Journal of Hydrology 472473 (2012) 328339

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Journal of Hydrology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jhydrol

A numerical solution to integrated water ows: Application to the ooding of an open pit mine at the Barcs river catchment La Corua, Spain
J.-Horacio Hernndez 1, Francisco Padilla , Ricardo Juncosa, Pablo R. Vellando, lvaro Fernndez
ETS de Ingenieros de Caminos, Canales y Puertos, Campus de Elvia 15071, University of A Corua, Spain Water and Environmental Engineering Group, Spain2

a r t i c l e

i n f o

s u m m a r y
This research and practical application is concerned with the development of a physically-based numerical model that incorporates new approaches for a nite element solution to the steady/transient problems of the joint surface/groundwater ows of a particular region with the help of a Geographic Information Systems to store, represent, manage and take decisions on all the simulated conditions. The proposed surfacesubsurface model considers surface and groundwater interactions to be depthaveraged through a novel interpretation of a linear river ood routing method. Inltration rates and overland ows generation processes are assessed by a sub-model which accounts for this kind of surfacegroundwater interactions. Surfacegroundwater interactions consider also novel evaporation and evapotranspiration processes as a diffuse discharge from surface water, non-saturated subsoil and groundwater table. The practical application regards the present ooding of the Meirama open pit, a quite deep coal mining excavation, with freshwater coming from the upper Meirama sub-basin, in the context of the water resources fate and use at the Barcs river catchment (87.9 km2), Corua, Spain. The developed model MELEF was applied to the complex geology of a pull-apart type sedimentary tertiary valley and the whole of the water resources of the Barcs River drainage basin, down to its outlet at the Cecebre Reservoir. Firstly, the model was adapted and calibrated during a simulation period of three and a half years (2006/2009) with the aid of the historically registered hydrological parameters and data. Secondly, the results predict the most likely forthcoming evolution of the present ooding of the Meirama open pit to reach therein a total depth level of almost 200 m, as regards the projected evolution of the water resources, climatology and usages. 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Article history: Received 27 June 2012 Received in revised form 6 September 2012 Accepted 19 September 2012 Available online 27 September 2012 This manuscript was handled by Corrado Corradini, Editor-in-Chief, with the assistance of Michel Bakalowicz, Associate Editor Keywords: Integrated surface/subsurface ows Numerical modeling Finite elements Watershed hydrology Geographic Information System Meirama open pit

1. Introduction Nowadays, there is an increasing need for integrated surface and ground water numerical modelling. The philosophy and role of hydrological models in water resources has been widely described. Recent methodologies were also developed on combined watershed and ground-water applications to the whole of the water resources of a particular river basin (Ross et al., 2005; Sophocleous and Perkins, 2000). MIKE SHE and MIKE BASIN are two examples of numerical and physically based modelling systems developed by DHI (1997) for describing the major ow processes of the entire land phase of the hydrological cycle which integrates the Saint-Venant surface equation to a vertical 1-D Richards equation for unsaturated ow and a 3-D nite element solver for saturated ow (Graham and Butts, 2005).
Corresponding author. Tel.: +34 981167000x1428; fax: +34 981167170.
E-mail addresses: jhernandez@udc.es (J.-Horacio Hernndez), fpadilla@udc.es (F. Padilla), rjuncosa@udc.es (R. Juncosa), pvellando@udc.es (P.R. Vellando), afernandezgarcia@limeisa.es (. Fernndez). 1 Tel.: +34 981167000x5463. 2 www.geama.info. 0022-1694/$ - see front matter 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2012.09.040

Several process-based numerical models for the simulation of coupled surface and subsurface ow have emerged in more recent years. Examples include Gunduz and Aral (2005), who focused on the interactions between rivers and aquifers; Jones et al. (2008), whose coupling of Richards equation and various approximations of the Saint-Venant equation relies on the hypothesis of a rst order diffusion of water between the surface and the subsurface and an interface layer with a nite thickness; Weill et al. (2009), who developed a model based on the generalization of DarcyRichards equation that allows implicit coupling between surface and subsurface; Kollet and Maxwell (2006), whose coupling approach is based on the continuity of the pressure head and uxes at the ground surface; and Camporese et al. (2010), whose catchment hydrology model couples a nite element solver for the Richards equation describing variably saturated porous media and a nite difference solver for the diffusive wave equation describing surface ow. Standard features of detailed process-based hydrological models could include: handling of input and output of nonuniform, heterogeneous and anisotropic hydrological parameters and variables, accommodation of a large variety of numerical conditions and boundaries over the simulated domain, as well as numerical

