t:T-

31'

ur- V.ar/ *1

n.-

A'*/Ja. c".,t""I
-rl , I t | tu rd' Cr!1t

TIME DOMAIN PERFORMANCE OF CONTROLSYSTEMS

6.I

INPUT SICNALS

lhetu,behaviour with tine Conhol systems are basically dynamic systems So' studying is important Indeed, the study of variaiion of output of a control system ;";;-i;t. it cluding its stabiLity ToYuy*l ttle actual inPut to the.syste:l ;r;;;y;tp*tiues in the and, therefoie, some siandard test inPrrt signals are used ;-;;t"u"';r.";*" traffLaPlace srgnals in Chapter 2 (Section 2 7) and their #" ait.t*"a ;d;: "".i't fo.u'G. Here, we summarisethem in Table 6 t' testsignals 6.1 Standard Table
Signdl

/(t)

R(s)

Unit imPulse

o <t<e lr^l for t(f)=l-o

f0 fort>e a(t)= [0 forfS0 {t for r >o

v{6(f)}= 1
1
5

Unit step Unit ramP Unit patabolic

YIU{t)l {lt(t)l r,lp(I)l

/(f) = 1

tz P\t)=i

1 s3

signal is the It may be noted from the Laplace transforms that each successive inte$al of the preceding one.

136

Perlormance TimeDomain ol ContrclSvstems 137

6.2 RESPONSES
Once an input is given to a system, it will produce an output or response.The response can be (i) transient or (ii) steady-staie. The hansient response is that palt of the responsewhich approachesto zero as time tends to infinity. The part of the responsethat remains after the transients die out is called the steady-state resporue. The parameter, which is important in the steady state, is the steady-stateellor, ers.It is defined as = lim e(f) ess = lim [r(0 - c(t) (6.1)

where e(t), being the difference between referenceinput r(l) and output c(f), is the error.

6.3 TIME RESPONSE ANALYSIS: FIRSTORDERSYSTEM

If the dlnamic relation between the referenceinput /(r) and output.(t) of the form of of a system is

=bor(t) a1ff+ a6c(t)

then it car be wdtten as

(6.2)

rp-+4t1=xr1t1
at

(63)

where r = alao = firf.e constant ard K = bo/qo= gain of the system.Taking the Laplace trarsform of Eq. (6.3) and assuming all initial conditions = Q we have = KR(s) (s?+ 1)C(s) Equation (5.4) yields the transfer firnction as
(J(S)=:=-

(6.4)

^. "

C(s) ( R(s) sr+1

(6.s)

The order of the transfer function is 1. So, such systems are called fust order systems. The block diagram and the signal flow graph of a first order system are given in Figure6.1.
1
sf

(4.)

(b)

(a)block Figure 6.1 Firs't oider system: diagram and(b)signal flowgraph. Now, we check the resporue of the system for diflerent standard inputs.

138

and DigitalContrclsystems to Linear lntroduction

6.3.1 Unit lmpulse Input

Since for the unit impulse inPut R(s) = 1, we have

C(s)= ---:--;
st+l =-.-----' "*;

On tai..ingthe inverse LaPlacetransform,we 8et =: e-; cG\ So,

c(t) -+ : c(t) r The tine-response curve is 6.2.
1

0t

impulse input. curv lorunit Figure 6.2 Timsresponse

6.3.2 Unit Step Input

In the case of the unit step inPut, R(s) = 175. Therefore, ^.. 1 1 L(s)=-.(6.8)
S SC+I

11 =;---T
't*;

which on the inverse Laplace transform yields

t

c(t) =7 - e t

(6.e)

of Controlsystems 139 Pertomance Time Domain It may be obsewed from Eq. (6.9)that lnifial sloPeof the cu*e =dc(tll

1 I =-e t I
1 (6.10)

-1

We see from Eq. (6.10) that if the value of r is high, ihe initial slope is low and vice versa. Thus, the lower is t the faster is the response' Also, the lower is r, the Ngher is the stability. This is aPparent from a plot of its poles (seeFigure 6 3 where a Plot is shown for hvo values o]-t with q > tr' Here the transfer function may be obtained from Eq. (6.8) as -. . C(s) =; 1

= G(s)

L(,)

+1

s = -l/r' sr+ 1 = 0, yielding equation thecharactedstic by solving areobtained Poles

order system lirst ofa closedloop ol poles 6,3 Plot Flgure error is given as The steady-state = lim k(t) - c(f)l= 1 - 1= 0 es,

(5.11)

This result js obiained from the time-resporue of the s)"stem.without finding out the time.response,i.e., without doing inverse Laplace transform, we can find out the steady(see state error by applying the finai value theorem. we will discuss the method later Section6.5). An interesting result may be obtained from Table 6'2 where the values of the output are givm igainst t/l. lt may be seen that the step response of the first order sysiem attaiiu 99.3i" of the final value for t = 5't ' The time-responsecurve is shown in Figure 6.4.

140

lntoductionto Linearand DigitalControlSystems for unitstepinput withtime 6.2 Response Table

t/r
c(t) in % 63.2
c(t)

86.0

95.0

982

99.3

0t cuffefor unitstepinput. Figule6.4 Time'response

6.3.3 unit Ramp Input

For the unit ramp input, R(s)=;
1

Therefore,
'I 1

s- sr+r C AB =;+-+------;.(saf)
s' s 5t+I

I nen"

a =is'?ctsll ^= l - t

t1l

-_L

lsr+11 ^
(6.12',)

_ _ = = =l+ (rh)],=, t,,.,,,]]"_, " d7l"=,= [,i

LAS

=[G" +-tlLtsll
Thus,

I =

il
1

'lrrz

C(s)=+-'+
s' s
lSee Appendix B for the method.

st+r

Tine DomainPerlormanceof Contol Systems 1tt =-t--+----T s- s s+j which on the inverse Laplace transforrn yields
-: c(t)=t-a172 t

141
(6.13)

r =t-tlL-e "I
\,/
tt_

-1)

(6.14)

The timeresponsecurve is given in Figure 6.5.The steady-state eEor is given = tim [r(r)- c(f)] e* -= t - (t - z) From Eq. (6.14)1

(6.1s)

Flgure 6,5 Time"rsponse curve for the unitramp input. We find ftom Table 6.3 that the interrelation between different inputs also holds good for the corresponding responses. Table 6.3 Mrnual relationship between inpulandresponse Input, r(t) Response, c(t)
Reldtionship

Relationship

Ramp r(t) = t u(t) = 1 Impulse d(4 dr(t\ dt

7- e't/ t

*orl,,*

*,^,,1,="
t

1-!

*n l"-,

ila

Eitoduction to Linear and Digital

ControlSystems

ORDERSYSTEM SECOND ANALYSIS: 6,4 TIME-RESPONSE

of a system is rePresentedby a differential Ii tl d]'namic input-outPut relationshiP equation of the form oI d"\') = !or(1) ao6(1) o^ ' d { a t * 0.4!ll 1 (6.16)

iiiscalledasecondordersystembecausewewillpresentlyseethatthetrarrsferfunc tion of the systemhas an order of 2' Eouation (6.16)can be written as

dclt) 1 dzclt) +c(f)=Kr(f) *2 dt a" dt2 c'*

where

(6.77)

oi

'1_ az 2q - , =a, , ^d K =b 40 as
ao 0n

,7,"^#u^JJ1*'#i "*iil$|,iJl'ii'f*x\i#il#?"{#l#il";,'W'ff iii-J-tt+"-ittltl"t = 0)' we get conditions ii."., utt

\ ar; )

l++:!:+1lc(s)=KRG) an

(6.18)

function for the secsrd order system as transfer the get we (61E), Eq. On rearranging

car=ffi=;l-fi -'
4' ,,
=7.rlz.s;A
This can also be written in the form ,,,-z

cG).{
= -.-.-L..-;

+1) + K R(s) s(s?

(6.1e)

s _+ - + where

rSr\

K" _ =ai
7

TimeDomainPeiomance ot Control Systems

143

tx
YT

and

24@-=:

1 t

(6.20)

2at

The results given in Eq. (6.20) are inportant becausethey indicate how the undamped natural frequency and damping ratio behave with the gain, With the increase in gain, the natural frequency increaseswhich, in turn, reduces the damping ratio. The block diagram and signal flow graph representationsof a secondorder system are given in Figure 6.6.

(a)

(b)

(a)block Figure 6.6 Second order syslem: diagram and{b)signal flowgraplr. From Eq. (6.20) we see that the characteristic equation for the system is

sz+2fatns + afi =o
Therefore, its roots are given by

(6.21)

s, = -(o, ! a" ,t'z1 sr,

(6.22)

Depending on the value of (, three distinct casespresent themselvesfrom Eq. (6.22) as shown in Table 6.4. Table 6.4 Three distinct cases of second order svsiems
Danping ntio xalue 1 2 3 Rootsof charactetistic eq.Ltion
rt r 12 dLu

S!stefll

specifcatian
Overdamped Critically damped Underdamped

E> 1 E<I

q = s2 and both are real. s1 and s2 are complex, one being the coniugateof the other.

We will consider only the r.nit step input for the second order system.

14

lntrodlrdion to LineAr. aN Digitat ContrctS}fl{ems

6.4.1 Underdamped (O < 6 < t)

Here we have

c(')=T;#;a R(,)
'i t1 * zr,t * ,4, - (2 11s s(s +(a, - jro,,t1. + (a, + ia^.fi - 62 1
-4,
Thery

s 1s+(a,jr,,lt-Crl k+(a4+1a,,tl-y'1

(6.%)

e=sc(s)1.=. ' -=

(s+ a, - ja,1l1 _ ()(s + fa, + iat,,tt_ 6r)1,=o

=,1

="t

'd * r,*Q- ')

(6.24)

et-ill-'z)F+

- F 2v r ;

(6.:2s)

TimeDomainPetformanceof Contrcl Systems

145

^ z:J ! h \_e E2

(6.26)

Substituting dre values of 4, B ard C in Eq. (6.23)we get

't (

!151=:-l---!+:l

'')

2) " l2i,l1-e s+(a,- jo4^llj ( E 1l 1 -l;@-21

s+(a, +ia, rll-1,
( " -\

(6.27)

The inverse Laplace trarsfom of Eq. (6.27) yields

( -

(r)=I-|_9

='-El

lzj^lt-' 2) lzj,lt-, 2) -i,F:F,^'- r<e-i[4-w,,f *r-c.i,FZw,,l . l r-,e l r-,t-i,!14w,

+ ! l r - t q - i ' l t - E ' t* ' .I'- L - 1 | " < 1 u i J t - ' t ' " r

.\

,i

j-L
L

'

l
)

*_"-u,FT,^'1 _,-,i'FT,,' =t_ia2r=l,ti[4,.t )_,-r*,1,,i[7,^' 2j 2 j

^lt-E,L
E--1a"1

=t-ffi"

r,tSI -r+^,' "orr"t,[-y'

I eie - p-ie

eF +e-F =t'oaro- -=cosal

=| - e-c@rl L,^ jlt-e

=r,,{11 wherc, os4 . m"sf

r,,-

"l "or,,,l

"(t)=t-ffi"a(aat+O)
wherecosf={.

