Lecture 5. COMPRESSION MEMBERS Content of lecture: 5.1.

Types and uses of compression members, loadings and cross-sections Axially loaded columns, general behavior, effective length Design procedure for axially loaded columns Columns under combined axial loads and bending moment Short and slender columns Types and uses of compression mem ers

Compression members are one of the basic structural elements, and are described by the terms columns, stanchions or struts, all of load! Columns are vertical members supporting floors, roofs and cranes in buildings! Though internal columns in buildings are essentially axially loaded and are designed as such, most columns are sub"ected to axial load and moment! The term strut is often used to describe other compression members such as those in trusses, lattice girders or bracing! Some types of compression members are sho n in #ig! $! hich primarily resist axial

!i"ure 1. Types of compression mem ers

Compression members must resist buc%ling, so they tend to be stoc%y slender and more compact tension members and deep beam sections!

ith s&uare

sections! The tube is an ideal shape for such members! These are in contrast to the

'olled, compound and built-up sections are used for columns! (niversal columns are used in buildings here axial load predominates, and universal beams are often used to resist heavy moments that occur in columns in industrial buildings!

!i"ure #. Compression mem er sections Single angles, double angles, tees, channels and structural hollo Compression member sections are sho n in #ig! )! C$assification of cross sections. The pro"ecting flange of an *-shaped compression member ill buc%le locally if it is too thin hile the rest of the member remains arped straight! +ebs ill also buc%le under compressive stress from bending and from sections are the

common sections used for struts in trusses, lattice girders and bracing!

shear! The reduction in compressive capacity should be obvious as the

portion of the member re"ects load and transfers it to other portions! To prevent local buc%ling occurring, limiting outstand/thickness ratios for flanges and depth/thickness ratios for ebs are given in BS ,-,.: Part $, Cl. /!,.

Column cross-sections are classified as follo s in accordance under load0

ith their behavior

Class 1 - Plastic cross section! This can develop a plastic hinge structure! 1nly class $ sections can be used for plastic design!

ith

sufficient rotation capacity to permit redistribution of moments in the entire

Class 2 - Compact cross section! This can develop full plastic moment capacity but local buc%ling prevents sufficient rotation at constant moment! Class 3 - Semi-compact cross section! The stress in the extreme fibers should be limited to the yield stress because local buc%ling prevents development of the full plastic moment! Class 4 - Slender cross section! 2remature local buc%ling occurs before yield is reached! #lat elements in a cross section are classified as0 - Internal elements supported on both longitudinal edges3 - Outside elements attached on one edge ith the other free! 4lements are generally of uniform thic%ness but, if tapered, the average thic%ness is used! Compression members are classified as plastic, compact or semi-compact if they meet limiting proportions for flanges and in Tab. 5, BS ,-,.0 Part *! #or rolled and ebs in axial compression given elded column sections #ig! / sho s

these proportions hich ere set out to prevent local buc%ling!

Limitin" Proportions E$ement Section Type P$astic Section Compa Semi % ct Compa Section 15 1+ Section ct Outstand e$ement of compression f$an"e Interna$ e$ement of compression f$an"e 'e su ,ect to Ro$$ed d&T compression t-rou"-out 'e$ded d&T . /#)5 & p y 0 1.5 !i"ure +. Limitin" proportions for ro$$ed and 2e$ded co$umn sections Loads. Axial loading on columns in buildings is due to loads from roofs, floors and alls transmitted to the column through beams and to self eight, #ig! 67a8! #( +* Ro$$ed &T 'e$ded &T 'e$ded &T #+ #5 #( (.5 ).5 *.5 (.5

#loor beam reactions are eccentric to the column axis, as sho n, and if the beam arrangement or loading is asymmetrical, moments are transmitted to the column! +ind loads on multi-storey buildings designed to the

a0

0 !i"ure 3. Loads and moments on compression mem ers simple design method are usually ta%en to be applied at floor levels and to be resisted by the bracing, and so do not cause moments! *n industrial buildings loads from cranes and ind cause moments in columns, as sho n in #ig! 67b8! *n this case the ind is applied as a distributed load to the column through the sheeting rails!