J.-Horacio Hernndez et al. / Journal of Hydrology 472473 (2012) 328339

329

algorithms for linearizing and solving large systems of equations. These characteristics will not be described in any case here; this research will focus instead on some new features, summarized below, of an integrated surfacesubsurface ow numerical model for suitable watershed practical applications. In this eld, a new methodology of nite element modelling has been developed (MELEF model, Modle dLments Finis in French) which considers novel modelling features of the joint surface and ground water regional ows of continental freshwater and coastal salt water intrusion from the sea by means of an immiscible fresh/salt water interface reliable for different kinds of watersheds and environmental problems (Padilla and Cruz-Sanjulin, 1997; Padilla et al., 2008). The model considers surface and groundwater interactions to be depth-averaged through a novel interpretation of a linear river ood routing method. Inltration rates as well as overland ows generation processes are assessed by a new sub-model which accounts for this kind of surfacegroundwater interactions. Surfacegroundwater interactions consider also new evaporation and evapotranspiration processes as a diffuse discharge from surface water, non-saturated subsoil and groundwater table. Nowadays, geographically distributed data are commonly managed by Geographic Information Systems (GIS). In this respect, ArcHydro Tools as well as ArcGIS 9.3.1 script tools from Python and Model Builder are implemented to manage hydrological data, parameters and variables, simulated conditions and boundaries, as well as output results of the present numerical modeling. Therefore, this research deals with the numerical developments being required to consider the practical application of a nite element solution to the joint fresh surface/groundwater ows that are concerned with the very particular hydrology of the ooding of a very deep open pit in the context of the whole of the water resources of its river catchment. The model behavior is checked, in this case, through the application to the whole Barcs river catchment, featured by a complex geology and the particular geomorphology and hydrology of the opencast Meirama mine being presently restored as a lake.

interface and a diffusive wave approach that describes the surface ow (Padilla et al., 2008). In order to establish the appropriate transient partial differential equations governing just the phreatic continental regional aquifers on a 2D depth-averaged basis, it is necessary to previously dene the ow of the freshwater phase.

    @h @ @h @ @h K xx h p K xy h p @t @x @x @x @y     @ @h @ @h K yx h p K yy h p Q @y @x @y @y

where h is the piezometric head, Kij is the hydraulic conductivity tensor, p is the impervious substratum positions, n is the effective porosity of the aquifer accounting for the water table movements (Fig. 1), and Q is the inow and outow rate per unit surface. Similar equations can be found in other horizontal numerical models (Huyakorn et al., 1996). 2.2. Surfacegroundwater interactions 2.2.1. Root water uptake The numeric code MELEF also considers the evapotranspiration process as a diffuse discharge from surface water and soil within the non-saturated zone for each point on the modelled system. The conceptual model of root water uptake transpiration curves is depicted in Fig. 2. As can be seen, the actual evapotranspiration (ETa) is evaluated in terms of the position of the water table (WT). Nevertheless, when the WT is above the soil surface, the free water evaporation depends on the values taken by regional potential evaporation (Ep1, Ep2, Ep3, . . .) that can be calculated with empirical equations. The root water uptake model transpiration curve starts when the water table decreases in the region between soil surface and the capillary fringe (CF), following the empirical equations for the adjustment of phreatic evaporation (Hu et al., 2009; Li et al., 2008). Thus, phreatic evaporation, ECF, is evaluated as

2. Model description 2.1. Groundwater The MELEF model for continental and coastal catchment applications couples surface and subsurface fresh and saltwater regional hydrology by a joint nite element solver for the saturated porous media ows of fresh and saltwater through an immiscible sharp

ECF S

S WT

Ep b1 ; b1 CF

b1

5 Ep ETp ETp Ep

where SS is the soil surface, b1 is a coupling function between equations (Eqs. (2) and (3)) and an adjustment for the ETa behavior. The second part of the transpiration curve starts increasing toward the potential evapotranspiration (ETp) in the region bounded by CF and soil thickness (ST), simulating the transpiration similarly to other root water uptake models (Baird and Maddock,

Fig. 1. Surface/groundwater ows and model interaction. Zs are, respectively, the thicknesses of groundwater (gw), subsoil (ss) and stream/overland ow (s). WT is the water table, and ETa is the actual evapotranspiration.

330

J.-Horacio Hernndez et al. / Journal of Hydrology 472473 (2012) 328339

With respect to this, the continuity equation for the channel reach is also given by

dS DS IQ  dt K
Therefore, the time dimensioned K parameter can be regarded as the time increment required for the water to ow between two control points, and it is meaningful to assume it as dt. Substituting this last one in the Muskingum equation yields

I Q dQ dI Q X
3

The dimensions for the equation above are, [Q] = [I] = L /T, with X being non-dimensional. Taking into account this equation of ow routing in a channel reach for horizontal water discharges, the following solution can be given to I Q:

dI Q I Q dzs zX s
Which is interpreted as the vertical variation of the mean horizontal rates of ow with respect to the water depth zs, whose units are [zs] = L. Otherwise X is non-dimensional, but must take a value verifying that: dzs zX s. The original Muskingum equation can now be interpreted as:

Fig. 2. Root water uptake model transpiration curves.

2005; Li et al., 1999; Nyambayo and Potts, 2010). In this region the actual transpiration Ta for the local vegetation is dened as

1 X I Q dQ

Ta ETp

5 ECF b1

where ETp should be evaluated with empirical equations for the potential/reference evapotranspiration. The last part of the transpiration curve starts when the WT is deeper than the ST at the time of the internal evaluation of the numerical code. The ETa curve is gradually restricted between total recharge (TR) and regional ETp, that is, if the TR is less than the ETp, then the curve is limited to the TR, otherwise, the curve is restricted to the ETp. The transpiration behavior in this zone is intended to approach the transpiration under hydric stress (TW) of the vegetation as

which is now similar to the groundwater equation of continuity, because (1 X) plays the role of the storage coefcient, (I Q) is the range of change of storage, and dQ acts in fact as the ow divergence. Therefore, from this, it can be assumed that:

dQ Q I Q 1 X dzs zX zX s s

which after integration can give the mean horizontal ow rates per unit length q as a function of the surface water velocity vs.