(6.28)

to LinearandDigitalControl S'rsterns

(6.28)shows a ffi&. -sine wave decaying.,inan exponentialenvelope(see if-, h arylogy udth the fi$t order systerL 1/6a+_which has - the -* dimensionof i often called tJne thrle-mnstsnt of the'seconi orier"system-

2 "<t)

Exponcntial covElopc

Figue 6.? ptot of Eq. (0.2a).

6.4.2 Critically Damped(6 = r )

Here,
L(sl = ----ij-

ai

s(s + aL)' 'L a" s (s+ ro)2

s+an

(6.2e)

Therefore,
- e-qt c(t)=7 - o#e-aa,t =7-(7+a,t)e-,t (5.30)

6,4.3 Overdamped (6 > I )

In th.is case, the response work out to be

-Eu,,,,, =,- Lfr ,1,1 ,t--'!Fiw,r * L-JVi- ",-, " -1 2,,1, zJP=

(6.30

ot ControlSystems 147 Peiormance lime Domain systems are given m The responsecurves for cdtically damPed and over-damPed Fgure 6.8.
c(t)

1''
,/ (E= 1.0) drnPed Cdticany

,,'

-----

l.t overdrnpdc=

,__________ J"

sysiems. andoverdamped damped curves for critically Figule6,8 Response It is apparent from the curves that the more is the value of t the more is the rise time and, tirerefore, ihe settling time. Also, it can be seen from the cuwe that a criiica1ydarnped second order system attains the step inPut value at the time constant value of nearly 8 while this value was nearly 5 for the first order system'

for Transient Response Parameters 6.4.4 Performance

The relevant Parametels are defined in Table 6.5. Table 65 Perlomance Parameters
Pararnetet Delay time, t4 Rise time, J' Defnition The time required fo! the steP responseof the system to reach 50% of the final value. to reach the final outPut The time required for the steP resPonse or Srow from 10% to systems in underdamPed for the ftst time 90% of the value in overdamped systems of the system to reachthe The time required by the steP resPonse first peak which is the maximum value of the output. The maximum amount by which the outPut deviates from the input. It is generally expressedas Per cent of the inPut. The time the s,'stem takes to settle within a givn Per cent of the final value.

Peak time, tp Maximum overshoot, Mp Settling time, t'

These parameters are graphically Presented in FiSure 6'9 for the steP resPonseof a secondorder sYstem.

148

lntod^ction to Lineat and Digital ContrclSystems

c(t) t e

t'" I

i-1,

t.2 0.8

\Y,
t ,- - - - - - - - - - - - - - _ _ _ _ - _ ;

-----------------

0.4 0.0

Figure 6,9 Graphical prsentation param;o| of performance Nov/, let us discuss these parameters one by one. Delay time According to the definitiory ,(t)1,=,,=;. So, from Eqs. (6.28),(6.30)and (6.31)we get

(t+x)e-'=|

(6.32) Ior (>'1

-1 5 r-{!-:! *1-,1( =1 " 2'l( -t "r-e',"t}-r -t "r-:-,ng-rr 2 z,lg,

wnere : = arola.Solutions to Eo. (6.32) carr be obtained for diJferent values of f arrd graph of u'

pol,lni.'[,,ffii

".

A ti.,"", uythe "pp.;,";;;"-i; iJ, g,"plltssiven

x=7+0.7E (6.33)

Equation (6.33)yields ihe approximateexpression for d as

1+o.ze
orn

(6.34)

Rise time We considerthe underdamped systemfor simplicity. If t, = 1i,o" requued to attain the steady_-state value,we noti thatihe sine facto^r .f iiq. 1O.Zey'rf,orid harr"a ,ero ualoe to makec(r) = 1. Thus,from Eq. (6.28), we get
str.(adt + =0=sinNz lt_t,

(6.3s)

of hntrol Systems 149 Pertotmance TimeDomain first time, i.e., for N = 1, we have from Eq. (6.34)
., ' n th r '- + c o s ' E = E t D tlt-5 |'..._-

n - cos-l E

^t;,2

(6.36)

Peak time for it from ff t" = time required -tfte to reach the first pea! we can find an expression condition that c(f) will be maximum here' Thus, rq.is.za1 using dc\t) |
-to"t"

dt 1,,

=-lJt"

Jt-g'

(r,t"t, + 61n2!! cos

,n, o-1r,t"

,!r-f

+d)=0 sin(rd,rt,

sin (odtp+ 0) = 0 ad cos(0d, + il - E@^

|--- oz\tp+ 01- s:u;.l(a, cos 11ar".it 11'-,,')te+Ql=0 Jt f'z

+/]-cosCsin(ar,17-a')tp+0)=0 sin/ cos ,lt- ro'1to [(a,,

i--------=

snl@,,[-FYr+/-/]=o=sinNz
For the first peak, N = 1' Therefore,

6s7)

L=-.L ' ,,Jt-i'

Maximumovershoot
Sinceit is the overshootvalue at the Peaktirne, Mr=c(t)1,_ro_.1
--1o"i l -(ltr+P1

(5.38)

fusrnfta,./t

(5.3e)

Substituting lo value from Eq. (6'38) h Eq (6'39), we get after a little algebraic rnanipulation -iMo = s r'-' (6.40)

of Maximun per cent overchoot can be obtained by rnultiplyin-g the righFhand side gq. fO.+Ol Uy 100. Ii may be observed that Mo is a function of { only' Its behaviour with f is shown in Figue 6.10'

150

to LinearandDigitalContrclSystems tntroduction
'/oMe IOO

t l,o I
60

Flgure ptot. 6.10 6 vs Mp Settling time If ts = time for settling within 2% of the final value, then
5@"

(6.4-L)

This approximate relation can be arrived at from the following considerations.Suppose we want that the output settles u/ithin a toleranceband of tA. That means, the arnplitude of the oscillating sine factor shoutd equal A Therefore, t-=A Vl- 9Taking the logarithm of both sides of Eq. (6.42) and on rearranging, we ger (6.42)

-atS"=rr6.,trj1
=]nA-:2 InA . t t- =+-' 2an o"

(6.43)

Since f < 1, the second term on the right-hand side of Eq. (6.43) doninates and so we may write it as

t =-++ Eo"

$.44)

Substituting A = 0.02in Eq. (6.M),we get the approximate reiationof Eat. 6.aU.

ol conttolsystems Tme DomainPerlormance

151

error SteadY'state

of error From the definition

e( = r\r\- c0 = kV

--|'i"l

s\^(ali+ Q)

(6.4s)

(6'46)

eo=e(r)L--=0
With this lems and then to calculation having a unity feedback system For 6.t EXAi/IPLE
L

j'1#",':$tr1';{.'##j{liill':'#iffil'
cG)=a;l6i

out a few Probhaving recourse

(c) ara(d) ro and (e) Mo' find (a) o+'(b) transferfunction is grven overall its 'yu"'n' a unity f""aUutt Solution: Sinceit is

by

rG)=#%
25 s(s+10)+25 25 s 2+ 1 0 s + 2 5
=--------

a]"

with that of the stangiven transfer function the of ComParingthe denomirators we ger da-rdsecondorder system' ai =zc (a) an = 5 tad/s (b)

sz + Z(tons+ a4

z(a, = L0
,=5 '-l (criticallY damPed)
cz _ i -w

(c)

l(Dd=./JnlL-9

152 (d) (e)

and Digital Control Systems to Linear lntroduction

b=--#'+*(noveak)
Mp = 0, since it has no Peak.

6.2 The open-loop transfer function of a unity feedback system is glven by EXAIiIPLE

cG)=:+: s(r+sl,
where T and K are Positive constants.By what factor should the gain K be reducedsudr that to (a) the peak overshoot of the system to unit steP input is reduced from 75olo
25o/", auld

(b) the damping ratio increasesfrom 0.1 to 0 5? Solution: The overall hansfer function of the system is given by

G(s) rr"r -'-' = 1+G(s) K s(1+sT)+K T =" K /s n -'T'T By comparison we get (a) From Eq. (6.40) we
-^^ .tr' ti " =/J \Mp)1= Lwe '-- ,t ,!t-ii /rr \ -inn- Lw.
\tvlp 12

(r) s2+ 2(ans+ c']

1

*rd=ft. o;"=.tK/T --+

(ii)

-oE,

(iir)

On taking the logarithms of both sides, vre get

-ffi=nffi=rn3-rn4
OI

-G

= -

ln4-ln3

^^., = ^ U'u,lo

(i")

ot ContrclSystems 1S| Peiormance TimeDomain

(-^

-ffi
Substituting E =# ^^ r=#,

= ::j_:___:- = 0.4413

ln4-ln1

(v,

we get from Eqs.(iv) and (v)

:=U,VYIo

J4KJ -1, "t

^ ^^..
(vi)

or

K1T = 30.045
-=u.'+4tlJ

-1, ,l4K2T

^ ,,..
("ii)

or

K2T = 7.534

Thus from Eqs. (vi) and (vii), we get

-=-=Iy.5do

K. 30.045 -^ _^K2 "1.5U

(viii)

Equation (viii) suggests that K should be nearly 20 timbs reduced to lower the Peak overshoot ftom 75'/" to 25"/". (b) Here, z \ KtT
.j

,=w_
=: = ---------- = Jo

(, e] (o.ef^(0.7)'

(ix)

K2 i

value to increase to 1/36 ot its Present The import of Eq. (ix) is that K has to decrease the damping ratio lrom 0.1 to 0.6 EXAMPLE 6.3 Find ihe time response of the following system for inPut r(t) = sin t'

=---1"(s) ( s + l ) ( s ' + 1 )
''

Solution:

/(t) = sin t

RG)=-5f
s-+1

Equathg the numeratols of both sides, we get from comPadng the coe{ficients s6,*, sa,s3,s2,s and the constant

154

lntoduction to Linear and Digital Antol

Systems

A=l,B=-:'c=:.
42244 s-l Thus, I -a. L(J) 1 1 1 -t. 1

1111']

D= : andr=;

1 '-l I 1 1 s 1

s+ I
1

(rr_i)t- 4 ?;
s
T-.-:---------i-_-:.-;----'-

-I's+t-Z

.1

[t+f12'2 On performing inverse LaPlace transfoLm, .. ' c(t)=:ct1 1C

G 2+ 1 ) 2 4 s 2 + 1

4 s?+1

rVUsnn*;t
22

1 1 sinf-icmf -Nsint

=1r-t -1r* r -ltcost +1 tsin t -lcos t +]sint 4

n\ =ae-t--#sinl r +T t -; I l++rsinl 4/ \ 4 . J 4 42 4' .t 2 4 1 (. 1 (. tr\

2,12

EXAITPLE 6.4 A step inPut is applied to a unity feedback sl"stem having the following openloop transfer function: u(s)=s(s+3) Find (a) the closed-loop Fansfer functiort (b) at, (c) { and (d) (d,i. Solution:

(a) Closed-loop transfer tunction=i%==+*

1+C(s) s(s+3)+15 <'+35-15

= ^z tS

(b) Comparing the denominator of the closed-loop transfer ftnction with that of a standard second order transfer funtiory we get 1ti =1'5 a, -- JE =3 873rad/s we also get (c) From the same compadson, or z(tt' = 3

