptibility measurements have become an established method to detect polluted regions and their spatial demarcation.

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Magnetic susceptibility mapping has been used for investigations around power plants (Heller et al., ka et al., 2001), iron industry and mining 1998; Kapic areas (Strzyszcz and Magiera, 1998; Lecoanet et al., 2001; Strzyszcz and Magiera, 2001; Hanesch et al., 2003), urban environments (Hanesch and Scholger, 2002) and roads (Hoffmann et al., 1999). It has also proved to be useful for studying the influence of atmospheric processes on distribution and deposition of air pollutants (Maier and Scholger, 2003, 2004) and for discriminating different soil-contamination sources (Lecoanet et al., 2003). A comprehensive overview of magnetic monitoring methods in pollution studies is and Ellwood (1999). given by Petrovsky In most cases, a Bartington magnetic susceptibility meter for field measurements was used. Such measurement systems operate on the principle of alternating current induction (Bartington Operation Manual, 2002). An alternating magnetic field (of low intensity) is produced by a sensor when it is connected to a source of alternating current. The sensor consists of an oscillator circuit for which a wound inductor is the principle frequency-determining component. The magnetic susceptibility k is related to the relative permeability of a medium l r and this parameter is closely associated with the characteristics of alternating current circuits containing inductive elements (Collinson, 1983). When the inductor contains only air the value of permeability of air l 0 determines the frequency of oscillation. If the inductor is placed within the influence of the material to be measured, the value of l r determines the frequency of oscillation. Thus, the relative change in inductance and frequency resulting from the difference between the permeability of air l 0 and the relative permeability l r of another medium (e.g., soil) is a measure of magnetic susceptibility. In short, magnetic susceptibility is the ratio of induced magnetisation to the applied magnetic field. However, in these kinds of measurements, an important methodological question is if a variation of soil conductivity, as a result of a change in soil moisture, influences the measured magnetic susceptibility values. The theoretical background of this possible interaction is given by the third and forth Maxwell equation. In the case of soils, soil moisture is the most significant factor affecting electrical conductivity. Furthermore conductivity is also influenced by porosity, particle size and salinity. Since the principle of susceptibility measurement is based on applied alternating magnetic fields, the influence of conductivity has to be considered. The basic idea of this work is based on experiences of the MAGPROX project partners (EU-Project EVK2CT-1999-00019) during magnetic susceptibility field

measurements on topsoils. Particularly in the low magnetic susceptibility range, dry and wet or waterlogged soils yielded different values. This possible influence has not been studied yet in empirical form. An answer to this question is essential because accurate magnetic susceptibility mapping requires a grid of comparable magnetic susceptibility values, which indicate the magnetic iron-mineral contents of the soils. Therefore the study aims at investigating the interfering influence of soil moisture and the possible correlation between magnetic susceptibility and electric conductivity. For the recently developed vertical soil profile kap et al. (2004) pameter MAGPROXk SM400, Petrovsky studied the effect of conductivity on magnetic susceptibility measurements theoretically. Based on exact analytical formulas derived from the Maxwell equations, the authors calculated the negative effect of electrical conductivity on relative change of inductance and mag et al., connetic susceptibility. According to Petrovsky ductivity affects the imaginary part of the complex magnetic susceptibility that cannot be compensated in single-coil systems and contributes to total magnetic susceptibility as a negative component. The authors concluded that in practical use of SM400 for typical soil conductivities the effect of conductivity could be neglected. Additionally, by reference to the Bartington operation manual the Bartington probes are particularly insensitive to sample conductivity. After the manual the response of kappameters to conductors is high if the instruments feature a high operating frequency. Due to the fact that the operating frequency of the SM400 is relatively high (8 kHz) compared to the Bartington MS2D probe (operation frequency of 0.958 kHz), it could be expected, that the Bartington MS2D probe is less sensitive to electrical soil conductivity than SM400. However, the theoretical specifications had to be examined empirically in the form of experiments. This experimental investigation should quantify the importance of conductivity variations for magnetic susceptibility measurements and the influence of soil moisture on their accuracy and comparability. The approach of this study was the investigation of the relationship between magnetic susceptibility and electric resistivity (the reciprocal of conductivity) as a result of changing water content. This approach was realised by model experiments in the laboratory and a field monitoring experiment, which was performed in an analogical manner as the model and should confirm the laboratory results under natural soil conditions. For the field experiment, which was carried out from July to December 2003, two test sites were selected where previous surface measurements (Bartington MS2D