q v s 1 X e 1X 1

1X s

! v s f zs ; X 9

ETp TR b2 T w TR S WT a ; S b2 ST

b2

ST ETp TR CF b1 1 5 Ep

where b2 is a coupling function between Eqs. (3) and (4), and a is an adjustment parameter. The root water uptake model has important advantages. One of these is that all the parameters can be used with the required spatial and temporal variability, and be ready to assess the ETa from the calculated phreatic levels during the iterative process of nding the optimal solution to the numerical system. 2.2.2. Stream ow The MELEF numerical model uses a simplication of the equations governing the free surface ows. In particular, as often happens with other commonly used kinematic and diffusive wave approaches in hydrology, only the classical mass conservation or continuity equation is considered for the present 2D depth averaged model (Tung, 1985). Consequently, following the Muskingum linear method, the range of change of storage in a channel reach, as well as a depression pool or lake, can be expressed as:

Therefore q, which depends also on the horizontal hydraulic gradient, can be dened by a function that enhances the hydraulic transmissibility (T), here behaving like a transfer parameter adapted to the free surface ow, that in fact depends on the surface water depth zs and can be adjusted experimentally only through the X parameter.

q v s f zs ; X K s @ h=@ x f zs ; X T @ h=@ x

10

DS dQ dI Q X K

where S is the surface water storage, I and Q are the inow and outow rates, X is a factor accounting for channel or reservoir routing, and K is the storage time constant.

This last denition, which takes into account the mean horizontal surface velocity, needs to be introduced and added to the groundwater governing continuity equations, as a new kind of water ow rates per unit length, that respect the mass balances of groundwater and surface water for a given X parameter, and (1 X) as the apparent coefcient of storage, which accounts for this particular diffusive wave approach, whenever treating vertically averaged horizontal groundwater and surface water ows above the soil surface. This means that there is no need for mathematical coupling between groundwater and surface water ows because both are lumped and treated in 2D by the same set of differential equations and numerical nite element solution procedure. With respect to this, the present numerical characterization of the free surface ow comes through an interpretation of the river ood routing method of Muskingum that makes sense from the point of view of the groundwater equation of continuity. The coupling between free surface and ground water ows can then be lumped in this horizontal numerical approach and will conserve

J.-Horacio Hernndez et al. / Journal of Hydrology 472473 (2012) 328339

331

mass through the denitions given to the mean horizontal velocity of surface water and the X parameter. Similar to other techniques of ood routing (Tung, 1985), the MELEF model requires the calibration of the parameters (mainly water storage coefcient, transmissibility and soil properties) with the above-mentioned conceptual approach for surface ow. 2.2.3. Overland ow The concept of spatially averaged inltration capacity (Ke), when the soil is eld-saturated and steady-state conditions are reached, has been an important assumption for the assessment in MELEF code of the actual inltration rate, and therefore of the Hortonian overland ow. Nowadays, the concept of Ke is being reconsidered by hydrologist in favor of an exponential distribution function of inltration capacity (Eq. (11)) proposed by Hawkins (1982). Langhans et al. (2011), Stone et al. (2008) and Yu et al. (1997) applied the exponential method to their rainfallrunoff data at plot scale, which yielded much better results than the application of a model with a constant Ke. Thus, exponential method is implemented for the calculation of actual inltration rates which depends on rainfall intensity.

ate properties (mainly water storage and transmissibility) suitable for subsurface runoff and water transference between both media, that is, the one below, -the groundwater-, and the one above, -the surface water-. On this context, for instance, the apparent storage would play the role of the water storage coefcient, which depends on the groundwater table position or the surface water depth, smoothing its value between the groundwater (effective porosity), the subsoil zone and the free surface water, until reaching a value of (1 X) as the apparent coefcient of storage. On the other hand, the vertically averaged transmissibility would smooth its value between the groundwater, the subsoil zone and the surface water, pending on the groundwater table position or the surface water depth, until reaching the values that enhances the hydraulic transmissibility through its dependency from the X parameter (Eq. (10)). The depth averaging of all types of groundwater and surface water ows is done through equivalent water storage coefcients and hydraulic conductivities, which yield transmissibilities, for horizontal lumped 2D hydrodynamics as assessed on a vertical multilayered domain (Fig. 1), as follows:

neq

ngw zgw nss zss 1 X zs zgw zss zs K gw zgw K ss zss K s zs zgw zss zs

13

I Imax 1 expP=Imax

11 K eq 14

Eq. (13) characterizes the spatial variation of actual inltration capacity in the plot area, where Imax is the spatially averaged maximum inltration rate and P is the rainfall intensity. Thus, the rate of rainfall excess (R) is given by:

R P I P Imax 1 expP=Imax

12

Eq. (12) gives the rate of rainfall excess when the water table is below the soil surface, then overland ow is evaluated by the stream ow assumption (Eq. (10)). 2.3. Numerical conditions and resolution Taking surfacegroundwater interactions into account, in particular when water table approaches the soil surface, it became necessary to smooth out numerically the sharp front of properties between the surface and ground water media. On the basis of this numerical requirement, we return to the use of the hydrological concept of the subsoil zone (Figs. 1 and 3), which would play the role of a nite thickness interface layer that would have intermedi-

