1

EE5530: Wireless Communications

2. Propagation Modeling
Radio propagation characteristics and physical mechanisms
Long-term fading: path loss modeling, shadowing
Short-term fading: statistical multipath model
Effects of motion and Doppler
Flat fading: envelop fading and fade duration
Selective fading: scattering function, delay spread and coherence
bandwidth, Doppler spectrum and coherence time
Performance analysis in flat fading channels
Simulations of mobile radio channels
Impacts of radio channel impairments
Overview
Complex Radio Propagation
Effect of mobility: channel varies with user location and time
Large scale long-term fades
Attenuation effects from path loss: Main characteristics captured in
simple model P
r
=P
t
K[d
0
/d]

Shadowing from dominate objects: modeled as log-normal (with

empirical parameters) and affects cell coverage area
Small scale short-term fades
Multipath scattering from nearby objects: leads to time-varying
Channel impulse response and rapid fluctuation of received power
Resulting channel impairments
Time Delay spread: For cellular telephony: -30dB, 3s delay spread
Frequency Doppler Spread
Average fade duration dictates performance measures
2
Radio Propagation Characteristics
Path Loss
Shadowing
Multipath Fading
Multiple Access Interference
P
r
/P
t
d=vt
P
r
P
t
d=vt
v
d
Path loss +
shadowing
MP fading
Radio medium
Active scattering region
~ 100
Propagation Mechanisms
Reflection
Propagation wave impinges on an object which is large
compared to wavelength
E.g. Earth surface, building, walls, etc.
Diffraction
Radio path between Tx and Rx obstructed by surface with
sharp irregular edges
Waves bend around the obstacle, even when no LOS
Scattering
Objects smaller than the wavelength of the propagating wave
E.g. foliage, street signs, lamp posts
3
Longer-Term Fading
Long-term signal fading
Describes the average signal strength
Mainly a function of the distance d between Tx and Rx
Received signal power in mobile radio channel
P
r
= P
t
G
T
G
R
d
-
d: distance between Tx and Rx
: propagation constant, depends on terrain, somewhat
frequency dependent
: adjustment factor, reflecting antenna heights, terrain,
weather, foliage,
Typically, and are too complex (or non-predictable
considering short-term fading) to be modeled
deterministically => statistical model
Path Loss Modeling
Maxwells equations
Complex and impractical
Power falloff with distance
Proportional to d
2
in free space, d
4
in two-path model
Ray tracing models
General ray tracing computationally complex, used for site-
specific models
Simplified power falloff models
Main characteristics of path loss captured in simple model
P
r
=P
t
K[d
0
/d]

Models vary in complexity and accuracy

Statistical model
P
r(dB)
= 10log
10
P
r
is Gaussian with mean
P
and variance
2
P
r
is log-normal with pdf ~ (
P
,
2
)
Path loss L
p(dB)
= 10log
10
(P
t
G
T
G
R
/
P
)
4
Free Space (LOS) Model
Path loss for unobstructed LOS path
Power falloff :
Proportional to d
2,
inversely proportional to
2
( f
c
-2
)
Path loss
L
p(dB)
= 20 log
10
(4d/) = 20log
10
d - 20log
10
( /4)
d=vt
2
4
|
.
|

\
|
=
d
G G P
R T t P

Two Path Model

Path loss for flat reflecting surface
One LOS path and one ground (or reflected) bounce
Ground bounce approximately cancels LOS path above
critical distance
Power falloff
Proportional to d
2
(small d)
Proportional to d
4
(d>d
c
)
Independent of (f
c
)
Path loss: L
p(dB)
= 40log
10
d - 20log
10
(h
b
) - 20log
10
(h
m
)
2
2
|
.
|

\
|
=
d
h h
G G P
m b
R T t P

h
b
h
m
h
m
d
5
General Ray Tracing
Models all propagation mechanisms
Reflections, Scattering, Diffraction
Site specific
Requires detailed site geometry and dielectric properties:
Represent wave-fronts as simple particles, and use geometry to
determine received signal from each signal component
similar to Maxwell, but easier math
Computer packages often used
Simplified Path Loss Model
Detailed path loss models hard to factor into
overall system design.
Most important characteristic is power falloff with
distance
Capture using simplified model:
Exponent determined by experiment
(*) 8 2 ,
(