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probe) and soil profile measurements (SM400) showed enhanced magnetic susceptibility values. 2. Laboratory experiments 2.1. Experiment 1 For the model experiments, a plastic tub with a water in- and outflow system and installed lines of electrodes

was used (Fig. 1ac). In the lower part of the tub, a layer of coarse grained gravel to fine grained gravel was implemented, which guaranteed an undisturbed water flow. Above the experimental sand formation (consisting of homogeneous silica sand with a grain size of 0.52 mm) was implemented by means of underwater sedimentation. In this way, a grading of the silica sand should be avoided as good as possible. Three plastic tubes for magnetic susceptibility measurements with

Fig. 1. (a) Experiment plastic tub. (b) Position of the experimental sand formation and the drainage system. (c) Water in- and outflow system with flowmeter. (d) Electrode array and their position on the chamber. (e) Magnetic susceptibility measurement with the Bartington MS2D probe at the formation surface. (f) The markers and the self-weight of the probe guaranteed an identical measurement position and contact pressure of the coil for each measurement. (g) Magnetic susceptibility measurement with the vertical soil profile kappameter SM400.

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the recently developed vertical soil profile kappameter MAGPROXk SM400 were built in to control the three-dimensional uniformity of the magnetic layers. The tubes were installed before the implementation of the sand formation to eliminate vertical drainage in the sand formation during the experiment. Between the gravel layer and the experimental sand formation, a fleece prevents the sand from being washed out during the drainage. The measurements were carried out with layers of different magnetic material within the experimental sand formation under varying water saturation conditions. Two magnetic layers were implemented, the first in a depth of about 6 cm with a thickness of about 1 cm, the second as a 10 cm thick layer between depths of about 40 and 50 cm. After determination of the required mass of the highly magnetic concentrate (with Bartington-MS2B5 Sensor), the concentrate (ironsilicon-oxide, mass susceptibility = 1.32 d 10 6 m3/kg, grain size = 63250 Am) was mixed with watery sand in different steps of the dosage. After wetting of the sand, the concentrate was scattered in and the material was mingled using a stirring staff. This process was repeated until the required volume for the layer was reached. Before the implementation of the magnetic layers, the mobility of the magnetic concentrate and the risk of an unwanted migration were investigated in form of a preliminary test. A magnetic layer of 1 cm was installed in the middle of a plastic tube (50 cm length) filled with water saturated sand. The susceptibility of the tube was recorded with the BartingtonMS2C-Sensor (Core Logging Sensor), and after the outflow of the water through a hole at the bottom of the tube, susceptibility was measured again. The results showed a similar susceptibility distribution before and after the water outflow and thus no disturbing migration of the magnetic concentrate. The magnetic layer stayed stable in its position. The electric resistivity was recorded using a LIPPMANN 4-point-light system in dipoledipole configuration with current- and measurement electrodes at every side of the chamber (Fig. 1b,d). The knowledge of the resistivity of the sand formation enabled an estimation of porosity and water saturation in consideration of the Archie equations (Archie, 1942). Firstly, magnetic susceptibility was measured by means of a Bartington MS2D probe (in SI units at the more sensitive range 0.1). Markers guaranteed that the horizontal and radial measurement position was always the same (Fig. 1e,f). The self-weight of the probe guaranteed an identical contact pressure of the coil for each measurement. Secondly, magnetic susceptibility was measured with the soil profile kappameter SM400 (within in-