The current tool used in water resource modelling, MELEF, is a two dimensional nite element model for regional surface and groundwater ows through drainage basins, developed for a temporal implicit (Eulerian) centered (CrankNicholson) and spatially centered (Galerkin) numerical approach. In particular, triangular elements of three nodes allow for the analytic integration of the corresponding numerical formulation for steady and transient conditions. The preconditioned iterative algorithm GMRES (Saad and Schultz, 1986) provides the solution to the system by means of a reduced computer memory and then allows the simple processing of the numerical mesh. There is no difference in time-scales between the surface and ground water ows because they are solved together as a whole depth-averaged. This is a clear advantage because the lumping properties allow for quite good numerical resolutions in practical applications with sparse and affordable meshes as well as time scales. Hydraulic heads and gradients are the solutions of the lumped model.

Fig. 3. Equivalent storage and transmissibility.

332

J.-Horacio Hernndez et al. / Journal of Hydrology 472473 (2012) 328339

Fig. 4. Barcs catchment location (87.9 km2). North-Western Spain.

Hydraulic heads and gradients are depth-averaged. Then the model is depth-averaged solved, but the results are interpreted and approached in a multilayered way, giving solutions for water ows and mean horizontal velocities above the soil surface, runoff and overland ows, as well as under the soil surface, saturated subsurface and groundwater ows. As part of the present surface/subsurface ow numerical approach, the model incorporates capabilities to assess the drainage layout of surface runoff and the freshwater ground levels, overland and subsurface ows, with punctual and diffuse surface and ground water recharges and discharges, thickness and velocities of surface and ground waters, as well as several types of rivers diversions, water balances and ooding of water bodies of high depth level.

A database, with measured or acquired data, is related with the table of shapele attributes through a common eld to generate spatially and temporally transient conditions. 3. Model application Since 1980 coal mining in Meirama mine had been exploited by Lignitos of Meirama, S.A. (LIMEISA) as part of an important activity that nished in March 2008. The environmental plan of closure has started with the ooding of the opencast pit mine to nally create a large lake of 186 ha up to a maximum depth level of some 200 m and a capacity of 146 106 m3. In this context, the forthcoming evolution is analyzed as a function of the actual strategy of ooding. The presently forming pit lake of Meirama is to lie on the Barcs river catchment (87.9 km2) leading the ow towards its outlet at the Cecebre reservoir, north-western Spain, 20 km from the city of La Corua (Fig. 4). The climate in this area is typically Atlantic with an annual rainfall of about 1300 mm and an evapotranspiration of 600800 mm, nevertheless the rainfall in the catchment presents a positive linear gradient conditioned by altitude. To this respect, the catchment might be split up into three different zones by rain gauging station altitudes (Fig. 7A), where historical daily precipitation rates (1974 2009) and maxmin temperatures (19832009) were considered before December 2009. Trends with a period longer than one year were not found by a Fast Fourier Transformation analysis of monthly precipitation and daily temperature. Thereafter, prospective monthly seasonal precipitation and potential evapotranspiration rates were estimated. During the last exploitation period (June 2006March 2008) the open pit has been in use and some twenty pumping wells were placed in its contours so as to drawdown the water table (Fig. 7C). To prevent the surface water getting into the pit, the streams were

2.4. Simulated conditions and GIS First of all, a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) is required to dene the watershed study area after DEM preprocessing (Maidment and Djokic, 2000). So that ArcHydro Tools and Agree-DEM surface reconditioning system method (Hellweger, 1997) are carried out. Then, ow accumulations and ow directions are considered for stream denition and delimitation of surfacegroundwater interaction buffer zones. Thereafter watershed study area is implemented to create a triangular nite elements mesh with major density nodes at buffer zones. MELEF code simulated conditions are managed with Model Builder and Python scripts for ArcGIS 9.3.1. Nodal properties are dened with shapeles features (points, polygons and polylines). Then, pumping wells, cross sections discharges, surface water diversions zones, boundary conditions and rain gauged zones are generated.

J.-Horacio Hernndez et al. / Journal of Hydrology 472473 (2012) 328339

333

Fig. 5. Location of surface water discharge measurements.

Fig. 6. Geology of the catchment materials. Location of piezometers and pumping wells selected for calibration purposes.

diverted and the water pumped from the bottom of the pit to be led to a treatment plant, being afterward drained by means of two perimeter channels towards the Barcs River (Fig. 7C). Other water uses within the Barcs river catchment area of main interest as, for instance, the water supply company of La Corua provided the registries of the free surface water variations at the Cecebre Reservoir as well as the surface water diversions of Barcs River for drinkable water supply of neighboring municipalities.