5.#

45ia$$y $oaded compression mem ers

General considerations. Compression members may be classified by length! A short column, post or pedestal fails by crushing or s&uashing, #ig! ,7a8! The s&uash load Py i in terms of the design strength is0 Py = py A +here3 A - area of cross section!

A long or slender column fails by buc%ling, as sho n in #ig! ,7b8! The failure load is less than the s&uash load and depends on the degree of slenderness! 9ost practical columns fail by buc%ling! #or example, a universal column under axial load fails in flexural buc%ling about the ea%er :-: axis, #ig! ,7c8! The strength of a column depends on its resistance to buc%ling! Thus the column of tubular section in #ig! ,7d8 area! This is easily demonstrated ith a sheet of A6 paper! 1pen or flat, the paper ill carry a much higher load than the bar of the same cross-sectional

cannot be stood on edge to carry its o n eight3 but rolled into a tube it ill carry a considerable load! The tubular section is the optimum column section having e&ual resistance to buc%ling in all directions!

a0

c0

d0

!i"ure 5. Be-a6ior of mem ers in a5ia$ compression Initially straig t struts !"uler load#. Consider a pin-ended straight column! The critical value of axial load P is found by e&uating disturbing and restoring moments hen the strut has been

a) initia$$y strai"-t strut

0 strut 2it- initia$ d0 co$umn cur6ature section

c0 strut 2it- end eccentricity

!i"ure 7. Load cases for struts given a small deflection y, as sho n in #ig! ;7a8! The e&uilibrium e&uation is0
!" y d ) y < d
)

= Py

This is solved to give the 4uler or lo est critical load,

P! = ) !" y < #) !

*n terms of stress the e&uation may be rearranged as0 p! = for r =

" $

P! ) !" = ! Substituting $ $#) e

and r)="/$ gives0

p! =

) !r ) )! )! )! = = = ! ) #) #) 7 #e < r 8 ) ) e e <r

here0 "y - moment of inertia about the minor axis :-:3 # - length of the strut3 P > axial load3 ry % &"y /$'(,)- radius of gyration for the minor axis :-:3 p! % P! /$ - 4uler critical stress3

% #/ry - slenderness ratio!

The slenderness * is the only variable affecting the critical stress! At the critical load the strut is in neutral e&uilibrium! The central deflection is not defined and may be of unlimited extent! The curve of 4uler stress against slenderness for a universal column section is sho n in #ig! ?! Strut +ith initial cur,ature. *n practice, columns are generally not straight, and the effect of out ol straightness on strength is studied in this section! Consider a strut ith at initial curvature bent in a half sine ave, as sho n in #ig! ;7b8! *f thc initial deflection at x from $ is y. and the strut deflects y further under load -, the e&uilibrium e&uation is0 !" d)y/d ) %P&y.y(' here deflection y = sin ! $%&#

*f /. is the initial deflection at the centre and is the additional deflection caused by P, then it can be sho n by solving the e&uilibrium e&uation that0
= . 7 P! < P 8 $

The maximum stress at the centre of the strut is given by0

P P 7 . 8 + , $ "y

pmax =

here h is sho n in #ig! ;7d8!

2ut3

p max % py - design strength pc% P/$ - average stress p4 % P! /$ - 4uler stress "y % $ ry ) - moment of inertia about the 0-0 - axis $ - area of cross section ry - radius of gyration for the 0-0 - axis h - half the flange breath

Than the e&uation for maximum stress can be ritten as0

p y = pc + pc A$ $ h @ .) 7 p! < pc 8 $ ry

2ut = r ) and rearrange to give0 7p4 > pc8 7py > pc8 = 1 p4 pc! y

.h

The value of pc , the limiting strength at

hich the maximum stress e&uals the

design strength, can be found by solving this e&uation and is the 2erry factor! This is redefined in terms of slenderness! "ccentrically loaded struts. 9ost struts are eccentrically loaded, and the effect of this on strut strength is examined here! A strut ith end eccentricities e is sho n in #ig! ;7c8! *f y is deflection from the initially straight strut the e&uilibrium e&uation is0