3 t= ' 2a,, =-L=o.sez

2.1"15
(d)

,n=r,,[-{

= 3.57rrad s/

I I

f
ol Contolsystems Performance TimeDomain

155

confrol system,having 6 = 04 and au = 5 rad/s, is a{At PLE 6.5 A second order (a) ilosedJoop transferfunction, (b) t., (c) tp, (d) L ;biected to a steP inPut Determine and (e) Mr' Solulion: i5 (a) The siandard closed-loop transfer function for a secondorder control system given bY

c(s)

al

RC\=j.'zA"*4
Substituting the values of g and a)", we gei 25 C(s) R(s) s' + 4s+ 25 (b) t- cos-'t n-cos-l 0.4 ^, . = :t ' =--.'*33s

,,$-4

5Ji-016

(c,

, =---L=---L-=166, '' sJ1-0'16 t,Jt-*

(d)

'" t"= 4 4 (u4)(r= fu,=

(e)

= *, = 1se %M, (",.' "' ft)=', [-ffi]

UtS)=-

6,6 A unity feedback control system has the following oPen-looP transfer EXAMPLE function:
^. 4s+l
4s'

Find expressionsfor its time responsewhen it is subiectedto (a) unit imPulse inPui and (b) unit steP rnPut. Solulion: The closed-loop transfer function of the system is given by -'-' 4s+1 C(s) R ( s ) 4 s r+ 4 5+ I 4s+7 (2s'i)'

(a) For a unit impulse inPut, R(s) = 1. 1 s+; 4c+t : '=-_--i.; = r' > ' ; = -(-2 s+ 7 \ ' f 1\' f A 1\
,.-

l'-;J t'*tJ

'-tI

1'56 Thert

tntoduclion to Linearand Digital Contol Systems

-\)

+2

=(,.i),= )'.u,t=+ ,
=*(,. 1 \ l .r)'.,0]"__,
/L| 1

ds Thus,

tl'

co=/+l'++ '*, ul'*;)

The inverse Laplace trarsform of the above equation yields

_!pi=1,_i]r: ,6="4
(b) For a unit stepinput, R(s)=]. f:herefore

j;g*{ cG\= t,"yr ( +=+*, '*, 'l'n

tJ ['.;J

,*1 I =l .,{=sc(s)1,_o=a+l ['*rJl"=,

^ I D =ls+;lc(s)l zJ \ I

ir\l 2 -..1

|
-

1l s+:l

= ---al s I I
ls=-:

al

1,

2
2

.=f,{(,'};'.r,,}L_,= =i: +
---, t Jl.=_r L 1
2

Thus,

ol control systems 157 Peiormance Domain Time yields lE inverse LaPlace transform

j +!k1 -e-z =t -lt -: ls z c .t 1 = z/ 2 \

given in flguJe Ort] 6.7 Determine the trarsfer function of the control system E(AtilPLE a magnitude of 2 ur.""pression for its output if the input is a step having ffi"i"-ri* units,

rr I

(Example 6.7). system of thecontrol diagram 6'11 Block Figure Figure 6.11(a). Solution: The block diagram can be reduced as shown in

r(s 'f 4) + 4

6.11(a) Flgure function of the ryrstemas The reduced block diagram yields the closed-loopftansfer
T <' \ =:l:1= ' '/"

C(s)

RG) s(s+4)+4+4(s+2)

4 =7;8s+12
4

(s+2)(s+6)

158

ln oduction to Linear andDigitatControlSystems

J

Given, R(s)=: . Therefore, s

cG)=so;is+6)
=A*
5

B=*-!_1r"y1
S+l 5+6

Then,

=81=? A=sC(s)l ' ' 's=u

(s+ 2Xs + 6)l._o 3

=Girl"==_, B=(s+2)c(s)1"__, ,
=81=: C=(s+6)C(s)l ' ''s=-o
Thus,
s(s+2)l 3

cG)=:.1_++1.+ J s s+z J s+6

Its inverse Laplace traasform yields =2, - e-^a !2al c1t\
CJ

EXAMPLE 6.8 Measurement conducted on a servomechanismshows the error response to be e(t) = 1.66e-8t sin (6f + 32") where the input is a sudden unit displacement,Determine the natural frequency, damp_ ing ratio and damped angular frequerLcyof the system. Solution: Given, r(f) = 1. 11"r"1ot" e(f)=r(s)-c(t)=1-c0) Since the error is sinusoidal, it is a secondorder underdamped system where for a step iltput
"-go"t c(t)=1--:......".-s

(adt + cos-1 )

Therefore,

ao=#"*t'rr+cos-1 4)

ol ContrdSystems 159 TimeDonainPertormance = L.56eit sin (51 + 37.) (given) By comparisorL cos-l 6 = 37" = cos 37" = 0.7986 aa = 6 rad/s
A_ = ---:= "ha = Y.YOY raa/s

EXAfITPLE 6.9 In the block diagram shown in Figrue 6.12,G(s) = A/g and H(s) = 25 a 2' For A = 1O determine the values ol m and n for a step inPut with a time{onstant 01 s which gives a peak overshoot of 30%

(Example 6.9). diagram 6.12 Block Figure

The overall transfer furction of the system is given by Solution: G(s) rG)=:9= '' R(s) 1+G(s)H(s)
= A s'+A-t+A"
ntZ

= _________::t!sz+\las,s+tfi

Comparing the denominators, we get

2ean=An=10m afi = 4n =19,

From Eq. (i) we find . '
Now,

(i)

10m 10m 20n 2.t10n ==:-=:=0.1s

)Um 5fi

(ii)

T i m e c o n s t a n t.
60,,

(given)

t60

lntoduction to Linearand Digital Contol Systems

m=2

Substitutingtllis value in Eq. (ii), we get , l0 5=iFo"=ffi

Ag"lru

1 0x 2

(iii)

reak overshoot, =r00 exp "/olv\ l_ ffiJ -$=*e.31=-1-2sa

vt-9

'\ -,

=ro<sivenl

1tz2= (7.204)2 (1 _ 2)

e=IE=ouu,n
Thus, substituting the value of f in Eq. (iii), we get

,l- = 0.3579
ln

/rn

,=ffi=ze.oz
EXAITPLE 6.10 A sysrem and irs Determinetre values ot ,r,r,a u.J?o*e curve ;ue given in Figue 6'13(a)and (b)'

(ar G) Flgure 6.13 Example (a)th6system 6,10: (b)theresponso. and

I
af ControlSystems 161 Petformance Tine Domain the system can be wdtten as Solution: The differmtial equation for ) Kr(f)=y(r) M d z x l t ,r ) Bdx(t+ dt df initial conditions = 0' is Its l-aplace transform, for all

(szM+ sB + r0 XG) = Y(s)

system is Therefore, the transfer function of the

r(,)=#=7r*+K
1/M =j;T;E, This yields the characteristic equahon
(i)

.r*9r*I=o=r2 .M-M
we gef By comParison

+ tfi +z(at,s

zio"=fr
=: 'F = --,-:-2a"M z.JY'M

BB

(ii)

Now, peak overshoot

*, =.*l-

#,)=

o$! 1r'o-'""ponse cuwe)

ft=-.o'oeu=zzzos
(in)
From Figure 613(a) and Eq (i)

xG)=
So,

8.9 s(Msz+Bs+K)
8.9 8'9

=?= Igt =1im sx(s) r(-) =0.03 Mst;s + K

ConlrolSystems

x=ffi=2e6.67p7*
--ft 1 =o, = z{from resPonse)

5' "11-

= 1.958radls Combining the results of Eqs. (iv) and (v), we get

(v)

',=ffi=''*'
v 1041,, = / /,365 Ke rvt =---. =.-,)z /1 Oq9\z

(vi)

And Eq. (ii) togetherwith Eq. (vi) yields

=

B 2.IKM

B =2JKNl

= 2(0.se7 6.67 \JQe \n s$)

= 180.91 N-s/m 6.|1 In the closed-loop system shown in Figurc 6.14, determine the value of EXAIIPLE K and a such that the per cent peak overshoot due to the unit step input does not exceed10%.Settling time should be equal to 1s.

Figure (Example 6,14 Closed.loop system 6.11). The overall trarufer function of the svsrem rs Solution:

K _. . C(s) .lt '5 t = - = R(s) s(s+a)+K

Systems of Control TimeDonainPeiormance

/

16il

K s2+ns+K ( = 0, with that of a standard second Comparing the chamcteristic equation, s2 + 4s + order system, we get a)"= Vrr .aa ' 2ah Now, f s= - = l s ( 8 r v e n )
(i)

zJK

ro,= +
= - lusrng!,q. (r,l a=8 Ttre peak overshoot condition gives us
(ii)
g.

g'1 exP!-;! 1= -6' j | .'/1

-,\

nE =2.303 -7Substituting the value of { from Eq. (i) in Eq. (iii), we get

(in)

-+=2.303
l" n' \l'- 4K
t!4K - a' Putting the value of a from Eq. (ii) h tl:ris equatiorL we get n(8\
-=Z.JUJ t--------"'= -'---

^1,

,l4K - 64
64tt2 2.303'
K = - | -"""""= + b+ | = +) / / 1

OI

ol

.. 116Li

...l

4 L2.303- I

164

lntroduction to LinearandDigitatControl Syslms

EXAiIPLE 6.12 Detemdne the value of controller gains Iq and K, for the system shown in Figure 6.15 so that its damping ratio and natural fre'quency of oscillation become 1 and,4 t1z resDectivelv.

(Example Figure 6.'15Control system 6.12). Solutlon:Here,

b(5)=+

^. .

2(K, + K,s)

s(s + 4)

"

G(s) 1+G(s) 2K1 + 2Kps

s(s+ 4) +2K1+2Kps

zKt + 2Kps
s" + (zKp+ 4)s+zKl Comparing the characte stic equation, s2 + QK, + ls + 2Kt = 0, with that of a standard second order system, we get
o; = zK1

We are given vn = 4. 5o,

a n = 2 1 w n= 8 1 8
nr2

'2 = 64r' 2 = 315.83 and 2(at, =2Y, a 4 2{at, - 4

or

= t+-Z
=8tt-2

= 23.13

ot ControlSystems 165 Peiormance TimeDomain

ERROR 6.5 ANALYSISOF STEADY-STATE

the same for fiIst We have already delhed steady-stateerror in Eq' (6 1) and calculated the inverse Laplace and secondordel systemsin time-domain by a method tlut involves of respooses. But this error can be calculated directly from the Laplace ;;;tvalues of the response. We will discuss the Procedure in the following t "n"fo"rnea Daragrapfu. -fro* ' Eq. (6.1) we know that (6.4n e" = lirn 4t) Applyrng tlre final value theorem2to Eq' 6'47, we get (f) = lim sEG) e,s Consider a caronical feedback s)'stem given in Figure 6'15'

(6.48)

system. control feedback 6.16 Canonical Figure

The overall transfer function Ior this system is given bY

G(s) -. . = c(t = ' (t) RG) J* c(dH(r)

From Figure 6.76, we get

(6.49)

EG)=RG)-BG) = R(s)- c(s)H(s) = RG)- E(s)G(s)H(s)

This yields

(6.50)

R(s)

"('r=i;d;E6
e.. = lirn sE(s) sR(s) .. =:S1+cG)HG)

(6.51)

(6.52)

2SeeAppendix A

166

lntroduction to Linearand DigitalControlSystems

From Eq. (6.52)we find that while the numerator is related io the input, the denominator, which is the characteristicpol1.nomial, relates to the ry?e of the system. Thus the steady-stateerror of a system depends on the following: Input to the system Type of the system Next we define what are called static errcr coeffcientsot mnstsnt, . o

6.5,1 Static Error Constants

Often called y'garesof me t oI a control system, static error constarts are tfuee in nurnber, namely: 1. Static position error constant, Kp 2. Static velocity error constant, Ka 3. Static acceleration error constant, (0 They are defined in such a way that the higher is the value of the constant, the
lAcc ic rho ',.1,,^( "

One may note here that each enor constant variable is the dedvative of its precedhg one, i-e., velocity is the derivative of position and accelerationis the derivative of velocity. These originate from their definitions.