In order to improve the calibration of the stream ow model and the hydrogeological properties of some geological materials, water discharge measurements (141 in total) on the Barcs River and main streams were carried out from March 2007 until late 2009 by velocity area and dilution methods (Fig. 5). Registries of piezometers and pumping levels, owned by LIMEISA, were selected among those wells which are screened thoroughly along the borehole. The purpose is to avoid the

334

J.-Horacio Hernndez et al. / Journal of Hydrology 472473 (2012) 328339

Fig. 7. Finite elements mesh model, geology and water management in the Barcs catchment.

commonly observed vertical hydraulic gradients. The location of some selected piezometers and pumping wells is depicted in Fig. 6. With respect to the geological aspects, there are three main regions in the Barcs river catchment, one in the NW featured by a fractured and altered granite massif being partially kaolinized, a second one in the S-NE characterized by a schist substratum partially covered by alluvial Quaternary sediments, and a third one marked by a tectonically complex sedimentary basin with Tertiary materials and mining rells which is located between the two former zones of granite and schist and where most of the mining works of the lignite exploitation took place (Fig. 6). For these materials, the main hydrologic parameters (hydraulic conductivity, drainage porosity, inltration rate, soil thickness, capillary fringe, etc.) have been adjusted during a calibration process (during the simulation period going from June 2006 to December 2009) mainly based, on one hand, on the eld measured parameters and on the tectonics and geological features of the region, as well as, on the other hand, on the measurements of the surface water ows, the groundwater phreatic levels, the free surface levels in the pit lake of Meirama, and the water balances inside the area delimited by cross sections around the pit (Fig. 7C). With respect to this, the present work applies the MELEF model to the fresh water resources of the whole Barcs river catchment, which includes exploitation, closure and hydraulics restoration of the opencast mine, with the aid of the historically registered hydrological parameters and data. Thus, the simulation strategy considers three periods of time: the calibration period (2006 2009), the validation period (20092011), and the prediction period (20112016). During the calibration period, the simulated conditions consider measured daily rates, and the management of surface water during Meirama coal exploitation and ooding of the mine reclamation; once the ooding initiated on 18March-2008, most of the existing wells stopped pumping (Fig. 7C) and the ooding of the mine begun only with groundwater ow; after 3-October-2008 the mine is being ooded with water diverted from some of their neighboring creeks (Fig. 7B). During the validation period, the simulated conditions considers monthly seasonal rates from historical series and the same

calibration period parameter conguration and ooding strategy; besides, a periodical comparison between simulated and new measured data of ooding evolution is carried out. During the prediction period, the simulation considers the forthcoming evolution of the hydrology of the Barcs river catchment and the ooding of the Meirama mine. In order to properly proceed with the calibration of the hydrological parameters of this horizontal numerical model, several campaigns of eld measurements of hydrological variables were carried out in the drainage basin. Nevertheless, the instrumentation for continuous measurements was not possible for surface water discharges and groundwater levels. In this respect, two different zones can be distinguished in the Barcs River catchment: the rst zone, the upper basin of the Meirama pit (about 30 km2), has a complex hydrogeology with fractured, weathered and vertically arranged materials and aquifers; the second zone, the middle and low basin of the Barcs River (about 60 km2), has a quite simple geology of schist and quaternary materials. However, this last zone could not be continuously and extensively monitored for surface discharges and groundwater levels during the calibration period. In this context, the calibration of the hydrological parameters has been a difcult task, mainly because of the lack of measured storm ow discharges and the existence of quite common vertical hydraulic gradients, as well as isolated and perched aquifers. These are not the most appropriate hydrological conditions for the present horizontal and porous media modelling approach. Then, the aim is to predict the forthcoming evolution of the present ooding of the Meirama open pit, to reach a total depth level of almost 200 m and a ooded surface of nearly 1.86 km2, as regards the expected regional hydrology. 4. Results and discussion The results of the model application to the whole of the water resources at the Barcs river catchment, during a total period of ten years, that includes the hydrological history, the present and the forthcoming future of the ooding of the Meirama open pit,

J.-Horacio Hernndez et al. / Journal of Hydrology 472473 (2012) 328339 Table 1 Summary of some calibrated parameters of most materials. Material Kx (m/day) 0.224.0 0.05 0.22 0.34 0.05 0.10.4 0.08 0.5 1.82.5 0.042.4 0.024 0.1 0.6 0.11.3 Ky (m/day) 0.224.0 0.05 0.22 0.34 0.07 0.20.6 0.08 0.5 1.82.5 0.042.4 0.024 0.1 0.6 0.091.0 Anisotropy direction (azimuth) 0 0 0 to 65 7 7 to 30 0 0 0 0 0 to 65 0 0 to 65 Porosity (%) 1.640.0 4.0 0.91.1 1.0 1.48.0 2.0 10.0 15.0 30.0 1.112.0 1.01.6 4.0 2.010.0

335

Backll Clays Granites Granites altered Granites fractured Hornfels Hornfels fractured Rockll Sand/clay/gravel Schists Schists altered Schists fractured

provide a good variety of hydrological data based on the precipitation, the water usages, the calibrated parameters and the geology of the region. A trial and error method was employed to estimate the model parameters on a 6 h time step system resolution. In this respect the hydraulic conductivities and anisotropy angles, as well as effective porosities of materials were estimated at the catchment areas depending on their geological structure and lithology, and were emphasized at those materials closer to the surface of the soil in the rst fty meters of thickness, where the regional hydrogeology is considered more relevant. These results are summarized in Table 1. The results of calibration give major effective porosities, 1.1 40%, and hydraulic conductivities, 0.044 m/day, for those materi-