stalled plastic tubes) (Fig. 1g). The penetration depth of this instrument is limited to some few cm, since the measurement probe integrates more than 90% of the signal at a distance of 12 mm. The temperature of the experimental sand formation was measured using a temperature sensor installed in the formation. For the first measurement the water level was lowered and raised in 5 steps (1 step per day), based on the estimated total water volume in the experimental sand formation which amounted to 73.3l (Fig. 2). After the final drawdown step, the dehydration of the sand formation was observed for days. The results of the magnetic susceptibility measurements with the MS2D-sensor showed a very slight variation of magnetic susceptibility under different degrees of water saturation (Fig. 3b). The water saturation is presented by means of the term beffective water saturationQ. This parameter considers the penetration depth of the MS2D probe and the thereby caused different measurement influence of the water saturation conditions of each measurement level by weighting the values. bEffective water saturationQ means the sum of the depth-weighted water saturation values of each measurement level within the reach of the MS2D probe. The weighting was carried out based on the specific penetration depth of the MS2D probe described by Lecoanet et al. (1999). With decreasing water saturation and increasing sand formation resistivity during the drawdown the magnetic susceptibility measured at the sand formation surface increased. With increase of water saturation and decreasing resistivity during the refilling of the tub the magnetic susceptibility decreased. The presented magnetic susceptibility values represent the average of 10 measurements. Additionally, Fig. 3b shows that the water saturation values, which are estimated based on the resistivity did not return to 100%, although the sand formation was again totally saturated at the end of the refilling process. The apparently lower water saturation of only 80% is a result of the settlement of the experimental sand formation during the drawdown of the water level (Fig. 2). Thereby the porosity and consequently the amount of water (the conductive electrolyte) after the refilling were reduced. That resulted in higher resistivity values, compared with the initial sand formation resistivity, and to apparently lower water saturation values. The settlement effect can also be observed in consideration of the magnetic susceptibility data at the end of the refilling process. Firstly, the lower distance between MS2D measurement coil at the sand formation surface and the magnetic layer after the settlement, led to a slight increase of magnetic susceptibility, compared with the

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Fig. 2. Water saturation values for each measurement level, initial porosity, end porosity and formation volume content during the measurement procedure (drawdown of the water level).

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Fig. 3. (a) Example of the vertical magnetic susceptibility progression of the experimental sand formation (experiment 1, measured with SM400); the signals show the implemented magnetic layers. (b) Measurement 1: magnetic susceptibility k vs. effective water saturation S w during the drawdown of the water level and subsequent filling of the experimental sand formation. (c) Measurement 2: improved drawdown and filling procedure, adapted to the results of experiment 1. (d) Combined results of measurements 1 and 2; cross plot of magnetic susceptibility Dk vs. water saturation S w (the error bars show the standard deviation of the values).

initial magnetic susceptibility. Secondly, the real reduction of the amount of water within the defined volume, which influences the measurement, added to the magnetic susceptibility increase. The magnetic susceptibility values measured using the soil profile kappameter SM400 showed a slight variation under different water saturation conditions. However, outliers did not allow a satisfying interpretation. Based on these data, a correlation between magnetic susceptibility and the variation of the water

saturation conditions was not observable. A modified laboratory experiment (experiment 2, Section 2.2) aimed at improving the configurative precision and comparability of the measurements with SM400. During the second measurement the water level was lowered and raised more carefully, adapted to the results of measurement 1. The results showed an improved data density between 30% and 60% of water saturation (Fig. 3c). Again the magnetic susceptibility measured at the sand formation surface with the MS2D