"Id#y%d$#= - P!e ' y# This can be solved to give the secant formula for limiting stress! Theoretical studies and tests sho that the behavior of a strut ith end eccentricity is similar to that of one ith initial curvature! Thus the t o cases can be combined ith the 2erry factor, ta%ing account of both imperfections! (esidual stresses. As noted above, in general, practical struts are not straight and the load is not applied concentrically! *n addition, rolled and elded strut sections have residual stresses, hich are loc%ed in hen the section cools unevenly! A typical pattern of residual stress for a hot-rolled B-section is sho n in #ig 5! *f the section is sub"ected to a uniform load the presence of these stresses causes yielding to occur first at the ends of the flanges! This reduces the flexural rigidity of the section, hich is no based on

a0 !i"ure ). Residua$ stresses

the elastic core, as sho n in #ig! 57b8! The effect on buc%ling about the 0-0 axis is more severe than for the 2-2 axis! Theoretical studies and tests sho that the effect of residual stresses can be ta%en into account by ad"usting the 2erry factor . )esign strengt s! An extensive column-testing programme has been carried out,

and this has sho n that different design curves are re&uired for0 7$8 7)8 7/8 Different column sections3 The same section buc%ling about different axes3 Sections ith different thic%ness of metal!

#or example, B-sections have high residual compressive stresses at the ends of the flanges, and these affect the column strength if buc%ling ta%es place about the minor axis! The total effect of the imperfections discussed above 7initial curvature, end eccentricity and residual stresses on strength8 are combined into the 2erry constant

! This is ad"usted to ma%e the e&uation for limiting stress pc a lo er bound to the
test results! The constant is defined by0 1 % .!..$a &* - *(8, here *. = .!) 73)!/py8.!, The value . , gives the limit to the plateau over hich the design strength py

controls the strut load! The 'obertson constant a is assigned different values to give the different design curves! #or B%sections buc%ling about the minor axis a has the value ,!, to give design curve 7c8 7Tab! )57c88! A strut table selection is given in Tab. ), in BS 6-,.0 Part $! #or example, for rolled and elded B%sections ith metal thic%nesses up to 6. mm the follo ing design curves are used 7$8 7)8 Cuc%ling about the ma"or axis DD - curve 7b8 7Table )57b883 Cuc%ling about the minor axis :: - curve 7c8 7Table )57c88! as

The compressive strength is given by the smaller root of the e&uation that derived above for a strut ith initial curvature! This is0 7p4 > pc8 7py > pc8 = 1 p4 pc, here0 py > design stress 7or pmax83

p4 - 4uler stress3 pc > limiting compressive stress,

= A p y + 7 +$8 p! @ < )

pc =

p! p y 7 + p! p y 8 .!,
)

The curves for 4uler stress p! and limiting stress or compressive strength pc for a rolled B - section column buc%ling about the minor axis are sho n in #ig! ?! *t can be noted that short struts fail at the design strength hile slender ones approach the 4uler critical stress! #or intermediate struts, the compressive strength is a lo er bound to the test results, as noted above! Compressive strengths for struts for curves a, b, c and d are given in Tables )57a-d8 in BS ,-,.0 Part $! "**ecti+e lengt s! The actual length of a compression member on any plane is the distance bet een effective positional or directional restraints in that plane! A positional restraint should be connected to a bracing system hich should be capable of resisting $E of the axial force in the restrained member 7 Cl! 6!5!$8! The actual column is replaced by an e&uivalent pin-ended column of the same strength that has an effective length0 &" = ,& here & - actual length3 , - effective length ratio 7to be determined from the end conditions8!