als related with the mining rells, backll/wastes and quaternary (Table 1). The storage of backll materials below the contour elevation of 25 m (Fig. 6), seems to be a consequence of the presence of recent dry and low compacted materials with an important clay content. Thus, the backll effective porosity could be considered as quite close to the total porosity. The wide range of conductivities observed in the quaternary materials is due to their different thicknesses which are vertically averaged with schist or granite. Meanwhile the schist material shows a low conductivity 0.0240.05 m/ day (Fig. 9) with porosity values of 1.01.6%, and massif granites present conductivity values between 0.22 and 0.34 m/day with porosities of 0.91.1%. Nevertheless, the hydraulic anisotropy of geological materials was implemented to reproduce the averaged behavior of the fractured media (Fig. 8A). The comparison of observed hydraulic heads in the piezometers, for instance P1, P2 and P3 (Fig. 9-right), shows a low sensitivity with respect to the simulated hydraulic heads, although the mean absolute differences are about 9.7 m. In addition to the low sensitivity observed in these piezometers (P1, P2 and P3), the most plausible explanation is their hydraulic disconnection. These piezometers follow the limits between the granite partially kaolinized and the disturbed materials by the mine exploitation activity (Fig. 6), which would conrm the possible formation of partial quite impervious barriers of kaolin. With respect to the results of the simulated pumping wells W1 (massif granites) and W2W3 (altered granites), it is interesting the good behavior of simulated hydraulic heads in altered granites, if they are compared, for instance, to the observed in W2W3. However a high variability is observed in hydraulic heads simulated in massif granites, as can be observed in the pumping well W1, where the mean absolute differences are about 7.4 m. The piezometer P4 is located in a theoretically porous material enhancing their sensitivity to the surface hydrology, as can be seen on the good agreement between observed and simulated hydraulic heads, with mean absolute differences of about 3 m (Fig. 9-right).

Fig. 8. Calibrated parameters: hydraulic conductivity (A), effective porosity (B) and anisotropy direction (C). The material anisotropy, depicted on (C), is normalized by their hydraulic conductivity module.

336

J.-Horacio Hernndez et al. / Journal of Hydrology 472473 (2012) 328339

Fig. 9. Left: some of the surface ow discharges measured and simulated during the calibration period. Right: some of the observed and simulated hydraulic heads observed in piezometers and pumping wells close to the Meirama mine.

Table 2 Mean percentage of error relative to the maximum observed value. Location Barcs stream Sub-catchments Hydraulic heads Meirama mine (ooding) 188 3.4 Data 76 68 359 Error (%) 29.9 11.2 2.7 2.7 Relative to Max. discharge 1.020 m3/s 0.561 m3/s Max. hydr. head 292.9 m Max. water depth 150.0 m Max. volume 68.12 hm3

In other respects, the results in the surface domain are compared with some of the measured discharges at different subcatchments and supercial drainage points at the Barcs River (Fig. 9-left). The analysis of surface runoff results shows a mean relative error of 29.9% along the Barcs River (maximum observed discharge of 1.02 m3/s). This relative error seems to be enhanced by the cumulative errors from the neighboring drainage subcatchments, as well as by the surface water regulation effects in the Barcs upper basin (Meirama basin, 33 km2) that gives an important base ow during the exploitation and ooding periods

of the Meirama open pit. The relative error of the principal subcatchments is 11.2% for a maximum measured discharge of 0.56 m3/s (Table 2). It can be seen that the predicted surface runoff in the sub-catchments, with natural surface ow regimes, is much better assessed. In any case, daily rainfall rates increase the degree of uncertainty of surface ow, which surely distorts the comparison. Although, it is interesting to note that the evolution of surface ow is sensitive to the narrowing or widening of the alluvial, which increases or decreases the peak ow (B1, B3 and B4, discharges in Fig. 9). The ooding of the open pit begins (18-03-2008) with groundwater ow only. Meanwhile, the surface water drained by the Meirama basin is diverted to the Barcs River. Thereafter (3-10-2008) the mine is being ooded with water diverted from some of their drainage streams (Fig. 7B). The evolution of the ooding, illustrated in Fig. 10 left, is depicted from the point of view of the calibration, the validation and the prediction periods, as well as that of the evolution of the relative errors for the maximum water depth (about 150 m) and for the maximum volume of surface water storage (about 68.12 106 m3) which have been observed. Table 2 shows the corresponding averaged relative errors for the ooding of the Meirama open pit mine. Small relative errors are evaluated when the surface and ground water hydrology variability is focused on

J.-Horacio Hernndez et al. / Journal of Hydrology 472473 (2012) 328339

337

Fig. 10. Left: Flooding evolution observed and simulated with the percentage of error relative to the maximum observed surface level relative error. Right: Total balance from cumulative volumes in the area of the open pit mine delimited by cross sections (Fig. 7C).