= =

d
d
K P P
o
t r P
d L
dB p 10 ) (
log 10 + =
6
Empirical Path-Loss Models
Okumara-Hata Model
Empirical data model for Tokyo
Accurate to within 1 dB for distances ranging 1---20km
Path loss for urban area with f
c
>400MHz
L
p(dB)
= A + Blog
10
(d)
A = 69.55 + 26.16 log
10
(f
c
) -13.82 log
10
(h
b
) - a(h
m
)
B = 44.9 - 6.55 log
10
(h
b
)
a(h
m
) = 3.2(log
10
(11.75h
m
))
2
- 4.97
Other empirical models
Lees area-to-area model for flat terrain
CCIR model
Outdoor Propagation
Macro versus Microcells
PCS Microcells
1800-2000 Hz frequency bands
Path losses are about 10 dB higher than at the cellular bands
Empicial models: COST231-Hata, COST231-Walfish-
Ikegami, two-slop model, etc.
1M bps 0.3M bps Max bit rate
10-100 ns 0.1-10 s Delay spread
Ricean Rayleigh Fading
0.1-1 W 1-10 W Tx Power
0.1-1 km 1-20km Cell radius
Microcell Macrocell
7
Indoor Propagation
Physical effects
Signal decays much faster
Coverage contained by walls, etc.
Walls, floors, furniture attenuate/scatter radio signals
Indoor measurements
Received signal strength depends on open plan offices,
construction materials, density of personnel, furniture, etc.
Path loss formula
L
p(dB)
= L
p(dB)
(d
o
) + 10 log
10
(d) = k F + I W
L
p(dB)
(d
o
): reference power loss at d
o
=1m distance (30dB)
k: number of floors the signal traverses
F: loss per floor (1
th
:15dB; 2
nd
-5
th
: 6-10dB; >5
th
: 1-2dB)
I: Number of walls the signal traverses
W: loss per wall (I W= 10-15dB)
8
Shadowing
Models attenuation from obstructions
Log normal distribution typical model for random
attenuation
Random due to random number and type of
obstructions
Typically follows a log-normal distribution
dB value of power is normally distributed
= 0 (mean captured in path loss), 4<<12
LLN used to explain this model
Parameters obtained from empirical data
Shadowing and Coverage
Coverage area specifies % of cell locations at
desired power
Coverage increases as shadowing variance
decreases
Large % indicates interference to other cells
r
P
9
Understanding Motion Effects: Doppler
Single-Path Doppler Effects
Scenario: mobile at position x, moving with velocity v, with signal
arriving at angle .
Doppler effects (assume carrier frequency f
c
)
.
Transmitted signal: s(t) = cos(2f
c
t) = Re{exp[j 2f
c
t]}
Path delay: (t) = x/c = v t cos /c
Received signal: r(t) = Re{ A exp[j 2f
c
(t(t))|}
Phase: (t) =2 f
c
t - x cos = 2 f
c
t-v t cos ( =2f
c
/c=2/
c
)
Resulting Doppler frequency shift: f
D
= v/
c
cos
Maximum Doppler frequency: f
m
= v/
c
Often, v and vary with time, so f
D
vary correspondingly,
causing Doppler spread, which characterizes the rate of
channel variations.
Motion Effects: Amplitude Variation
Two-path Doppler Effects
Scenario: two incoming waves arrive at the mobile at angles of 0 and
. Assume they are of equal amplitude.
Received signal: r(t) = Ae
j2fct
(e
-j x
+e
- j x cos
)
= Ae
j2fct
e
-j x(1+cos)/2 .
2cos( x (1-cos)/2)
Phase: (t) =2 f
c
t - x (1+cos)/2
Doppler frequency: f
D
= v/
c
.
(1+cos)/2
Signal amplitude: (t) = 2A cos( x(1+cos)/2)
Amplitude fluctuates with frequency f
A
= v/
c
.
(1- cos)/2
Key properties of multipath channels due to motion
The fade level (amplitude) varies as a function of position. In the
general case when a large and random number of path exist, the
resulting amplitude (envelop) is modeled as a r. v. (e.g. Rayleigh)
The rate of fading fluctuations depends on velocity. A rough measure
of the fading rate is the Doppler spread.
10
Statistical Multipath Model
Random MP components change with time, each with
Random amplitude
Random phase
Random Doppler shift
Random delay
Leads to time-varying channel impulse response:
Rapid changes in signal strength over a small area/time interval
Time dispersions (echoes) caused by MP delays
Characterization of MP Fading Channels
Channel impulse response function
MP Effects
Combined Doppler effect from MP result in amplitude and
phase variations
Component amplitudes change slowly; A large change in
C
n
(t) are necessary to change r(t) significantly
Component phases change rapidly; Only small changes in

n
(t) are required to change r(t) dramatically (f
c
is very large)
Different
n
change in different, unpredictable ways
Conclusions
r(t) is best described as a random process
If a large number of paths contributes to r(t), then r(t) is well
modeled as a Gaussian random process
g(t,) is a Gaussian random process