!i"ure (. T-eoretica$ effecti6e $en"t-. An alternative method is to determine the distance bet een points of contra flexure in the deflected strut! These points may lie ithin the strut length or they may be imaginary points on the extended elastic curve! The distance so defined is the effective length! The theoretical effective lengths for standard cases are sho n in #ig! -! Fote that for the cantilever and s ay case the point of contra flexure is outside the strut length! "**ecti+e lengt s !Cl. 4. -.2#. The effective length is considered to be the actual length of the member bet een points of restraint multiplied by a coefficient to allo for effects such as stiffening due to end connections of the frame of hich the member is a part! Appropriate values for the coefficients are given in Tab. )6 of the code and illustrated in #ig! /!)/7a8 and 7b8! *n the case of angles, channels and T-sections, secondary bending effects induced bG end connections can be ignored and pure axial loading assumed, provided that the slenderness values are determined using Cls. 6!5!$.!) to 6!5!$.!, or Tab. )? in the code! *n the case of other cross-sections the slenderness should be evaluated using effective lengths as indicated in #igures /!)/7a8 and 7b8! *n addition, Appendix D of the code gives the appropriate coefficients to be used hen assessing the effective lengths for columns in single-story buildings using simple construction!

!i"ure *. Codes definition for effecti6e $en"tThe coefficients given for determining effective lengths are generally greater than those predicted by mathematical theory3 this is to allo inability in practice to obtain full fixity! 5.+. Mem ers su ,ect to com ined compression and endin" Column loads so far have been assumed to be concentric, i!e!, applied along the axis of the column! This assumption is valid over the top of the column, or beams A and C ho ever, beam C column no longer the column opposite each other as hen the load is applied uniformly hen beams has having e&ual reactions frame into ould be the case in #ig! $/a if the reactions of ere the same! *f, as for effects such as the

ere the same, and those of beams C and D

ere omitted as sho n in #ig! $/b, or if the reaction of C ould be symmetrical and that the left column flange

considerably less than that of A in #ig! $/a, it is evident that the loads on the ould be sub"ected to a greater unit stress than the right! This eccentric loading condition occurs fre&uently in all columns of buildings, here a floor beam is supported on the interior face ithout a corresponding load on the exterior face! 7#ig! $/c simply illustrates one method of framing, hich may be used to lessen this eccentricity, or even to balance the loads if the total reaction of the t o spandrel

a0

0 !i"ure 1+.

c0

d0

beams is nearly the same as that of the floor beam!8 These types of members are sub"ected to bending moment in addition to axial load and termed Hbeam columnsI! They are representing the general load case of an element in a structural frame!

S-ort co$umns
S ort column .e a+ior. *n order to develop an expression that ill account for the variation in stress over the column cross section due to the eccentric condition, consider once more the short compression bloc%, this time ith a load P eccentrically applied 7#ig! $/d8! The distance e is the eccentricity, and c is the distance from the axis of the bloc% to the extreme fibers! The stress in any fiber, on any cross section of the bloc%, such as D- : may be considered to be the sum of the average stress -/$, and a stress caused by the moment -e. To the right of the axis of the bloc%, i!e!, on the same side as -, this moment causes a compressive stress on the section and to the left of the axis, a tensile stress! The unit stress at 0 is e&ual to the average stress -/$, plus the extreme fiber stress 4c/" caused by the moment -c. Substituting -e for 4, the intensity of stress at 0 and 2 are expressed by the formulas *y = / % A ' /ec % I 0 *$ = / % A 1 / e c % I or *=/%A2/ec%I

in

hich f is the unit stress at either edge of the section, depending on

hether the

plus or minus sign is used, and " is the moment of inertia in the direction of the eccentricity! The expressions are applicable to sections symmetrical about t o axes such as rectangles, *- and B- sections! *n the investigation of eccentrically loaded columns, maximum compression is usually the most critical, because seldom ill the tensile stress on the far edge of hen the column is to the column due to the moment -e be sufficient to counteract the direct compressive stress -/$. +here this does occur, it is of importance only be spliced! *t is generally true in buildings that columns carry a direct axial load in addition to any eccentric loads that may exist! +here such is the case, a more convenient form of the expression is * = / % A ' /3 e c % I in hich / - is the total vertical load including the eccentric load, and -5- is the eccentric load alone! S ort column *ailure. Consider vertical member having e&ual end moments 4(, deflecting to a shape sho n in #ig! $6! 9aximum lateral deflection is 6 deflected shape 7#ig! $6a8, there to -6 m. This, in turn, causes
m

and the

moment at mid-height, is 4. +hen the axial load - is applied to the already ill be an additional moment at mid-height e&ual