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probe increased with decreasing water saturation and increasing sand formation resistivity during the drawdown and vice versa during the refilling. A cross plot of magnetic susceptibility vs. water saturation, including the combined results of measurements 1 and 2, showed a very slight increase of magnetic susceptibility in the range of 5.3 d 10 6 SI with decreasing water saturation (Fig. 3d). The largest magnetic susceptibility value also has the largest vertical error bar. If we would neglect this value, which seems to be an outlier, susceptibility would only show an increase of about 4 d 10 6 SI. An additional determination of the bulk magnetic susceptibility of the tap water used during the laboratory experiments with the GEOFYZIKA kappabridge KLY-2, showed a value of 9.0 d 10 6 SI. A sandwater mixture sample with a water content equal to the content in the totally saturated experimental sand formation amounted to a magnetic susceptibility contribution of 3.9 d 10 6 SI. et al. (2004) predicted for the soil profile Petrovsky kappameter SM400 a magnetic susceptibility change of 8.7 d 10 6 SI for a conductivity change of 20 S/m. The average conductivity of the totally saturated experimental sand formation (initial state, cp. Fig. 2) amounts to 16 mS/m. In consideration of these facts, the investigation results of the Bartington MS2D probe indicate predominately the true decreasing and increasing influence of the diamagnetic contribution of water. An interfering effect of conductivity variations was not found. The correlation between magnetic susceptibility and water saturation shows a nearly linear behaviour for high to medium water saturation conditions (100% to 35%). Under low water saturation conditions (35% to 7%) the curve shape changes and the correlation shows a curvature with a non-linear increase of magnetic susceptibility (Fig. 3d). These results indicate the presence of a second conductivity component, the interface component, in addition to the electrolytic conductivity component. Under low water saturation conditions or dehydration this component becomes more important. As a result of the decreasing water saturation and following dehydration the continuous water contact within the pore channels collapses and the electrolytic conductivity does no longer exist. Only the interface conductivity component, which is independent of a continuous water contact in the sand formation, persists and the direct correlation between conductivity and water saturation (which is the basis of the Archie-relations) does not exist anymore (Archie, 1942). Consequently the water saturation values, which were determined using the 2nd Archie-equation, have been

overestimated. This results in an apparently non-linear increase of magnetic susceptibility. 2.2. Experiment 2 The objective of experiment 2 was an improvement of the configurative precision and comparability of measurements with SM400 by the usage of an adapted measurement configuration. For this purpose, a plastic measurement cell was constructed. For the conductivity measurements four lines of 9 electrodes were installed on opposing sides of the cell. The water level was lowered and raised in 5 steps (1 step per day), based on the estimated total water volume in the experimental sand formation that amounted to 2.88 l. By means of the 4-point-light-system, the resistance and the water saturation conditions were investigated in the same way as in the previous experiment, with a dipoledipole configuration with current and measurement electrodes on each side of the chamber to measure the transversal resistance of the sand formation. The vertical soil profile kappa meter SM400 was implemented in the experimental sand formation (homogeneous silica sand) and the temperature of the sand formation was held constant to ensure identical conditions during the experiment (Fig. 4a). Fig. 4b shows the magnetic susceptibility progression in the measurement tubes detected with the vertical soil profile kappameter SM 400. The amplitude in a depth of about 31 mm shows the implemented magnetic layer, the hatched section shows schematically the dimension of the experimental sand formation. The coherence between magnetic susceptibility and different water saturation was observed with regard to the magnetic susceptibility peak value of the amplitude of the magnetic layer and the bbase lineQ in a depth of 170 mm. The behaviour of these signals was observed during the drawdown and the refilling process. Fig. 4c shows the behaviour of the magnetic susceptibility peak value of the magnetic layer marked in Fig. 4b during the drawdown and refilling process. Fig. 4d shows the behaviour of the bbase lineQ (cp. Fig. 4b). The results of experiment 2 showed also a slight variation of magnetic susceptibility under different water saturation conditions, in a comparable range as in the previous experiment. The adapted setup improved the configurative precision of the experiment with the soil profile kappameter SM400 and provided sufficient data quality. Magnetic susceptibility values showed an increase during the drawdown and dehydration process and a reversible decrease during the refilling process. For the SM400 the observed magnetic susceptibility change was marginally higher than for the Bartington

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Fig. 4. (a) Measurement cell and experimental sand formation with implemented vertical soil profile meter SM400. (b) Vertical magnetic susceptibility progression of the formation; the amplitude shows the implemented magnetic layer. (c) Magnetic susceptibility k vs. effective water saturation S w; behaviour of the magnetic susceptibility peak values of the magnetic layer during the drawdown and refilling process. (d) Behaviour of a depth section (170 mm) which is evidently unaffected by the magnetic concentrate.