the upper watershed, where the ooding of the open pit mine of Meirama takes place, which is one of the main aims of this application, mainly because of the availability of data and the calibration strategy. In addition to the analysis of the hydrological evolution of the ooding in the open pit by means of the water elevations that have been reached, other water variables, like the cumulative volumes of discharges from cross sections that enclose the open pit mine, are also analyzed (Fig. 10 right). The cumulative volume analysis considers: the surface water ow, the groundwater ow, the overland ow, the rainfall, the evaporation from the free surface water and the bare soil, as well as the transpiration due to the local vegetation. The total balance of all the components of this particular hydrological cycle are compared with the volume of water associated with the simulated ooding evolution (surface water storage in the open pit). Through this analysis, it is possible to assess the material water storage in the analyzed area as the difference between the surface water storage and the total balance. It is also interesting to notice that once the target elevation ooding is reached (176.4 m.a.s.l.) a gradual hydrological stabilization follows. Then, the multiple sources of water getting into the open pit are mainly discharged as surface water, as can be seen by the behavior of the surface water cumulative volume. An averaged groundwater discharge of about 3.1 hectometres per year, inside a perimeter of 8.1 km (Fig. 7C), is in good agreement with the volume pumped within the mine during the last exploitation period. Finally, the past and future scenarios of the surface and groundwater layouts which have been simulated are depicted on Fig. 11, where the high level of interaction and variability of the hydrology of surface and groundwater ows in the Barcs River watershed is clearly shown during two specic hydrological events of the ten years simulation period. Among these results we would like to underline, for instance, the drainage layout of surface runoff and the freshwater hydraulic heads around the Meirama open pit, that prospectively will reach its maximum capacity (143.4 106 m3), free surface altitude (176 m.a.s.l.) and water depth level (200 m) by December 2014. The main conclusion of this analysis is based upon the fact that the conservation of the water balance is veried on both a local and global basis. This responsibility lays on the consistent surface and ground water model interactions which guarantee the water mass conservation trough the X parameter. In the context of the present application the X parameter takes a calibrated value of 0.929.

5. Conclusions A process-based integrated hydrological model of 2-D saturated subsurface and surface ows has been presented. This groundwater model for continental catchment applications couples subsurface regional hydrogeology by a nite element resolution to the saturated porous media ows of freshwater. Numerical characterization of overland and free surface ows comes through an interpretation of a linear river ood routing method that makes sense from the point of view of a diffusive wave approach and the equation of continuity, allowing the free surface and groundwater ows to be lumped, depth-averaged, in a horizontal nite element approach that conserves water mass balances. Others surface groundwater interactions considers the actual evaporation and transpiration processes as a diffuse discharge from surface water, non-saturated subsoil and groundwater, through several developed sub-models which depend, among others hydrological variables, on the ground water table position. Inltration rates and overland ows generation processes are assessed by a new submodel which accounts for this kind of surfacegroundwater interactions. From the need to smooth out numerically the sharp front of properties (mainly water storage and transmissibility) between the surface and groundwater media, the subsoil zone concept is implemented within the surfacegroundwater interactions submodels. The subsurface and surface model is depth-averaged solved, numerically lumped, although coupled between freshwater and saltwater, but the results are interpreted and assessed in a multilayered way, giving solutions for fresh and salt water ows as well as mean horizontal velocities above and under the soil surface (surface, overland, subsurface and groundwater ows). Hydrological properties, simulated conditions and numerical results of the nite element model, MELEF, are managed by GIS. One application to the freshwater ooding of an open pit mine at the Barcs river catchment (La Corua, Spain), during a total period of ten years, was presented to illustrate a high variety of interactions between surface and subsurface water, where regional hydrology allows the ooding of a surface water body of high depth level. The analysis is carried out through the calibration and validation of hydrological parameters, variables and processes based also upon the fact that the conservation of mass is veried on both a local and global basis. Main results consider the drainage layout of surface runoff and the freshwater ground levels, as well as measured and simulated surface ows, groundwater tables, free surface levels and freshwater balances around the Meirama open

338

J.-Horacio Hernndez et al. / Journal of Hydrology 472473 (2012) 328339

Fig. 11. Surface and groundwater levels simulated in December 2009 and January 2016 at the Barcs river catchment.

pit, that prospectively will reach its maximum capacity (143.4 106 m3), free surface altitude (176 m.a.s.l.) and water depth level (200 m) by December 2014. The comparison of observed and simulated groundwater levels around the open pit mine, shows a moderate good t. The lack of t could be mainly understood by the complex geology and the existence of strong vertical hydraulic gradients, as well as isolated aquifers, that affect the concerned weathered and fractured rock materials. Nevertheless, the simulated surface water levels and water balances around the open pit seem quite appropriate with respect to the observed ooding evolution. Although, more knowl-

edge about the hydrologic parameters, as well as continuous measurements of groundwater levels and surface storm ows, could help to a better calibration of Barcs River basin hydrology. Then, the comparison between observed and simulated surface ow rates and groundwater levels seems quite acceptable, given the modelling approach, the available information and the high variability of this catchment hydrology. It can be concluded that the developed numerical model MELEF, for the present joined surface and subsurface regional ows, with new modelling features of surface runoff and overland ows as well as evapotranspiration and GIS, can provide useful and quite