/a0 / 0 !i"ure 13. S-ort co$umn e-a6ior /a0 and fundamenta$ interaction cur6es / 0 more lateral deflection, causing more moment, and so on! Conse&uently, the final bending stress at mid-height of the column by each action, or *. = 4 c % I ' / 5mc % I . The additional stresses caused by -6m are very difficult to ascertain, often re&uiring the complex mathematical processes %no n as numerical integration! Such procedures and accompanying formulas are unrealistic for routine design application! Bo ever, some useful conclusions can be abstracted from the abovedescribed structural action! *t is seen that for a constant end condition such as that sho n in #ig! $6a 7e&ual end moments8, the lateral deflection ill depend upon the slenderness ratio of the column stresses from the deflection P. *n order to simplify the design procedure, a method based upon the application of ith respect to the direction of bending! A large ith increasing values of the axial load slenderness ratio permits a larger lateral deflection! The corresponding bending ill increase ill he the sum of the stresses caused

the interaction formula is used! *t may be modified as necessary to agree experimental test data!

ith

The curves sho n in #ig! $6b are typical of such test data for short columns 7straight lines, * = .8! Columns having e&ual end moments 4( ere tested to determine hat additional axial load 2 could be applied before failure ould occur! This as repeated for columns having different slenderness ratio, such ratios being determined respective to the direction of the applied moment! These values, of varying combinations of - and 4, ere made dimensionless by dividing them respectively by Pc > axial load causing yielding 7if it alone occurred8 and 4c bending moment causing yielding 7if it occurred in absence of an axial load8! The similarity of the axial load ratios -/Pc and the axial stress ratios fa /py should be apparent! The same similarity exists bet een the moment ratios 4( /4y and the bending stress ratios fb /py!

!i"ure 15. P$astic stress distri ution in endin" a out 88 a5is #or short columns failure generally occurs hen the plastic capacity of the section

is reached! The plastic stress distribution for uniaxial bending is sho n in #ig! $,! The moment capacity for plastic or compact sections in the absence of axial load is given by0 4 = S py 9 1.# 6 py7 7see Section 7.8.) of BS )9)(: Part :8

here0

S = plastic modulus for the relevant axis 6 = elastic modulus for the relevant axis!

The interaction curves for axial load and bending about the t o principal axes separately are sho n in #ig! ?!$?7a8! Fote the effect of the limitation of bending capacity for the :: axis! These curves are in terms of -/Pc against 4r / 4c and 4ry / 4cy , here0 P 4r 4c load 4ry 4cy load! Jalues for 4r and 4ry are calculated using e&uations for reduced plastic modulus given in the ;uide to BS ,-,.0 Part $0 $-?,, <ol. $, Section 2roperties, 9ember Capacities, Constrado! Kinear interaction expressions can be adopted! These are0 /%Pc ' 4$ %4c$ . 1 and /%Pc ' 4y % 4cy . 1 here 4$ % applied moment about the DD axis 4y % applied moment about the :: axis! This simplification gives a conservative design! 2lastic and compact B sections %reduced moment capacity about the :: axis in the presence % moment capacity about the :: axis in the absence of axial of axial load = applied axial load % py $, the s&uash load = reduced moment capacity about the DD axis in the presence % moment capacity about the DD axis in the absence of axial

of axial load

sub"ected to axial load and biaxial bending are found to give a convex failure surface, as sho n in #ig! ?!$?7a8! At any point $ on the surface the combination of axial load and moments about the D-D and :-: axes 4 and 4ry, respectively, that the section can support can be read off! A plane dra n through the terminal points of the surface gives a linear interaction expression0 /%Pc ' 4$ %4c$ ' 4y % 4cy = 1 This results in a conservative design! S$ender co$umns Slender columns .e a+ior. The behavior of slender columns can be classified into the follo ing cases0