=
) (
1
) (
) ( ) ( ) , (
t N
n
n
t j
n
n
e t C t g

11
Characterization of Flat Fading
Flat frequency-non-selective fading
Differential path delays are small than symbol period
All MP components differ only by amplitude and/or
phase term (no data distortion/ISI)
Channel: g(t,)=g(t) (
o
), T (t, f ) = g(t)e
-j2f
o
LLN: for N(t) large, in-phase and quad signals r
I
(t) and
r
Q
(t) are jointly Gaussian
Characterization of the received signal
Correlation and PSD
Envelop and phase distribution
Envelop correlation and spectrum
Envelop level crossing rate and average fade duration
Envelope Amplitude and Phase
Envelope signal g(t) = g
I
(t) + j g
Q
(t)
g(t) is WSS complex Gaussian random process
Amplitude (t) = |g(t)|;
Phase (t) = tan
-1
(g
Q
(t)/g
I
(t))
Envelope power
p
= E[
2
(t)] = 2P
r
(signal power)
Squared-envelope
2
(t) is proportional to instantaneous signal power
Fading distribution depends on environment
NoLOS: Rayleigh distribution
Amplitude pdf: Rayleigh
Power pdf: exponential
Phase: uniformly distributed over [-, ]
LOS: Ricean distribution
Amplitude pdf: Ricean
Phase: not uniform, more complicated
Measurements support Nakagami distribution in some environments
Similar to Ricean, but models worse than Rayleigh channels
Lends itself better to closed form BER expressions
12
Flat Fading Channel Types
Channel
type
Environment
(see handout for probability density function)
Rayleigh Mobile system with no LOS between Tx and Rx
Rician
Nakagami-n
Propagation paths with a LOS and random weaker components
Related to Rician factor (n
2
=K)
n=0: Rayleigh; n=inf: no fading
Nakagami-
m
Land mobile, indoor mobile multipath
m=1: Rayleigh; m=inf: no fading; m=1/2: one-side Gaussian
Nakagami-q
(Hoyt)
Satellite links subject to strong ionospheric scintillation
q=1: Rayleigh; q = 1: one-side Gaussian
Log-normal
shadowing
Urban land mobile, land mobile satellite systems;
caused by terrain, buildings, trees
Composite
gamma/log-
normal
Congested downtown area with slow moving objects
Nakagami-m multipath superimposed on log-normal shadowing
BER Analysis in Flat Fading
Generalized BER in digital comm:
: instantaneous SNR; a, c: constants related to modem
BER analysis
No-fading channel: is deterministic,
No-fading channel: is r.v.
SNR distribution: obeys squared-envelop PDF of channel
Average BER for an average SNR :
Example: BPSK in Rayleigh fading (pp. 244, Stuber)
Numerical Evaluation
( ) c aQ P
e
= ) (
) (
e e
P P =
{ } { } ( )

= = =

d p c aQ P E P E P
e e e
) ( ) ( ) (
=
o s
N E / =

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2 /
0 2
2 2
sin 2
exp
1
2
exp
2
1
) (

d
x
dy
y
x Q
x
13
Level Crossing and Fade Duration
Second-order statistics of envelope fading
Level crossing rate
The rate at which the envelope crosses level R
Rayleigh:
Average fade duration
Average duration that the envelop level remains below R
Depends on frequency, velocity, and fade depth
Dictates performance measure
Rayleigh: Inversely proportional to Doppler frequency
Deeper fades tend to occur less frequently and last shorter
f
c
= 900M Hz, v = 60m/hr, f
D
= 88Hz,
L
R
= 81/s, t
R
= 7.8ms for = 0dB
L
R
= 2.2/s, t
R
= 45s for = -20dB
) 2 /( ) 1 (
2

D R
f e t =
2
2

= e f L
D R
14
Frequency-Selective Fading
Frequency selective
Time spread of the propagation path delays is large
compared to the inverse signal bandwidth
Frequency components in the transmitted signal will
experience different phase shifts along different paths,
resulting in amplitude and phase distortions
Channel characterizing functions (Bello)
MP channels modeled as time-variant linear filters
Key elements: time t, time delay , freq. f, Doppler freq.
Input delay spread function
Output Doppler-spread function
Time-variant transfer function
Delay Doppler-spread function
Bello Transmission Functions
Input delay spread function g(t,)
Relates input-output time waveforms: r(t) = g(t,) *s(t)
Channel viewed as a transversal filter with tap spacing and time-
varying tap gain g(t,m)
Output Doppler-spread function H ( f, )
Relates input-output spectra: R(f) = H ( f, ) * S(f)
Channel viewed as a filter bank with transfer functions H ( f,m)
followed by a frequency conversion chain producing the Doppler shifts
Time-variant transfer function T(f,t)
Relates output time waveform to input spectrum: r(t) = IFFT{S(f)T(f, t)}
Delay Doppler-spread function S(,)
Relates input-output time waveforms in terms of and
Fourier transform relations between the transmission functions
15
Wideband Channel Model
Channel Scattering Function
S
(,)
Defined as Fourier transform of
g
(t,) with respect to t.
Denotes average power output of the channel as function
of and
Easy to measure in practice; When
g
(t,) unknown take
expected value
Used to find key channel parameters
Multipath Intensity Profile:
g
()
Delay spread and Coherence bandwidth
Doppler Spectrum:

()
Doppler spread and Coherence time

S
(,)
Multipath Intensity Profile
Multipath intensity profile/Power delay profile
Average output of the channel as a function of the delay
Delay spread T
m
The range of values for which
g
() is essentially non-zero
Typical T
m
values: indoors < 1s, outdoor > 1s (1-10s)
Coherence bandwidth f
c

g
(f): Fourier transform of
g
(); auto-correlation in f
f
c
denotes the range of frequencies where
g
(f) is non-zero
Two sinusoids with frequencies separated by more than will
be affected very differently by the channel;
Therefore severe distortion if BW
s
> f
c
, but also provides
leverage for frequency diversity
16
Doppler Spectrum
Objective
Quantify the time-varying nature of the channel
Doppler power spectral density
H
()
Average power at the channel output as a function of
the Doppler frequency
Coherence time T
c
Doppler spread B
d
T
c
= 1/B
d
indicates the length of time over which
channel is approximately constant
Data rate and Channel characteristics
T
s
>> T
m
(Symbol period > Delay spread)
ISI is no concern; equivalent to BW
s
<< f
c
Frequency non-selective fading: all spectral components of signal are
affected equally by the channel
E.g. T
m
= 5s, T
s
>> T
m
=> T
s
~ 50s, max rate R = 20K
symbols/second ~ 1 voice channel
T
s
< T
m
(Symbol period < Delay spread)
Frequency selective fading
ISI exists, equalization required
E.g. GSMR
b
~ 4 s
T
s
<< T
c
(Symbol period < Coherence time)
Lower Doppler spread, equivalently to B
d
<< 1/T
s
Slow fading: channel variations slower than baseband signal variations
Coherent demodulation is possible
T
s
> T
c
(Symbol period > Coherence time)
Higher Doppler spread, equivalently to B
d
> 1/T
s
; Fast fading
17
Channel Impairments and Mitigation
Multipath dispersion/Delay spread
Time dispersion, frequency-selective fading
Rapid changes in signal strength over a small time/distance
MP spreads/smears the signal, causing ISI
Limits max. symbol rate: Transmission rate < coherence BW
Errors increase as bit period approaches delay spread
Doppler spread
Frequency dispersion, time selective fading
Random frequency modulation on different MP signals
Loss of synchronization due to Doppler induced frequency/phase shifts
Error Burst resulted from fades in radio channels
Strategies for overcoming errors
Antenna diversity (+10dB)
Forward error correction (FEC) through coding gain
Equalization for frequency selective fading
Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ)
Propagation Channel Summary
Complex Radio Propagation
Channel varies with user location and time
Large scale Long-term fades
Simplified pass loss model
Log-normal shadowing and coverage
Small scale short-term fades
Multipath scattering leads to time-varying Channel impulse response
and rapid fluctuation of received power
Statistical analysis: signal/envelope correlation & PSD
Rice factor
Resulting channel impairments
Multipath dispersion/Delay spread
Rayleigh fading/Frequency Spread
Average fade duration dictates performance measures
18
Simulating Short-Term Fading
Jakes method: sum of sinusoids
Discrete-time equivalent channel
Input delay spread function g(t,), channels are viewed as a transversal
filter with tap spacing and time-varying tap gain g
n
(t) = g(t,m)
-spaced tapped delay line model (Figure 2.38)
The filter coefficients g
n
(t) are typically modeled as complex-valued
Gaussian random process. The parameters of g
n
(t) are
fractional power: expected value E[| g
n
(t)|
2
]
PSD of g
n
(t): Doppler spectrum S
g
(f) (e.g. CLASS, RICE, etc.)
g
n
(t) = IFFT {G
n
(f) FFT(white Gaussian r.p)}, where |G
n
(f)|
2
= S
g
(f)

= =
= =
N
n
n n
N
n
n n
t t s t g t r t t t g t g
1 1
) (
~
) ( ) (
~
, ) ( ) ( ) , (