J.-Horacio Hernndez et al. / Journal of Hydrology 472473 (2012) 328339

339

precise results concerning all the freshwater resources of a relatively large drainage basin, like that of the Barcs river of about 87.9 km2, with a complex, anisotropic and fractured geology, where regional hydrology allows the ooding of a surface water body of high depth level. Acknowledgements The work reported in this paper has been funded by the Spanish Ministry of Education and Science CICyT (CGL2006-01452 and CGL2009-11258), the Xunta de Galicia (Maria Barbeito Program) and the company LIMEISA, as well as the European Science Foundation. References
Baird, K.J., Maddock III, T., 2005. Simulating riparian evapotranspiration: a new methodology and application for groundwater models. J. Hydrol. 312 (14), 176190. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2005.02.014. Camporese, M., Paniconi, C., Putti, M., Orlandini, S., 2010. Surface-subsurface ow modeling with path-based runoff routing, boundary condition-based coupling, and assimilation of multisource observation data. Water Resour. Res. 46 (2), W02512. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008wr007536. DHI, 1997. MIKE BASIN. A tool river planning and management. Danish Hydr. Inst., Horsholm, Denmark. Graham, D.N., Butts, M.B., 2005. In: Singh, V.P., Frevert, D.K. (Eds.), Watershed Models. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 245272. Gunduz, O., Aral, M.M., 2005. River networks and groundwater ow: a simultaneous solution of a coupled system. J. Hydrol. 301 (14), 216234. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2004.06.034. Hawkins, R.H., 1982. Interpretations of resource area variability in rainfall runoff relations. In: Singh, V.P. (Ed.), RainfallRunoff Relationships. Water Resources Pub, Littleton, pp. 303324. Hellweger, F.L., 1997. AGREE DEM Surface Reconditioning System. University of Texas, Austin. Hu, S., Zhao, R., Tian, C., Song, Y., 2009. Empirical models of calculating phreatic evaporation from bare soil in Tarim river basin, Xinjiang. Environ. Earth Sci. 59 (3), 663668. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12665-009-0063-z. Huyakorn, P.S., Wu, Y.S., Park, N.S., 1996. Multiphase approach to the numerical solution of a sharp interface saltwater intrusion problem. Water Resour. Res. 32 (1), 93102. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/95wr02919. Jones, J.P., Sudicky, E.A., McLaren, R.G., 2008. Application of a fully-integrated surfacesubsurface ow model at the watershed-scale: a case study. Water Resour. Res. 44 (3), W03407. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2006wr005603.

Kollet, S.J., Maxwell, R.M., 2006. Integrated surface-groundwater ow modeling: a free-surface overland ow boundary condition in a parallel groundwater ow model. Adv. Water Resour. 29 (7), 945958. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.advwatres.2005.08.006. Langhans, C., Govers, G., Diels, J., Leys, A., Clymans, W., Putte, A.V.d., Valckx, J., 2011. Experimental rainfallrunoff data: reconsidering the concept of inltration capacity. J. Hydrol. 399 (34), 255262. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.jhydrol.2011.01.005. Li, K.Y., Boisvert, J.B., Jong, R.D., 1999. An exponential root-water-uptake model. Can. J. Soil Sci. 79 (2), 333343. http://dx.doi.org/10.4141/s98-032. Li, H.T., Kinzelbach, W., Brunner, P., Li, W.P., Dong, X.G., 2008. Topography representation methods for improving evaporation simulation in groundwater modeling. J. Hydrol. 356 (12), 199208. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ j.jhydrol.2008.04.009. Maidment, D., Djokic, D., 2000. Hydrologic and Hydraulic Modeling Support with Geographic Information System. ESRI, USA, 216 pp. Nyambayo, V.P., Potts, D.M., 2010. Numerical simulation of evapotranspiration using a root water uptake model. Comput. Geotech. 37 (12), 175186. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2009.08.008. Padilla, F., Cruz-Sanjulin, J., 1997. Modeling seawater intrusion with open boundary conditions. Ground Water 35 (4), 702712. Padilla, F., Mndez, A., Fernndez, R., Vellando, P.R., 2008. Numerical modelling of surfacewater/groundwater ows for freshwater/saltwater hydrology: the case of the alluvial coastal aquifer of the Low Guadalhorce River, Malaga, Spain. Environ. Geol. 55 (1), 215226. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00254-007-0977-2. Ross, M., Said, A., Torut, A., Tara, K., Geurink, J., 2005. A new discretization scheme for integrated surface and groundwater modelling. In: Hromadka, T.V. (Ed.), Integrated Water Resources Management. American Institute of Hydrology, Las Vegas, Nevada, pp. 143156. Saad, Y., Schultz, M.H., 1986. GMRES: a generalized minimal residual algorithm for solving nonsymmetric linear systems. SIAM J. Sci. Stat. Comput. 7 (3), 856869. http://dx.doi.org/10.1137/0907058. Sophocleous, M., Perkins, S.P., 2000. Methodology and application of combined watershed and ground-water models in Kansas. J. Hydrol. 236 (34), 185201. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0022-1694(00)00293-6. Stone, J.J., Paige, G.B., Hawkins, R.H., 2008. Rainfall intensity-dependent inltration rates on rangeland rainfall simulator plots. Trans. ASABE 51 (1), 4553. Tung, Y.-K., 1985. River ood routing by nonlinear muskingum method. J. Hydraul. Eng. 111 (12), 14471460. http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/(asce)07339429(1985)111:12(1447). Weill, S., Mouche, E., Patin, J., 2009. A generalized Richards equation for surface/ subsurface ow modelling. J. Hydrol. 366 (14), 920. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2008.12.007. Yu, B., Rose, C.W., Coughlan, K.J., Fentie, B., 1997. Plot-scale rainfallrunoff characteristics and modeling at six sites in Australia and Southeast Asia. Trans. ASAE 40 (5), 12951303.