6.5.2 Input Types and Error Constants

Step input Here,

=1 R(')
5

..

s .t 1l c-=Slr_qu*o 1
.. 1 "-,01+ G(s)H(s)

L+li4G(rHG)
1

1+K"
where Kp=lt4GG)HG) is called the staticpositionerror constanl.

(6.53)

(6.54)

l/
/ '

ol Conttotsystems 167 Peiotmance Tme Domain

RamP inPut tlete,

RG)=-

7l ""=SL*cG)At
-

1l

li'n

1
1

H(s)l + GG) ijd st1

-limsG(s)H(s)
s+0

1 =K"
where (- = lim sG(s)H(s)

(6.5s)
(6'56)

indicates We note that ii co:tair-rsan s which constdnt' effor oelocity static the called is til fact thai velocity is the fusi derivahve differentiation for once rn t"*""ari;';tflt of the position variable'

ParaboticinPut
Here, 1 =R(s) s-

| 1l " - li'- I .-l _ c .l " y-i [11c1gHG) -lis

riG)l ;lt rtlr + c(s)

1 lim s'?G(s)HG)

1
Ko where K- = lim s2cG)HG)

(6.s4

(brd)

' ' it contans s- 'arhichindicatesa secPtediclably' conslaflt' is called the statb acceleration vadable' J.J-d"rlttuti.t" of the Position

I
168 Introductionto Linear and Digital Contol Systems

^exis.trng of a system. The general form of G(s)H(si is

I 6.5.3 system Types and Steady-stateErrors try." system_ (Section earlier 2.11). Ir is determined by thenumber Y"_1,:9:.0.,1n" " at s = 0) or poresaf the oflgrn 9l (i.e. in the openJoop
' transferfunc'tiorL G(s)H(s),

- sTrXl ...(1+ sI",) + sTz) c(s)H(s) ' ' _ {(1 s ( ( l s 4 ) ( t+ s T r ) . . . (+ ts7l)

(6.se)

In Eq. (6.59),k is the number of poles at the odgin. Therefore, it $ a type k svstem, EXAMPLE 6.13 Identify the t]?e of the systemfor which ^r,l , ( D r1 Solution: Here, K ( ]+ 3 s ) allo s' j-5s
ElSl=-

s'+6s+7

={++ls)gjjj.l c(s) H(s)

s ' ( s "+ 6 s + 7 ) Since the number of poles at the origin is 2 (indicated by s2 in the denominator), =

twe 2.

EXAMPLE 6.14 ldentify the t'?e of the system for which = 5.3 C(.)=-,-- j _ and H(s.1 s-+bs+/ Solution: Here, - 3) c(s)H(s)= -4(s s'+6s+7 It has no poles at the origin. Therefore, irye = 0. this background, we see how the static erlor constants,and for . .With that matter, steady-state errors are related to t)?es of systems. Type O Here, _) K ( 1+ . 7 rX t . s I 2 ) . . . ( t + s i ; , r C{s)H(s

- s4) (r+ s4xt+s4)...(1

(6.@)

7. Stepinput

= K'1-1 J=7i Ko=lu1c(s)H(s)

%"= 11 r + K p =1 + K 661)

ot conjtrotsystems 169 Peiormance fnne Domain

z. r-*p

irrput
K-, = l i m s c ( s ) H ( s ) = 0
s-ro

1
3. Paflbolic inqut

6.4\

=0 K- = Iim s2c(s)H(s)
(6.63)

Type , Here,
5T2) (1+sT") .r.\,{n\ _ K(l+sT1X1+ s4)(1+sTr) s(1+ " (1+ si;) (6.64)

7. SW input
Kp=lil4GG)HG)=e5s=""--=U

1^

(6.65)

2. Rntttpinput =K = lim sG(s)H(s) K" '

6-i0

ess=17=A

11

(6.65)

input 3. Pffinbolic

=0 K- = lim s2c(s)H(s) 1

$.6n

Type 2 l{erc,
u(srrI (5,= -.;----=i;:---=1----;-:-;s ' ( l + s l 4 x I +s r b ) ( r + s r t r ,

^...,,.

) (1+sTn) K ( l + s T l x l+ s T r "

(6.58)

1. Stepinp t
&' = l i m G ( s ) H ( s ) = s'0

179

lnfuuction to Lineat and Digital Control Systems

.'.
2. Rmnpinput

e"=-1.=o r+q="
=K, _ = lim ;c(s)H(s)
s'0

6.6e)

e""=;-

1^ =U

(6.70)

3. Pqrq.boli input

& =lrms'?cG)ruG)=r
. %=K=" 6.71)

The results, so far obtained, are summarised in Table 6.6. The following points are apparent from the table: 1. Ramp and parabolic inputs should not be applied to t)?e 0 system. 2. Parabolic input should not be applied to [pe 1 systern. 3. For t)?e 2 3, eu = 0 for all inputs Two more points which are not apparent from Table 6.6 are as follows: 1. e* for a linear combination of inputs can be superimposed. 2. The rnethod fails for sinusoidal inputs, becausethe final value lheorem camot be applied in that case. Table 6.6 Steady_slale efforfor ditferent inDuts hpesanddiffersnt
Step
IWe e" =:---:l+^,

Wltt Rnnp
e__ - =_l K"

Parabolic 1

1+K 0 0 0

1 K 0 0
1 K 0

6.6 DYNAMICERROR COEFFICIENTS

br Section 6.5 we discussed how to evaluate-.the steady-state error utilising the final value theorem The method suffers from the limitation 'th"i ii determination of erlor coefficientsfor only tfuee kinds of input. Also, for those "-d*r permitted kinds of input,

l-tmeDonain Peiomanceof controtsystems

171

overcome it does not show how the error varies with tirne' These disadvantagescan be are often telmed uy fo owing the method of finding generalisederror coefficients that error coefficients. dvnamic ' The eror function, we iound in Eq. (6.51),is given by

1 E(s) = R(') 1+GG)HG)

(6.72)

The denominator on the right hand side of the equation is a function of s and it can be written as powe! series in s as follows E(s) 1. 1-,7^2,

R(r)=&-i<t"'8"
K1

-'
(6.73)

+l lKsr+.. ++sn(o EG)=:RG) ^3 l(2

The inverse Laplace transform of Eq. (6.73) ytelds

= ,o*"' + <n {,<t.{*,<tt {ft

EXAiIPLE 6.15 For a systemhaving

(6.74)

Ttrerefore,if the input function is known, dynamic error coefficientscan be figured out throueh a compatison between Eq. (6.7a) and the polynomial obtained from invelse Laplaie transfoim3. The following Lxamples will make the procedure clear'

= GG)HG)

KG+4)
s(s3+5s2+6s)

find (a) type of the system,(b) static error constantsand (c) error due to input fr2 ' Solution: (('+L\

(") GG)HG)=d;i;6o

- -{G+4)

+5s+6) s,(s,

ee , =2. . T h e r e f o rw

19 = K, = *. (b) Sinceit is a type 2 system, =tl^:!:'9-=2: K, ' ' = lims2c(s)H(s)

s+0 seus-+5s+b J

i" RG)=4' transform Its LaPlace (c) The input is parabolic.

Therefore,

A3A 2K

lSome authors define e or coefficimts as Ci = I/Ki.

'qil
172 to Linear tntroduction and Agihl ControlSystams EXAIIPIE6.tG The open-loop transfer function of a servo system with unity feedbackis given by 500 =;I+0_;i

L,(s.f

(a) Evaluate the error series of the systen. (b) Deterrrine the steady-stateerror of the systen for the inpui t(t) = L a 21 * ,2. Solutlon: Since it is a unity feedback syster; we have E(s) 1 s+0.1s2

R(t=1.cO=sofi;nI'
The long division of the right-hand side of the equation yields - 0.000000792tr 0.002s+ 0.000196s2 500+s+0.1s2 ) s + 0.1s2 ts-r 0.002s2'a 0.0002.s3

- 0.0002d 0.098s2 i 0.0000196/ t0.098d i 0.000195s3 - 0.0000195# -{.000396,s3 +0.000396dr 0.000000792d + ... E(s)= - 0.000000792s3 +... + 0.000196s2 o.oozs R(s) + + 0.000196s2R(s) - 0.000000792fR(s) E(s) = 9.002t41r1

=a ^G) +..' sanlsy n] r^Gy s'zn1s1 . , +=1" +] K4 Kt., Kz K3

Its invelse Laplace transform Felds e(t)= $W2;!
tt,tt\ ,l2r(r\ i3t,'\

:i+ + 0.000196

- 0.00r00ffi792 :-:*

+ ..

We are given, r(r) = 1 + 2, + t2. Therefdre,

dr(t) =z*2t
dt

d3r(tl --:-i=^ u
dt'

TirE Dolain Pettomane d contd systr'ms These give

173

- 0'000000792(0) + "' e{t) = o.oa2? + 24 + 0'000196(2) = 0.004392+ 0.004, = 0'00'1392 + 0'004t and the dynamic error {a) The eror series of the qrstem is e(l) coefficients are

Kr=1=0

x'' =;l==596 0.002

= 5102'04 Kr ' =:*0.0001% 26 K^ *= = - 12626:26 ' = - ==: 0.000000792 eror in time-domainis O) The steady-state =lim e(t)= lim (000439 + 0'004t)
trlJ-

6,17 The opea-looptrarsfer function of a unity feedbacksystemis glven by EXAIIPLE

G(s)= .4= sls+ ru,

inPut is r(t) = 1 + 2t Find out dynamic error coefficients and the error series when the

+*. Solutlon: It being a unity feedbacksystem,we have + s2 E(s) 10s RG)=50-10;7powers of s' we Note that sincewe want to find out a polynomiatin ascending the have to arrangethe numeratorand denom:natoiin that order, before Performing long division' By long divisiorr we get + - 0'02s2R(s) + 0'004#R(s) + (o)CRG) E(s) = 925p1t1 Its inverseLaplacetransformyields
,12,1t\ A3 l\ dar,l.l trtt\ " + ' j:i' ":i)'/ + 0'004:-:j:' +(0) o.o2 +02!y e?r=@\r(t\ dt' dt' dt dt'

=*n .t#.*#.;#.+#.