!i"ure 17. S$ender co$umn su ,ected to a5ia$ $oad and moment

Case a - A slender column sub"ected to axial load and uniaxial bending about the ma"or axis D-D! *f the column is supported laterally against buc%ling about the minor axis :-: out of the plane of bending, the column fails by buc%ling about the D-D axis! This is not a common case 7see #ig! ?!$57a88! At lo axial loads or if the column is not very slender a plastic hinge forms at the end or point of maximum moment Case . - A slender column sub"ected to axial load and uniaxial bending about the minor axis :-:! The column does not re&uire lateral support and there is no buc%ling out of the plane of bending! The column fails by buc%ling about the :-: axis! At very lo #ig! ?!$57b88! axial loads it ill reach the bending capacity for :-: axis 7see

a0

!i"ure 15. !ai$ure surfaces /a0 and contours / 0 for s$ender co$umns

Case c - A slender column sub"ected to axial load and uniaxial axial bending about the ma"or axis 8-8. This time the column has no lateral support! The column fails due to a combination of column buc%ling about the :-: axis and lateral torsional buc%ling here the column section t ists as ell as deflecting in the 8-8 and 9-9 planes 7see #ig! ?!$57c88! Case d > A slender column sub"ected to axial load and biaxial bending! The column has no lateral support! The failure is the same as in previous case above but minor axis buc%ling loading case! /ailure o* slender columns! +ith slender columns, buc%ling effects must be ta%en into account! These are minor axis buc%ling from axial load and lateral torsional buc%ling from moments applied about the ma"or axis! The effect of moment gradient must also be considered! All the imperfections, initial curvature, eccentricity of application of load and residual stresses affect the behavior! The HendI conditions have to be ta%en into account in estimating the effective length! Theoretical solutions have been derived and compared ith test results! #ailure surfaces for B-section columns plotted from the more exact approach given in the code are sho n in #ig! $,7a8 for various values of slenderness! #ailure contours are sho n in #ig! $,7b8! These represent lo er bounds to exact behavior! The failure surfaces are presented in the follo ing terms0 Slenderness0 :=1 : . 51; 111 : Fe terms used are0 : / % Pc0 4r$ % 4c$ 0 4ry % 4cy ill usually have the greatest effect! This is the general

/ % Pc0 4a$ % 4c$ 0 4ay % 4cy

4a$ - maximum buc%ling moment about the D-D axis in the presence of axial load 4ay - maximum buc%ling moment about the :-: axis in the presence of axial load! The follo ing points are to be noted! $! 4ay; the moment capacity about the :: axis, is not sub"ected to the restriction $!) py =y . )! At Lero axial load, slenderness does not affect the bending strength of an B section about the 0-0 axis! /! At high values of slenderness the buc%ling resistance moment 4b about the D-D axis controls the moment capacity for bending about that axis! 6! As the slenderness increases, the failure curves in the -/Pc , :-:-axis plane change from convex to concave, sho ing the increasing dominance of minor axis buc%ling! ,! #or design purposes the results are presented in the form of an interaction expressions and this is discussed in the next section!

Code desi"n procedure The code design procedure for compression members out0 7$8 Kocal capacity chec%3 and 7)8 1verall buc%ling chec%! ith moments is set out in

Cl. 6!?!/ of BS ,-,.: Part $! This re&uires the follo ing t o chec%s to be carried

*n each case t o procedures are given! These are a simplified approach and a more exact one! 7$8 Loca$ capacity c-ec<! The member should be chec%ed at the point of greatest bending moment and axial load! This is usually at the end, but it could be ithin the column height if lateral loads are also applied! The capacity is controlled by yielding or local buc%ling! The interaction relationship for semi-compact and slender cross sections and the simplified approach for compact cross sections given in Cl. 6!?!/!) of the Code is0 /%Agpy ' 4$ %4c$ ' 4y % 4cy 9 1.1 +here3 - - applied axial load3 $g - gross cross-sectional area 4 - applied moment about the ma"or axis 2-2 4c - moment capacity about the ma"or axis 2-2 in the absence of axial load 4y - applied moment about the minor axis 0-0 4cy - moment capacity about the minor axis 0-0 in the absence of axial load! More ri"orous ana$ysis given is used to produce an alternative e&uation, hich ill generally produce a more economic design! This is based on the convex failure surface discussed above! The follo ing relationship must be satisfied0 m4$ %4a$ ' m4y % 4y 9 1.1 here0 9x > maximum buc%ling moment about the D-D axis in the presence of axial load and e&uals the lesser of0