MS2D probe. Whether this difference was caused by the higher operation frequency of the SM400 or was only the result of a configurative measurement error could not be found. The similar behaviour of the magnetic susceptibility peak values of the magnetic layer (Fig. 4c) and the depth section which was evidently unaffected by the magnetic concentrate (Fig. 4d) was an essential information. Although the magnetic susceptibility levels of the two sections were quite different at the initial state of the experiment, the magnetic susceptibility values showed variations in the same range.

Consequently, even for the investigation with the soil profile kappameter SM400 the correlation between magnetic susceptibility values and different water saturations indicates mainly the true decreasing and increasing influence of the diamagnetic contribution of water. 3. Field monitoring experiment The test sites were investigated with the Bartington MS2D probe (for magnetic susceptibility) and with the ground conductivity meter EM38 (for conductivity and as a result of the conductivity values, for soil moisture).

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In field it could not be guaranteed, that the measurement position and the contact between the measurement coil and soil are always exactly the same (because of the vegetated surface). Consequently, magnetic susceptibility measurements with MS2D probe were done at the rapid 1.0 range. A comparison showed that the use of the 0.1 range would not improve the measurement precision under these conditions. The conductivity measurements were performed in vertical and horizontal dipole mode, which provide different penetration depths and sensitivities. The measurement procedure and the magnetic susceptibility distribution at surface are demonstrated in Fig. 5ad and Fig. 5g. The sites had a size of 120 by 120 cm with regard to the length of EM38. Magnetic susceptibility was measured in a grid of 10 by 10 cm,

which equals 36 measurement positions. Conductivity was measured at 6 positions of both directions (12 measurement values). Magnetic susceptibility values and conductivity values were averaged to provide a mean value of the test sites at each measurement interval. The sites were measured two times per week from 07/27/2003 to 12/01/2003. From July to December, air temperature and soil temperature at surface and in the depths of 5 and 10 cm were measured with a digital thermometer and the temperature in 50 cm depth was measured with a HOBO H8 Temperature Logger. The knowledge of the temperature variation during the experiment allowed a temperature correction of the electric conductivity data. In addition to that, the real soil moisture was determined with the gravimetric method. 4 soil sample cores were taken from the direct surrounding of

Fig. 5. Measurement methodology (example of a test site). (a) Magnetic susceptibility measurement at surface with MS2D probe. (b) Magnetic susceptibility measurement positions. (c) Conductivity measurement with EM38 in vertical position. (d) EM38 in horizontal position; conductivity measurement positions. (e) HUMAX-Soil sampling tool. (f) Soil sample core. (g) Example of the measurement procedure.

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the investigation areas once a week. For sampling, the HUMAX-Soil sampling tool was used (Fig. 5e). The moisture was determined for the upper 10 cm of the sample core (Fig. 5f). With regard to the specific penetration depth of the Bartington MS2D-probe, this depth section is particularly interesting for a comparison of moisture and magnetic susceptibility variations. Test site 1 was located at a dumping ground, where slag from mining processes was deposited. The soil profile showed a uniform soil development from 0 to 20 cm depth above the slag deposition. The soil material consisted of silty sand with mainly slag components as coarse fraction. Test site 2 was also located in a region influenced by mining. The profile showed a uniform horizon between 0 and 30 cm. The soil material of this horizon consisted of loam and sandy clay, respectively. From 30 to 50 cm depth this soil material is mixed with clay schists, shale and slag components. A grain size distribution showed significantly higher clay contents of the samples taken from test site 2. The ideal meteorological conditions in 2003 supported the significance of the experiment. The summer months were extraordinarily hot and dry and provided anomalously low moisture values. Heavy rainfalls during autumn and the frequent changing of snowfall and melting from November to December resulted in a strong wetting of the investigated soils. It can be assumed, that the moisture contrast of this period topped the average annual contrast in this climatological region. The experiment was finished on the 1st of December. Freezing of the soil and a permanent snow cover made further measurements impossible. As expected, the soil conductivity values showed a strong dependence on the degree of soil moisture. The corrected soil conductivity values are demonstrated in Fig. 6ad. The results showed higher values for test site 2 than for test site 1. This is probably caused by the higher clay content in the soil of test site 2. The higher clay content and its water-retaining property is also reflected in a slightly higher maximum soil moisture of test site 2. Conductivity values measured in horizontal dipole mode showed for both measurement areas a more dynamic behaviour under varying soil moisture in shallow depths than the values measured in vertical dipole mode. This is due to the higher sensitivity of the H-mode in these shallow depth sections. Consequently, conductivity values measured in vertical mode showed a slightly delayed behaviour indicating the infiltration of the rainwater. When the electrolyte migrated down in depth sections where the V-mode features the highest sensitivity it results in a delayed increase of conductivity.