174

lntroduction b Linear andDigttat ContlOf Systerns

Drrarrric error coelficimts are, therefore,

& =1=0 r, =;1.=5

",=-#=-*
rn =]=-

*G='fo=_
The input is r(t) = 1 + 2t + *. 9o,
:::):! =2+ 2t d2r(t) ^ dt' Thus the error series is given by
it\

4t)=o.2(2+2r-0.02(21 = 0.36+ 0.4t EXAITPIE 6.18 The open-loophansfer function of a unity feedbacksystemis given by

jP c1t1=-"---. '
l-l"ni:t"::';Fnirldrf;

s'(s+4xt' + 5s+ 25)

o*ar*tat" error ofthe svstem when it issubjecte

Solutlon: Static error coefficints are

= GG)HG) & =lim tg a,."a, *g-,.*, ==ga,.4# K"=limsc{4'(s) =u"- *)

&=tims'zc(s)H(s)=u-, loo s+o sro
Taling the Laplace transform of the input, we get R(s)=:1-:a 5s_s"
)LA.

(s+ 4Xs,+ 5r + 25) (4X25)

= 10 =t

TimeDomain Performance of ContralSystems 175 We obsewe that this is a combination of step, ramp and parabolic inputs. Hence the steady-stateerror is given by 2 ,-= *4 *4 " 1+ Kp K, (" Substituting the values obtained for the error coefficients,we get

,"=j-*a *!=+
6.19 A servomechanism,the block diagram of which is given in Figure 6.17, EXAMPLE is designed to keep a radar antenna pointed at a llying aeroplane. If the aeroplane is flying with a velocity of 600 km/h, at a range of 2 km, and the maxirnum tracking ellor is to be within 0.1o,determine the required velocity error coefficient.

(Example Figure 6,17 Block diagram of servomechanism 6.19). = 2km Sofution:Giver; the velocity = 600 km/h ='166.67 m/s. The radial dGtance = 2000 m. Therefore, the angular velocity is u 166.fi o = - = --::+ = 0.083rad/ s = 4.756desJs r 20ffi The input to the hacking system is the angle swept in time t sec. So, r(t)=at=4.756t

RG)=!iq
The open-loop trarufer function of the system is

= G(stHrs) ''

K' s(1+ sT)

s(1+si)

1 + G(s)HG) = :-:-l-:j-1-:jr Thus, the steady-stateerror is given by

<r1r <?\ r L

& =lim s,o 1+ G(s)H(s)

176

andDigitalControlSystems to Linear tntrcduction

. . 4.756
s+0 s'

+ sT) s(1
S(r+sl)fI\z

4.7ffi K. To maintain steady-statetracking erlor at 0.1o, 4.756 ^ "

K1

or

K' = 47'56/s

5,20 Find tyPe, error coefficients and eo for the system, shown in Figure 6'18, EXAIIPLE for the inputs (a) r(t) = 12, (b) 7(t) = 6r and (c) r(t) = 12 + ot + l*' 2 2= ---''-'(s+sxs+10) "-t.l H(s) = 55

(Example 6.m) system lorthecofirol diagram Figure 6.18 Block Solution: The block diagram can be reducedto give Figure 5'19'

(Exanple 6.20). diagram block Flgure 6,19 Beduced

of coni{.olsystems 177 Performance TimeDomain

is Therefore, the open-loop tmrsfer function of the system 10c. 250 =;

= -eHl = cc)H(s) (r- t/G' r0)-rrsr |

250

- t40r - 50

For a t)?e 0 system' only It has no poles at the odgin. Therefore, it ls a t,?e g sygtem the static position error coefficient, Kp, exists, its value being

= Kp= lim c(s)H(s) l*

12 _.. = Therefore, (a) Here, l<(s)
P -" = l r m

,q0

7;

=s

72 sR(s) -. *d 1 + G(s)H(s) 1+ Kp

O) Here,R(s1={ Therefore,
=, =l;rn -s -tj s s[1+G(tH(s)] 5

(c) Here,

-.. L2 6 K(s)=-+-+s s-

L zs-

have aheady seen that Since erors for individual inputs can be superimposed and we say that for l"t tf-," secondPart is -, wlthout calculathg it for the third Par:twe can "" this input also e," = Figure 6'20 6.21 Determine the range of values of K of the system shown in EXAITPLE so that es < 0.004when r(t) = 0'2t-

(Example 621) system 6.20 Control Figure Solution:The open-loop transfer function for the system is K G(s)H($= ^
rt! f r./

s(s+1)+K l-CG)H(s)=t\r T r./

Here,

t(t) = 0'2t 02 K(s)= --5-

178

lntoductionto Linearand DigitalContot Systems

Therefore, e*=jinr--*]:sro 1+ c(s)H(s)

=umlo;2 :'G+1) I s-01 a. ..tcLvl

- |Ur

,.

_-i-

0.2(5 + t)

sros-+s+K

o.2
(

From the given condition

0.2 --= < K ..

0.004

0.2 0.004 K>50

6.7 EFFECTS OF ADDITIONOF POLES AND ZEROS ON RESPONSE OF SYSTEMS

.t"=Tg to. study the effects of addition of poles and zeros on response of -"".onJ ]: : systems. While doing thal we will restrict ourselrres'io ora", underdamped

'urro*p.tio" We will coruider bo& separatelyThe other is that poles and zeroswil be locared," th" dft_ili';;J} "^_ro""". 6.7.1 Addition of poles

r*p.tesgonsg on! t"q,,"ys,"* :I^tj:ff_Td. ciosed-ioop hansfer functions.

.url U-" ,"p."r"rrt"a by their open_loop or

As told earlier,this studv can be made-onopen_loop and closed_loop tralsfer functions. *" srudy meaningtut,*e conliae. uiiq, i""-Ju".i'iy,"*" for openJoop "on :t""T*" Closedloop transfer function Let the closed-loop transferfunction be

=-"----:TG)

s'+0.6s+1

(6.75)

Obviously it is a secondorder.system with q = 1 and f = 0.3. We add a pole to make

I (sJ = -a-.

1r

s'+ 0-6s+1 rr's+1

(6.76)

ii'
4t\ r.4

TimeDamain Peioman@ ot controlsystems

179

(6.75) lor ro = 6, 1, Figorc 6'21 shows step responsesfor the system representedby Eq. 2ar.d4

l"
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0

8l0

12

14

20 16 l8 _---__-_________>, (s)

responses forEq.(6.75). Figure 6.21 Step but peak overshoot decreases. Here, we obsewe that as ?pincreases,rise time increases, We add, though observed in a Particular case,the conclusion is general.

open-loop trdnsfer function

Let the oDen-loop transfer furction be

G(s)=--1D\' T Z,/

(6.n)

at s = - a We add a 'pole tp

to make it

+ 2)(1 + ros) s(s

The coresponding unity feedbackclosedloop transferfunction is
i(sl=-

c(s)
1+G(s) 1
!\,

"

(6.78)
-pt, i \

. / . r ? \ r 1+ r < \ + 1
, _t\_

180

Introduction to LinearandDigitat ControlSystems responses of Eq' (6 78) corresponding to 6 = 0, 1,2 a d 4 are plonec

,,*rJ1lr.tt"o

4t) 1.5

I
I

tu

tz

14

16

lt

Figure 6,22 stepresponses for Eq.(6.78).

--"-------' t(s)

20

It te^observed from this plot that -may 1s g ircreases,both peak overshoot and dse time mcrease.An increaseof a means that the io tf,u o"g_ in the s_plane. fob comei The conclusion, though <irawn for a particular "for"i i, i" J;l ;;tte generat. """",

6.7.2 Addition of Zeros

As in the case of poles, here also..we will consider open-loop ard closed_loopcases separatety and a unity feedback will U" .o.siae..a-]oi.ie ;;:#"p.

Closedloop transfer function

Let the closedloop transfer function be 1 r (s,= ;r_:_::; We add a zero to it at s = _1/r. so that
I (S) = --:-----j--

(6.7e)

7+t_s

s'+ s+1

(6.80)

ot Controtsystems 181 Peiormance fime Domain Equation (6'80) can be written as

T(s)= ---:---= * - - , s ' + s + 1 ""s s ' + s + 1 of Eq-(6.i9),that of Eq' (6'81)will be So,if c(t) is the step response c^(tl=c(t\+r, ' - d t.Lc(t)

11

(6.81)

(6.82)

and cg(r) It is clear lrom the figure Figure 6.23 shows the Ploi of c(f), t.!c$) -dt that the zero term decreasesthe rise time but increasesthe Peak overshoot'
I 12
I

9r e

6 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 4.2

0123

-_______) I (s)

tunction' transier of zeroto closedloop ot addilion 6.23 Efiect Figure

OpenJooptransfer function
Let the open-loop trarsfer frmctioa be 1 G(s,= -_s(s+ r, (6.83)

and the zero a15 = -1/t. Then the unity feedbackclosedloop iransfer funetion becomes
T( - ' '<\ ' = ---------:-

7+ c-s

(6.84)

(1+t s)+s(s+1)

182

lntroduction to Linearand DigitalContrclSystems

We obsewe here that while the term (1 + z-s) in the numerator increases the ma\imum overshoot, r:) term in the denominator aJds to the damping term, which, in tum, reduces the maximum overshoot. The combination of two counteracting effects produces a complicatedresult that for lower values of t: addition of zero reduces maximum overshoot and irnproves dse time, but aftet an optimum value of ?, the situation reverses. Let us considerthe openJoop transfer function with a zero added to it as

r"s) = 5(1+ G(s) s(s+1Xs+2)

Its urLityfeedbackclosedJoopform is given by

(6.8s)

sr+3s2+(2+5rrs)s "5 The step response of Eq. (6.86) is shown in Figt,re 6.24 lor t = g,0.2,0.4,2,4 a d 8. It may be obsewedfrom the figure that the peak overshootas well as rise time goes down as ?, ircreases fiom 0 to 2. After that, though the rise hme continues to decr&se, the peak overshootgoes on increasing.
c0

s ( 5r l l ( s - 2 ) 5 ( 1 -r.s)

(6.86)

I
0.8
0.6

0.4

o.2

__>,

(s)

Figure 6,24 Effect 0f addition 0f zero loop to open lransfer iunciion.