4c$ ;!1- / % Pc$# % !1 ' 1.5/ % Pc$#<7 or +here3

4!1 1 / % Pcy#

4ay > maximum buc%ling moment about the :: axis in the

presence of axial load and e&uals 4cy ;!1- / % Pcy# % !1 ' 1.5/ % Pcy#<7 here0 Pc and Pcy > compression resistances about the ma"or and minor

axes respectively! 7)8 O6era$$ uc<$in" c-ec<! The simplified interaction relationship to be

satisfied is given in Clause 7.>.?.?.: of the Code! This is0 /%Agpc ' m4$ %4. ' m4y % py 6y 9 1.1 +here3 code 4b - buc%ling resistance moment capacity about the ma"or axis D-D =y - elastic modulus of section for the minor axis :-: The value for 4b is given in Cl. 6!/!5!5 of the Code as0 4 . = p. S$ = here0 . * @ slenderness #! / ry. @ torsional index = A / T 7approximately8 or can be calculated from the formula in Appendix C or from the published table in the Muide to BS ,-,.0Part $! pb> bending stress determined from Tab. $- for values of * and m - e&uivalent uniform moment factor from Table $? in the

A more exact approach is also given in the code! This uses the convex failure surfaces discussed above! E5amp$e. A braced column 6!, m long is sub"ected to a factored end loads and moments about the x-x axis! The column is held in position but only partially restrained in direction at the ends! Chec% that a )./x)./ (C,) in Mrade 6/ is ade&uate! Solution $! Kocal buc%ling capacity chec%!

#rom Tab! ; find design strength, py = )5, F<mm)3 B = 7)5,<py8.!, = $!. #rom Tab! 50 for flanges - b/T = ?!$,; N ?!, 7plastic8 for eb - d/t % $;.!? < ? = ).!$ N /- 7plastic8 9oment capacity for plastic or compact sections in the absence of the axial load0 4cx = Sx py = ,;? x )5, x $.-/ = $,;!) %F m > > $!) =xpy = $!) x ,$. x )5, x $.-/ = $;?!6 %F m, so 1O! *nteraction expression gives0
??. $./ /, + = .!6? + .!)) = .!5 $!. , / ;;!6 )5, $. $,;!)

so 1O!

The section is satisfactory ith respect of local capacity! )! 1verall buc%ling chec%

4ffective length, Tab! )6! = /?),<,$!; = 56!$

#4 = .!?, x 6,.. = /?), mm3 Slenderness * = #4 <ry

#rom Tab!), select design curve and from Tab! )57c8 for * =56!$ and py =)5, F<mm) find pc = $5)!? F<mm) #ind buc%ling resistance moment capacity, 4b = Sx pb! #rom Tab! - 7for the support conditions of the beam column that is laterally restrained against torsion, but partially free to rotate in plane8 the effective length #4 = .!?, x 6,.. = /?), mm3 The ratio of end moments C = 4min <4max =$)</, = /6)3 for this value the e&uivalent uniform moment factor can be found from Tab! $? by interpolation, m = !;-53 The slenderness correction factor 7Tab! $/8 is n = $!.! #rom sections properties table find0 buc%ling parameter, u = .!?6?3 torsional index =$,!?!#ind slenderness factor, D from Tab!$6 using E and *0
" cf " cf + " tf

E =

= .!,3 *< = 56!$<$,!? = 6!;- P D = .!?/)

4&uivalent slenderness, *KT = n u D * = $ x .!?6? x .!?/) x 56!$ = ,)!$ #rom Tab! $$ the bending strength, pb = )/)!5 F<mm)! The buc%ling resistance moment capacity, 4b = Sx pb = )/)!5 x ,;? x $.-/ = $/)!$%F m! #rom interaction diagram0
m4 ??. .!;-5 /, + = + = .!-, $!. , $g 4b ;;!6 $5)!? $/)

so its 1O!