Fig. 6e,f shows crossplots of temperature-corrected electrical conductivity (horizontal and vertical mode) versus real soil moisture. The crossplots demonstrate that for both sites the coefficients of determination (r 2) of the horizontal mode are higher than the coefficients of the vertical mode. It is based on the fact, that the real soil moisture was determined only for the particularly interesting upper 10 cm of the soil and due to the above mentioned higher sensitivity of the H-mode for this depth section. The good correlation between conductivity and soil moisture allowed a depth-related estimation of soil moisture in depths of 2.5 and 7.5 cm. According to Durlesser (1999), the sensitivities of horizontal and vertical dipole mode were assessed (McNeill, 1980). Finally, soil moisture in depths of 2.5 and 7.5 cm could be calculated. The resulting moisture values are demonstrated in Fig. 6g,h, together with the gravimetrically determined soil moisture and the magnetic susceptibility. Although the soil moisture varied from July to December in the range of 38%, the magnetic susceptibility values showed the expected independent and nearly constant behaviour for both investigation areas. Since the magnetic susceptibility measurements with MS2D probe were done at the rapid 1.0 measurement range, the data were displayed in steps of 10 5 SI, which is the usual scale for field measurements. The slight influence of the diamagnetic contribution of water measured under laboratory conditions was inferior and not visible in the field, because of the more important influences of vegetation, surface roughness, measurement position and the contact between the measurement probe and the soil. The stronger magnetic susceptibility variation during the first 4 weeks with stable dry soil conditions and the following constancy indicates the growing measurement routine. However, as expected an increase or decrease of magnetic susceptibility as a result of different water saturation conditions could not be observed. 4. Discussion and conclusions The experimental investigations presented here quantified the importance of conductivity variations as a result of changing soil water contents for magnetic susceptibility measurements. The influence of soil moisture on the accuracy and comparability of magnetic susceptibility values was successfully evaluated. The properties of two magnetic susceptibility sensors, the Bartington MS2D probe and the recently developed vertical soil profile kappa meter SM400, are presented.

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(a) The different experiments and calculations showed that the magnetic susceptibility values of soils and sediments are dominated mainly by the volumetric composition of the space within the reach of the measurement coils of the investigated instruments. The results proved that for typical soil conductivities the effect of conductivity on magnetic susceptibility can be neglected. This is in agreement with the theoretical et al. (2004). predictions of Petrovsky Magnetic susceptibility measurement systems with a measurement resolution in the range of 10 6 SI, but

ideally in the range of 10 8 to 10 7 SI, could provide an additional, specific information for the estimation of the soil water content, independent of the chemism of water, pore structure, water contact within the pore channels and temperature (e.g., applicable in frozen soils or aquifers). Additionally magnetic susceptibility measurement could open a new perspective for fluid monitoring in reservoirs (Ivakhnenko and Potter, 2004). (b) The magnetic susceptibility changes in dependence of soil moisture are limited to a maximum variation of 9.0 d 10 6 SI for a change in soil water

Fig. 6. (a) Conductivity EC measured in horizontal position vs. soil moisture H w; temperature corrected (25 8C), test site 1. (b) Test site 2. (c) Conductivity EC measured in vertical position vs. soil moisture H w; temperature-corrected (25 8C), test site 1. (d) Test site 2. (e) Crossplots of temperature-corrected electrical conductivity DEC (horizontal and vertical mode) vs. real soil moisture H w, test site 1. (f) Test site 2. (g) Magnetic susceptibility k vs. soil moisture H w; the soil moisture curves show the gravimetrically determined moisture of the upper 10 cm and the depth specific moisture calculated based on electrical conductivity information, test site 1. (h) Test site 2.