Systems 183 of Contrcl Petormance fime Domain

6 7' of poles and zeios are summarised in Table addition of The results

andzeros of poles of addilion of effects Table6,7 Sumrnary

As the PoIefiearc Lheorigtn

As the zero nears tJle origin Rise time

tl

Typeof tnrsfer furrction

Open-looP

Rige tu e
tl

Peak o7)ershoot M. lncreases

Peak ooelshoot MP Decreases up to a ce*ain value of t but increases thereafter Increases

lncteases

Decteases

Closed-looP

Increases

Decreases

Decreases

SYSTEMS PHASE AND NON-MINIMUM 6.8 MINIMUM

HeIe' about minimum and non-minimumPhasesystems' In section2.14,we had talked

;";;;;',;

il:"'il:",tiil, We phaseareais larger' Let the sweep.in phase, fur.;"r. i;t# ,yr,"- i" oi.o.--iri*l.- minirnum and non-minirnum phase systems' the of us compare the unit steP lesporues of which are given by "--rr?.'run.no* c(4=6-"1';=-n----"-(6.87)
s "+ s + 1
-(+l

thedirterence.:j see recall, minimum Phase:T"?:*'*i:':::;

rransrer in rheir

and

=c",**,ts)=;-;!'a x(s)

(6.88)

in Figure 6.25 and Figrrre 6.26 of the sYstems We present the unit steP response respectivelY.
1.4 1.2

1 E 0.8 E 0.6 0.4

0.2 0
6 Time(s) l0 12

pnase sy$em' of a mlnlmum stepresponse 6.25 Unii Figure

1A4

lntroductionto Linearand DigitatContot Systems

1.4

1.2
I 0.8

0.6 0.4 0.2 0 4.2

r'od
l0

':,,,1hlj*:l;trfiilf ;]1#ll1llilJlifl g',1-4df l,*"1,flffi j,T:

. The difference in behaviour i

'"lffii,',,i,,'i;'.'[3,:','J.'fff ';;frT",fr:um::;fiil;,il l,:li''l*'

Qurslor.rs lEYlEw

t2

1, Choose the correct artswer:

ttt' none of these f1"m to be ,JPeratedin overdamped conditiory oampng ratio should be the value of the (i) 0 (ii) > 1 (iii) 1 (iv) < 1 (c) The steady-state error for a tPe 3 sy-s.tem for a unit step input is (i) zero

riiii""",i",i.pi1"'* @1 ror a controi

"' T".Hff:'ff;Tation

ora svstem is s2 + 2s+2 = 0.rhesysrem is

.1_-'j :3:.oTo"o

(iii)one

.$l ffH,t

(d) The open loop transferfunction of a system -'- is l0 . *o rrre sready-state error ", 1+t due to a unit step input is

of ControlSystems 185 Pefiomance l1meDomain (i) 10 ,...' 1 {r1ll '11 (ii) 0 (iv) -

f,-.t." by the transfer defined ordersystem (e) Thesecond

ffi

=- . 3 *

"

given a unit step inPut. The time taken for the output to settle within i2% of the final value is (ii) 1.6 s (i) 1.2 s (iv) 0.4 s (iii) 2 s (0 Addition of a Pole to the closed-loop transfer function (ii) decreases rise time (i) increasesdse time (iv) has no effect (iii) increasesovelshoot 2. Corsider the block diagram given in Figure 6 27'

(Question 2). diagram 6.27 Block Flgure Find the closed looP tlansfer tunction T(s) = YG)/RG)' (b) Find the CL unit steP resPonse. (c) Find the final value of Y(t). nse 3' (a) A first order systemwhen subiectedto a steP inPut has a lemPerature of 25'C after an hour and 37.5'C after 2 hours, sta*ing from coid condition' Calculate the final steady temPerature rise ard the thermal time constant' (b) Sketch the timedomain responseof a tyPical underdamped second order system to a step input. On this sketch, indicate the {ollowing: (i) Maximum peak overshoot, Mo (ii) Rise time, t, (iii) Delay time, l; (iv) Settling time. ts (v) Steady-state eror, e.s 4. (a) A second order differential equation is given by
(4,

d2x -dx - = -"=* /V 5":-'l /x dtdt'

186

lntroduction b LinearandDigitatControlSystems Find ihe following: (i) Undamped natural frequency (ii) Darnping rabo (nf Darnped natural frequQncy (iv) Damping coefficient (v) Time constant (b) Explain the unit impulse response of a first order systen. the, expression for per cent peal overshoot of a second order underdamped fin9 system due to unit st? input_ Coruider the unity feedback system with GC)=I( ^ . ff K. = tZ, find the per

cent overshoot and peak time. (a) Find the error coefficient for the following system as shown in Fizure 6.2g.

Figure 6.28 Sysiern (euestion 4. (b) I fhat do you mean by transient response and steady state response? What is steady-siateerror? Supposeunit ramp inpnt is given to type O type f *a type 2 systems. Compare thJ iteady-state error lor ttre-se three iises. 9. (a) Find out the tirne responseanaiysis of a unity feedback urderdamped control

systemhaving an open loop C*

" T#r,,

for urdt step input.

(b) Define and calculate the value of peak time and settling time for the above time response equatiot. Derive an expression for the step response of al underdamped second order system. Sketch the resporue indic;fing ;U tirne_doqrain ;;".id;;*. Find the steady.5lateerror ol the unity feedback system having C1s;=, :10 . in '0.1+ s1 following the input r(t) = l + tu(t).

72. (a) Find out the responseof a tlpical underdamped second order closed_loop
system with unity feedback having unit st+ curve. input. D.aw the response

of ControlSystems 187 Perfomance llme Domain -1 ! j2 a d zerc at (b) A unity feedback second order servo s)'stem has Poles at -1 ! 10. Its steady-state outPut for a unit step hPut is : ' Determine the transfer function. indicating Peak over19. (a) Sketch the unit steP response of a second order system shoot, dse tilare and settling time. as a fust order s)slem with,a (b) ' A temPerature sensing device can be modelled time constant of 6 s. Ii is suddeniy subiectedto a steP inPut of 30'C to 150'C' What temPerature will be indicated in 10 s after the process has started? 14. (a) Define the fouowing: (ii) Delay time (i) Rise time (iv) Overshoot (ni) Settling time (b) The open-loop transfer function of a uaity feedbackcontrol system is given by G(t)=r(1*rr) (i) By what factor should the amplifier gain A be multiplied so that the dimping ratio is inceased from a value of 0'2 to 0'6'r that the overshoot (ii) By what factor should amplifier gain be muJti,plied-so= oi ttt" ,rLlt step resPonseis reduced ftom 80V' to 209? [% overshoot 100exP en|/^11- 62I, d = damping ratiol 15. (a) Find out the resPonseof a typical underda:nped second order closed-loop system with unity feedback having steP inPut' (b) For a unity feedback closed-loop control system, the open-loop transfer function is given bY
r"-----'= A

..(s,r=;G;5
Calculate the value of rise time (t') and maxiqrum overshoot (Mo) when the system is subiected to a unity step inPut' 16. Write short notes on the following: (a) Time constant (b) Settling tirne (c) Peak overshoot (d) Standard test signals used in time'domain analysis of control systems'

'E

BASICS OF CONTROLLERS

7.1 INTRODUCTION 3" h9* that an automaticcont(

ff l".",Hi',",HT;##t;iH;.]i{:rfi "ffi ":jff #Fi"#"{'T#i

Disturt ac6

CoEpaaatoa

DcsirEd yrlue

MaiF&red

Cotrtolld

't"ff fl*;,*ftd,#$$i1**ld**$ .:*tjt

188

&) Figurc 7,1 Automatic conrot system: (a)openloop and(b)closeoroop.

of Contrclters 189 Basics 1. ProPortional 2. Inte$ar So' controllerscan oe urvruEu rharacteristics contror: on their mode ot controUer t. Two-posifionor ON-OFF (P) cortrouer 2. ProPortional 3 InteFal (I) controller-.4 Dedvative (D) controller (PT)conholler i. proo-tio"uf Plus inte$al plus derivative (PD) controller--. i. i""i"tn*"f plus derivative (PID) controuer i. or"'p-,t"rr"l ptus integral and evaluate their we will consider these controllers sections fouowing the h perfolmance'

i"ffi i!'x*T":'.i:1"" ,f; iJ-h?1":':1d".",:J :ii:"T"ff

(oN-oFF) CONTROLLER 7.2 Two-POSlTloN

contr?Tl,:.:':,i:.^::',Lv^ rwo-position "i":xx"?:::il:1;i,'$ll";;:'*"'o-operated theu a

valvel, etc. Schematicary'
ON-OFF --4,
Az-

controller' ol a lwo-posftion representaiion ?'2 Schematic Figure the actron carr be described as mathematically tJnen = signal, actuating d(t) = ale(t)> 0 (7.1) I A, (Maxor ON Position) a(r)= = nze(r) <0 or oFF Position) la, 1r',,tin

Contollr

, iii u""ai6rrrrrit gaPbee Figue7'3)'

place must Passbefore switching takes The range through which he error signal
ON.OFF

CoDfroller

gap' 7.3 Differential Figure

190

lntroductionto Lineatand Digital Control Systems The advartages and disadvantages of this t'?e of control are ljsted in Table

Table 7.1 Advantages anddisadvantages of on-ofi controller

Adoahtage Disadaantage

Simple, economical. Used in domestic applances as well as in industry where rough control t5 necessary_

racy a.renot much improved. 2. Controller condition oscillates around the set point.

1 . Transient conditions and steady-state accu-

7.3 PROPORTIONAL (P) CONTROLLER

In a proportional controller, the actuating signal is proportional to the e[or signal. Mathematicalln if ri(f) = 6gtu6tin, signal, the;
a{t) e e(t)

= Kf(t)
The Laplacetransformof Eq. (7.2) is

(7.2)

= I(pEG) ,aG)

(7.3)

*l b called the controllergain. Though generally its value is greater than 1, it can I^n:l: oe ress rnan I ln some applications. Since in most of the casesii ampJifies the error signal, it facilitates deteiti-on of small deviations and its eventuat remedy by the actuator.

7.3.1 Accuracy
Consider, for example, the second ord.er system given in Figure 7.4.

Figure 7.4 Second order system. Here, with the addition of a proportional controller K r,f " P-' GG\HG!= '' s(s + 2a4\ Therefore, " sR(s) ,-o1+c(s)H(s)

Basicsot Conttolle6

191

=lim
'1 -L

sR(s) K"o;

s(s+2ot)
(7.4)

t'(t*26'") ^.R(r) - r,* iii s(s+ 24a,) + Kvroi

SteP input Here,

t'(t * 26'") =.R(r) - -,,'Xrto; "" i36 s15 +260t"1+

-lin

szG+2{to,1

1
;.-

iI6 s9+za,l+ Kpai s

iI6 s1s + 2(a,) + Kra4

116

------'------.7

+ 21a"\ s(s

-o

(7.s)

RamPinPut
In this case, sR(s) .. '" li 1+GG)HG) ( s+ 2 a , ) - . 1 s2 -- r . ^ + Kp(Di s' ?)d 52a2s6x1,

(7.6)
Kpa,

Parabolic inPut
ln the case of ParaboUcinPut' _ ,._ -;6 sR(s)

1+c(tHG)
(7.7)

s 2 (+ s2 o t , ) _r.^ ".L s" =* + Kptt il6 sz+ 2sa^

7.3.2 Advantages
of proportional controllers: The following are the advantages in Eq (5'20) io*artl Path gain ^We have seen *t *t'"*"' controller of natural 1. This tyPe p"tft g"nt increases the undamped 'otiiutJ tn" t increase an that

192

tntrcductionto Lineat and DigitatContol Systems

ffi '';.:1 l,if;n:: J:ffi * ::::s:Tni.;'::tT"'J:-i:!:r:';j:::'i pe"io,,e.shoot jncr:asd ,h;;sh ;;ffis.;.'; "l::, H:Tlil , lwjlT::.1-.1":" ,l1i1*: ofcontro'er, { .1 ;-;; ",l,
3. It is a stable control as long as (, is not high.

fl".1T::r,":L-**1..1,y1,

rario{. so, the res ,*d*:s the damping

,,?*'ff.""^ ,*' ;"",f ;""1';:l; iT.:.tT :s j; ;:"*:":] ;J ;,T,::J *g:l B: ,.':,*" fl :';[ {#;i; K, irn pr ies i";;,'{;;; "p ;:;?tr;',# ;;il,li ystem ; if $,;.i.T';.T:""i K, is too high. u$table

7.3.3 Disadvantages
The following are the disad.vantages ol proportional controllers:

fi"%Tl.*"yil::rroller
7.3.4 Realisation

causes offset, i.e.,it maycause a sustamed deviarion from

2. It increases the maximum overshoot of the system becauseit lowers t A simple op-arnp realisation of thr

input-output *tu"*l,+^1",

"*i

:':i*if;:iloller
E, I Rt

is indicated in Figure 7.5. rhe

(7.8)

r, I n,

ft" iil:ltff#:i

or P controller is tharthere exists an offset berween rhedesired and

Figure 7.5 proportional mntroller chcujt.