The section is also satisfactory ith respect of overall buc%ling! 5.3. Co$umn ases

A$ially loaded sla. .ase plates! Columns pinned at their bases are provided

hich are assumed to be nominally ith four holding

ith a slab base comprising a single plate fillet elds and bolts must be of ade&uate siLe,

elded to the end of the column and bolted to the foundation do n 7B!D!8 bolts! The base plate,

stiffness and strength to transfer the axial compressive force and shear at the support ithout exceeding the bearing strength of the bedding material and

a0 !i"ure 11.

concrete base, as sho n in #ig! $$a! Clause 7.:?.8.8 of CS ,-,.02art $ gives the follo ing empirical formula for determining the minimum thic%ness of a rectangular base plate supporting a concentrically loaded column0
)!,+ ) 7 a .!/b ) 8@.!, p yp

t =A

here0 a - the greater pro"ection of the plate beyond the column as sho n in #ig! $$b b - the lesser pro"ection of the plate beyond the column as sho n in #ig!$$b + - the pressure on the underside of the plate assuming a uniform distribution py - the design strength of the plate 7Cl. ?.:.: or Tab. ;8, but not greater than )5. F<mm)!

Column .ases. Column base transmit axial loads, horiLontal loads and moments from the steel column to the concrete foundation! The main function of column base is to distribute the loads safely to the ea%er material! The main types of column bases are, #ig! $)0 $! Slab base. Depending on relative value of -/4 t o cases occur0 a8 The pressure over the hole base3 b8 The pressure over part of the base and tension in the holding do n bolts! Cl. 6!$/!$ assumes that the nominal bearing pressure under base-plate is distributed linearly, so elastic analysis is used in design! The middle third rule applies, and if the eccentricity e N $<; Ap, the resultant load lies base length and pressure occurs over the ithin the middle third of the hole of the base! Than, P % F/$ Q 4/=

R bearing strength of the concrete = .!6 fcu, here the area of the base $ = bAp and elastic modulus, =%Bp Ap<; 7S or - gives pmax and pmin pressure respectively8! Consider $ mm ide strip hich acts as a cantilever from the face of the column! This approach gives a conservative design for the thic%ness! Cending in t o direction is not ta%en into account! Case pressure at section - , px-x = pminS A7Ap - b8<Ap@7pmax - pmin8 = pmax - 7b<Ap87pmax - pmin8! The trapeLoidal pressure diagram loadin the strip is divided into t o triangles! The moment at - is0 4x-x = 7px-x x b x b</8<) S 7pmax x b x )b</8<)3 #or 4 = py=x = py x t)<;

eld connection find $ and = from section properties table! Axial stress fc =

F/$ and the bending stress fbt = 74 x $./8<=x!

)!

;usset base. Mussets support the base plate against bending and this is hy

a thinner plate can be used than ith the slab base! The gussets are sub"ected to bending from up ard pressure under the base as sho n in #ig! $)b! The top edge of the gusset is compressed and has to be chec%ed for buc%ling! To ensure that this ill not occur use limiting proportions from Tab! 5 for semi-compact section! T o re&uirements must be satisfied0 $! Musset bet een elds to the column flange0 A G )?Bt )! 1utstand of gusset from column or base plate0 S G $/Bt. Bere B = 7)5,<pyg 8.!,3 t >thic%ness of the gusset plate3 pyg > design strength of gusset plate! /! Pocket base. *n this type of base the column is grouted into a poc%et in the

concrete foundation, #ig! $)c! The axial load is resisted by direct bearing and bond bet een the steel and concrete! The moment is resisted by compression forces in the concrete acting on the flanges of the column! The forces act on both faces of the flanges of a universal beam