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Fig. 6. (continued ).

content from 0% to 100%. This observation was confirmed in the form of different experiments and verified by calculations. For example, the laboratory measurement results of the Bartington MS2D probe showed a magnetic susceptibility change of about + 5.3 d 10 6 SI during a water saturation change of 92% and corresponding changing water content from 40% to 3%. The magnetic susceptibility change correlated with the water content and the resulting electrical conductivity. Furthermore the laboratory measurements with SM400 showed similar magnetic susceptibility changes for the behaviour of a magnetic layer and a depth section which was evidently unaffected by the magnetic concentrate. This indicates

that the magnetic susceptibility variation was predominately affected by the water volume content. Consequently, this study quantified the influence of water on magnetic susceptibility measurements as very low and showed that the influence is based mainly on the diamagnetic contribution of the water volume. A measurement error in connection with the measurement method, for example caused by an interfering effect of soil conductivity variations, was not found. To conclude, a physically founded significant dependence of the magnetic susceptibility values of polluted soils (which are commonly in the range of several 100 d 10 6 SI) on soil moisture caused by weather or season does not exist.

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This information is of great importance for the method of magnetic susceptibility mapping and answers open questions about data reproducibility and comparability. The answers confirmed the reliability of the screening standard procedure developed within the MAGPROX project (Schibler et al., 2002). The reproducibility of repeat measurements was verified, which provides the basis for the magnetic susceptibility monitoring of a test site or an investigation area. (c) On the other hand, there is no doubt that weather (heavy rainfalls) and season (snow, freeze processes) can change the magnetic properties of the soil itself. The determination of the vertical distribution of magnetic susceptibility in soils, for example with the SM400, may provides the exact depth sections of transport channels, boundary layers and redox zones and allows the observation of material movements in a sufficient resolution. (d) For the Bartington MS2D probe, the above described slight magnetic susceptibility variation under different water saturation conditions (in the range of 10 6 SI) was only measurable at the more sensitive measurement range of the instrument during the laboratory experiment (under ideal conditions). In this case the magnetic susceptibility data were displayed in steps of 10 6 SI. During the field experiment the measurements were done at the rapid range and the data were displayed in steps of 10 5 SI, which is the usual scale for field measurements. Under field conditions the magnetic susceptibility showed a stronger variation (in the range of 10 5 SI) and did not correlate with the soil water content. Consequently, the slight influence of the diamagnetic contribution of water was concealed by other influences like measurement position, vegetation, surface roughness and generally, slight differences in the contact between the measurement probe and the soil. Based on these facts and the practical experiences during the field measurements, it could be assumed that these influences are generally much more important than the influence of water. Wet soils show in many cases well developed vegetation. Often, they are abundantly covered with grass or moss. The specific penetration depth of the Bartington MS2D probe was mentioned above. The change in sensitivity with distance is of great importance for measuring vegetated or rough surfaces. A layer of diamagnetic material or of low density overlying a surface will have a significant effect on the measured value. For example, a natural cover (plants or litter) of 5 mm thickness would have the effect of reducing the loop reading to 75% of the value which would be

expected if the loop was in contact with the underlying soil (Dearing, 1999). The authors conclude, that in practical use of the investigated instruments for topsoil magnetic susceptibility mapping in the field, the influence of soil moisture and resulting soil conductivity can be neglected, especially compared to the influence of the contact between measurement loop and soil. Whenever a high reproducibility and comparability is required, this point should be kept in mind and an identical horizontal and radial measurement position and an identical contact pressure should be guaranteed or aimed. Acknowledgement This study was carried out in the framework of the MAGPROX project (EU-Project EVK2-CT-1999-00019). References
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