7.4 INTEGML O) CONTROLLR

[:r an integral controller, the achratrng action can be mathematically put as

a@=Ie\dt

Basi6 ot controtleg

193

=x,le@dt
where Ki = constant' The Laplace transform of Eq. (7.9) is

(7.e)

AG)=!-E(s)
5

(7.10)

7.4.1 Realisation
i5 nothing but an integrator A simple oP-amP realisation is shown in Figure 7 6' This clrcuit'for which the outPut-input relation is given by

,"=]7l1,,,lat
E"(t)=1. 61r.1= -''' -1= E;(s) s R1C1 which has the form of Eq. (7.10).

(7.r1)

TheLaplacetralsformofEq.(7.11)yieldsthetralsfelfrmctionofthecontlol]eras (7.12)

contlollet ot an integral 7.6 Op{mprealisation Figure

(D) CONTROLLER 7.5 DERIVATIVE

A dedvative controller produces an actuating signal from the enor signal as ... de(t\ alt ) * ---1;at

=K,t9 'dt
Its Laplace transform is

(7.73)

AG) = KasEG)

(7.74)

194

lntroductionto Linearand Digital Control Systems

7.5.1 Realisation
The simple op-amp realisation (Figure7.7)of a derivativecontrolieris nothing else thajl a differentiator for which the output is rclated to the input as

e"=RC+
at

dr.

(7.1s)

From the Laplace transform of Eq. (7.1,5), we get the transfer funcnon

&(d = ,ta c1s1=

t,(s)

(7.16t

7,5.2 Advantages and Disadvantages

Also called tl\e rate controlltr, a dedvative controller improves the transient responseof the system. The djsadvantages,however, are many: 1. It amplifies the noise signal. 2. It may cause saturation effect in the actuator. 3. It does not impiove e""becauseof generation ol a zero in the hansfer function. The disadvartages of a derivative controller far outweish the only one advantage _ that it offers. That is why it is neaerusedalone.

Figure 7.7 Derivative controller.

7.6 PROPORTIONAL PLUSINTEGML (PI) CONTROLLER

br the case of a PI controller,

a(t)= Kre(t) +K,

dt Je()

(7.17) {7.18)

at'l=[r-'f)er"r
i, ta -1

Basicsot Conttollets

195

7.6,1 Control Action

be worked out for erlor inPut of a unit steP can controller PI a of action The achJating from Eg. (7'18) as + K; r(t) dt = ^p + ^ir a(t)= Kou(t) Jo
ft -

(7.1e)

signal as shown in Figure 7 8' actuating ramp a produce will Thus a step error signal
d(t)

input' error er forstep of Pl conro signal 7.8 Actuating Figure

order closed-loop controller' let us consider a second To check the stabiUty of a PI 79)' (see Figure rt ij attached

7.6.2 StabilitY ;;;l; *r,i.n

order to second attached 7.9 Pl c'onlroller Figure

pianl'

195

lntodltction to Linearand DigitalControl Sysbms

The overall transfer function of the system is given by

-------:-:----fr*/q1 "tl | s , / s\s+ L'anl ) \

-, . c(s)
' R(s)

'.('-:.)l
,r* s(s+ 21ot)

(s+ K;)of,
s3+2{otnsz +(s+K)r'fi
The characteristiceouation

(7.20)

s3+2(atns2 +(s+ &\(tL =0

(7.27)

possesses tfuee roots. II K; > 2(ao, thm two roots have positive real parts that will make the system unstable. However il Ki < 2ea,, then all the three roots have negative real parts indicating a stable systemt. Next we discuss the steady-stateerror, or in other words, accuracy that a PI controller offets.

7.6.3 Accuracy
The steady-stateerror for the system with a PI controller is

sR(s) = rrm sE(s,= llrn:--:=# sss s+u I + (,(srt,(s) s3(s + 2{ar.. )R(s) T-o s3a l(6,s2 + aj,s+ Kiafi Step input In the caseof siep input,
"s =lim

Q.n\

' 116 s3+ zlat s2+ fi,s + Kaafi, 5

(s+ 2lan1 s3

1^

v.n)

Ramp input
kr the case of ramp input =lim 1^ '

T-i6 53s 2.E6ne2 + afis+ x,r,] s2

'

(7.24)

rFor a discussionon location of poles vis-i-vis stability oI a system, see Chapter 8 (Seciiong.2). The condition can be worked out usine Routh's rule.

Basic$ at Controlters 197

/

Parabotic input Herg,

Table 7.2 reveals that the acoracy of a PI conttoller is suPetior to a P controller's. P andPl confiollers 7.2 Comparison bdrYeen Table
enor Steady-state
htput

=t:a--r--!-!J4)'- =' "., sao s" + 2E@^e+ aj,s + K;afi, s3 Kian "

(7.25)

PI 0 Ramp Parabolic
,"

0 0

K;@o

7.6.4 Advantages
The following are the advantagesof a PI controller: 1. e$ is reduced, which means accuracy imProves. 2. The order and t)?e of the system increaseby 1. That imProves damping and reduces overshoot' 3. Noise is filtered. 4. Offset is eliminated-

7.6.5 Realisation
For the circuit given in Figure 7-10,

realisaton. Figurc 7.10 Pl mniroller

198

lntrcductionto Linearand Digital Control Systems

i r,

The Laplace transforn of Eq. (7.26) yields

',= = ar *fr", an, 1 [ I lrlo,, uf J;,,

E"G) &
Ei(s) Rr Ki =Kr*7

(7.26)

1
RrCz,

Q.2n

7,7 PROPORTIONAL PLUSDERIVATIVE (PD) CONTROLLER

In a PD conholler,
a(t) = KDe(t) + K,t ::Y! at
,1"t t\

(7.281

Its Laplace transform produces

A(s) " t(s)

..

(7.2e)

rtKr=1. 7.7.1 Control Action

U the error signal is a unit step, thm

=K"u(t\ a(t) + Kd ff

= X, * X odln

(7.30)

whirh indicaies that the actuating signal is an impulse. However, if the error signal is a rarnp, it is easy to see that the actuating signal is also a ramp lsee figure Z.ifj.

Flgure 7.11 Ac rating signat of pD contrcller forramp error signal.

ol Conttolleg Basics

199

7.7.2 Transient Response

of a PD-controlled secondorder process' Fiatrre7 -12gives a block diagram Presentation

+ 2ea) sG

process. order second PD-controlled Its harsfer function is - '-' ar<\ lI+ K,s)a; R(s) s' + (2ltt;, + Kda;)s+ tt+, (7.31)

= 0 can be rewritten as The charactedstic equation s2+ (29a,+ Kdz*)s + d

*ff),"F+0*=o ,,*z(e
s2+ z( ans+ a|, =0 where , - o -Ko'n of the system increasesby indu:qtg -overshoot Equation (7.33) shows that the effective darnping is reduced (seeFigure 5'10 for .o.titoU"r. As a result, the maxirnum "=pO ( vs M, gapF.).

v.32)

7.7.3 Accuracy

Here,

.,,=$*#h

200

lntrcduction to LineatandDigitalContot Systems

sz +zta-l ,. ' = lun ; i' = s+o s' + (2lon + Kd(4)s + ot Step input
In the case of step inpui,

(s

(7.u)

=u 'I1 _
Ramp input In the caseof ramp input,
e* =lim . " sz G +2a')

(7.35)

:-o s2+ (z(a, + Koal)s + ofi

1 s-

tF @"

(7.36)

Pdrabolic input In the caseof pambolic input

!.._:lll..i----_llll-lllll!illlllll!i-.-=E

-"' s-o s' + (za, + Kd(4)s + at sr

s-\s+ zgan)

vsn

Complnlg Eq. (7.34)-with Eq._ (7.4) we find that the steady-state error is nearly the samefor both P and PD conhollers. But, a pD controller scoreshiglrer over the tansient responsebecauseit increasesthe damping ratio and thus reduci peal overshoot.

7.7.4 Realisation
From the chcuit shown in Figure 7.13, we gei

i=-iz
e" = -e; Applyng KVL to Laplace transformed cfucuit, we get &.1 ----i Ei(s,= 11(s) R', + sCr , 1-.. , . . s R , C+ 11(s)=--t'(s)

(7.38)

(7.39\

= R:rzG) r"'G)= E,G) = Rzrr(s) +rl-.. - IsR'G =n' l=-lEts) [from73e)l

F
Basi6 of Contrclters 201

EG)
Thus,

(7.40)

(7.41\

circuit. Flgure 7,13 PDmntroller

(PID) PLUSINTECML PLUSDERIVATIVE 7.8 PROPORTIONAL CONTROLLER

As the name suggests,in a PID conholler the actuating signal has the following form:

+K, dt+x1ff a(t)= Kre(t\ Iett)

The block diagram of the PID controller acfion is shown in Figure 7.14.

(7.4)

aclion' 7.14 PIDctntrol Figule Without detailed analysis, we may say based on superposition of enors, tlnt since the PD conhol improves the transient Part and the PI control improves the steady-state pajt, a combination of PI and PD imProves the overall control

202

Introductionto Linear and DigitalControl Systems The op-amp realisation of PID controller is shown in Figure 7.15.

Figurc7.15 PIDcontroller circuit. Table 7.3 presents a sunrnary of salient features of three basic modes of control to help select a controller for a particular process. Table 7.3 Selecdon ot control ac{ion
Proportionalaction is chosenif
o o o Load changes are small. Offset can be toleiated. Error signal, which is small, needs amplification. Integral iction is choxn if Deriaatioe actiofl is chosenif

a Offset is not permittedD High degree of accuracy

o Transient lesponseparametels such as rise time, maximum overshoot, etc. are to be improved upon. o Plant load changes have to be tracked by the contloller.

CONTROLLER 7.9 RATE FEEDEACK

controller ar.d. output derioatioecontroller, tf\is controller Also called derioatiaefeedback incorporates derivative action in the feedback path as shown in Figure 7.16.

Figule7.16 Rate feedback control aclion.

Here, a(t)=e(t)-KD

dc(t) dt

(7.43)

7
AG)=EG)-Kosc(s)
- --,r'o forward Path gain is
lnLD "_,t*

ol con]/liollers 203 Basics

(7 M\

cG)=!11= E(s)
.. -

+ 260") s(s + 2a^) s(s

(7.45)

"Kod

't == s'+(2(ro,+Keai)s
The overall transfer function is

cG)- G(s)
R(5) 1+ GG)

=The characteristic equation is

"t ' s'+(2a,+KDa;)s+a

(7.46)

s2+ (2(ro,+ Keohs+ tfi =g + Koa*, , ' -2a, 2a^ - o- K r ' n 2

(7.47\

(7.48)

As a result (a) the mariis increased' It is clear from Eq. (7.48)that the damPint rafio and (b) the nse-rimets mcreaseo' mum overshootis decreased, --'l No-, let us chck the effect on the steady-stateellor' sR(J) , -'s=ri,''.

;nlrc(tH(t

+ Kpg;)slR(:) + (264r" - l, sts-'z s'o st + 121a, + Krai\s ' t'si' _rn t^G+2o,+Kp(!:)R(s\_
;-a 3z - 12(a^ L KDD;)S + a;

\7.4sl

Step input In the caseof stePinPut, ?ls- (2a,- K=pot)l .! =o = i^ ^ =' i'jd s']- (2d"- KD(4\s+a; " s {7.s0)

204

lntroductionto Linear and DigitalContol Systems

Ramp input
Here,

= e-" lim

2[a, + Krafi =---E2t ,.

an

"-ri

s2ls +(21a)r+KDo?)l 7 r: + (2(a, - grrz 1t- S "2

(7.s1)

Parabolic input In the caseof parabolicinput K_p(4)l o _ 1i- .s21s-+-(2ot:_.+ _ '. L _ _ -* ;; r, + 12{t .r,- Knal,l s + d}, s3 (7.s2)

A comparison between the PD controller and rate feedback controller, both of which employ derivative action, will be of interest here.

7.9.I Comparisonbetween PD and Rate Feedback Controllers

1. The damping ratio increasesin both the cases.As a consequence, peak overshoot while rise increases in and settling time decrease time both the cases. 2. The PD controller introduces an additional zero at s = -I/Ka trt the closed-loop trarsfer ftrnction while the rate feedback controller does not. We have seen in the peak Section6.7.2that the addition oI a zero reducesrise time but increases overshoot. So, even if Ka = Ko, the responseswill not be the same becauseof this zero factor. 3. The type of the system does not change in both the caseswhich implies that the pattem of the steady-stateerror will remain the same for both the cases.However, by comparing Eq. (7.36)with Eq. (7.51)we find that the lamp input elror is higher for the rate feedback controller. Next, we define two importart parameters, namely integral squareerror (ISE) arrd integralibsoluteerror (IAE).

(ISE) 7.IO INTEGRAL SQUARE ERROR

Unlike the steady-state error, the inte$al squareenor is a measureof the systemerror tfuough the entire time, i.e. from f = 0 to f = -. It is defined as

$E=l* e2(t)dt
where e(f) = error siSnal.

(7.s3)

of Controllers Basics for the unit step inPut to a second order system For examPle,
"-ia .o =-ft \ir-9 t f' t-- ( - cos-' 4l t' | (,",11 )r

205

(7.s4t

Therefore,
,)l t

= rse J-

f4-

- ( + 0]dt whete o = co{' sur'1 l\a^.lr )t

,-

=
:ffjtffi

2'J_filE-")

f r,,rl

(7.5s)

g"t3,"ii'fii,?Jft

damping namelv on tworactors' iheIsEis dependent

erlor over a certaintime Period,T, The integral absolute error is a measure of average and is defined .r \7 -56) teE=

(IAE) ERROR ABSOLUTE 7,11 INTEGRAL

ldt Jnle(t)

has a-forward path transfer 7.1 (a) A unity feedback position control system EXAI/IPLE compute the value of K that minimises lSE' tunction G(s) = K/s. Fot o^t "d ;i;;t is 1/(1 + sT) The input to the system is 'u(t)' a system of ftnction transfer The @) erroi' track the system Find the value of the ste.ady'state f}r" ,]"ip"i-*o"fa = Solulion: (a) Given, G(s)= K/s' H(s) \'

',r" ' ' - ' =99)

R(s) = G(s) 1 + G(s) K

s+K

=----::- L. C(s) t^,

5(s L

Kf

=1l R(,) sl

L1 s s+K The inve$e LaPlacetransformYields c(t)=1e(t) = e-Kt

1.
zOG lntroduclon to Linear andDigitalControtSystens Therefore, lSE=| e'"'dt
Jo o-2Kt l'

2i( [ 1 =2K This result indicates that ISE -t 0 as K r O) Given, G(s) ' = 1 1+sT *.

and sincethe output would track the system,H(s) = 1.41"o, r ( t ) = t u ( t )= t fort>0

+
Therefore,

RG)=+
sR(s) -'s ,. ;:d 1+c(s)H(s)
s(r+sl). ,
=llltl-

,.

-.

sio

2+ sT

Altemativelt we can find the same result from the following study in the t-space.Here, the closed-loop transfer function is given by C(s)_ G(s) R(s) 1 + GG) = Therefore, 1 2+tT

1/T L(s.)= ---7-----;T s-ts+* | \T/

/1 DL - --t--7------;\5dy,

of Controllers 207 Basics

ihen,

=i a=,,c(,)1,=o=+l+ll
IJ-; \ JI r . ,l ! = o

)l

=-' 4 "-71"=o l'*iJ l.=. r 1l =71,,=-z=i .=[,.i).orl,__,

1 1l ,l =-i7-lTl ,=ft1*rt',1,="=l!, r-l

1TT C(s)='--=--+--7--;
Z, :J ,l^ ,

\
,--21

r./

=4 -4 --+-e' cl '2 e."= rim h(r) - c(f)l

=L^ll+' l1-"-i ll r-*12 a( ll

7.2 In the system shown in Figore 7.17, the damping latio is to be made 0'8 EXAI|PLE using derivative control. Determine the value of K4'

f.

-l

zr\l

(Exampl 7.2). 7.17 Syslem Figure Here, Solution:

18

_, , c(s)
'

s2+ 2.6s R(s) ' - ? 1 8 * L6t

208

lntroduction to LinearandDigitalContrclSystems 18 s z+ 2 . 6 s +18

Therefore, the characte stic equation is

s 2+ 2 . 5 s + 1 8 = 0 = s + 22 ( r o n + so f i
By comparisory

4=B
or a, = 4'243 rad/ s

2t'+= z'0
or
2. -O =0.3 4 ' = (2)(4243)

Now, with derivative control, 6'has to be 0.8. So,

=E+_z_
-

Kaa-

Ko=V-gL
@n

2 = (0.8 =0.24 ' - 0.3) ' 4.243 EXAi|PLE 7,3 hr the system shown in Figre 7.18, determine the derivative feedback constant I(o which will increase the damping factor of the system to 0.6. What is the steady state eflor to unit ramp input with this setting of the derivative feedback constant?

(Example 7.3). 7.18 System Figure Solutlon: Given,

GrG) = -:1

and H1(s)= sKo

tne transfer function of the irurer feedback loop is

= G(s)

Gr(s) 1+qG)H1G) 1 s(s+2)+sK,

Basics of Controllers 209 .nd the overall transfer function is -..

Ils)=-=-

Or(s)

K,GG)

"

On(s) 1+K^G(s)

K^ s(s+2)+sKo+Ka 10 s 2+ ( 2 + 4 ) s + 1 0
The characteristic equation is,

s2+(2+IQs+10=0 = s2+2(atos + afi By comParisorL or or o;=]u a" = 3.762 nd/s

2ea,=2+19 &=21a^-z
- z = 2(0.61(3.762)
= 1.8

Therefore, -"" (s) sO" .. ;ii 1+ KAc(s) 1

-' -2 : lim -------------!-

10 ; - d ,'-?.rr*lst .

=lim

s+3.8 s-ro s' + 3.8s + 10

= 0.38

EXAI'PtE 7.4 Figure 7.19 shows the block diagram of a position contlol system.
AEplifie!

(Example Flgure 7.19 Position ctnlrol system 7.4).

21O

to LinearandDigitalControlSystems Intrcduction

(a) In the absenceof the derivative feedback,i e', Kl = 0, determine the damPing ratio of the system for amplifier gain KA = 5' K1 so that the damping ratio of-the (b) *' Find the suitable values of parameters Ka and in ;yrt"^ is increased to 0.7 without affecting the steady-stateerror as obtained part (a). Solulion: (a) Here, 5

+ 1) s(0.5s rG)=ffi= ---ir - -u

+ 1) s(0.5s

s2+ 2s+10 Therefore, the characteristic equation is

*

+2s+10=0

= sz+ 2(ans + afi,

By comparison,

,4=ro
(4 = 3.'162 lad/s

=Z zEa"
3.1,62 (b) Steady-state error (for a ramp input) for palt (a)

q=-f-=s.s15

'" _ =telS*.-o
1+ do;*1)
=lim ,+0 s(U.5s + I) + ) - nt

+1 0.5s

Now, the trarufer function for the inner loop rs

qG)=

1 + 1) s(0.5s + 1) s(0.5s 1

s(0.5s+1)+sKi

Basi6 ot contoltels ro, the overall transfer function is

211

Kt9'l'1, rto=91')=, -' R(s) 1+ KaQ(s)

KA

s(0.5s+1)+sK1 =;----E^ + 1)+ s(1 s(0.5s KA 0 5 s 2+ ( K 1+ 1 ) s + K A

--'-------7;L'-"

Ka /0.5 2 Kr+r.l(A

The characteristicequation is . K+1

u.5

K,
u.J

5_T-:=-j---==\,

= s2+2(ais + aiz By comPariso&

,f =#
tx; a;' =h5

or

ztu;=T
or L P '- = K t + l ' 'zt;

0.5

tv L _..., ,1 \ I : = 1'{r(e

= 0.7 (grven) 0.7 J0.5

Now. 1, sx--t e" = lin]
s-eo r r\A
lf---.------::.---:-

(0

+ 1)+ s& s(0.5s

212

lnboduction to Linearand DigitatControlSystems =lim

0.5s+1+Kr sro s(0.5s + 1+Kl) + K,{

KA

1+K Kr+1
K^

=02

ldeterminedfor part (a)]

(ii)

Dividing Eq. (i) by Eq. (ii), we get

JK'=d(ot
Kt = 24.5 - 1 l(r = U.ZK,q
lo

n7

[From Eq. (ii)]

1. Choose the correct answer: (a) Excellent transient and steady state resporue is provided by (i) a proportional action system (ii) a proportional + differential action system (iii) a proportional + integral + differential action system (iv) none of the above (b) Derivative controllers are nevel used alone becauseof (i) their large input impedance (ii) they amplify noise signal and cause saturation of the actuator (iii) they worsen the frarLsientresponseof the system (iv) none of the above (c) The measure of average error over a specified time period is called (i) integal absolute error (ii) inte$al square enor (iii) steady-stateerror (iv) none of these (d) Igtcl of the following control actions is to be employed for eliminating the offset? (i) Proportional control (ii) Proportional plus derivative conhol (iii) Propodional plus integral control (iv) None of these