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Project MUSE - Theory & Event - The Year of Eating Politically

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TheYearofEatingPolitically1
ChadLavin(bio)
WendellBerryfamouslydeclaredthateatingisanagriculturalact,andrecenttrendsinfoodactivism haveannouncedthateatingisapolitical,economic,environmental,aesthetic,andethicalactaswell.2 Highprofiledebatesaboutfreerangeeggs,grassfedbeef,geneticallymodifiedcorn,risingobesityrates, andthecorporatecontrolofseedtechnologieshavecapturedtheAmericanimagination,producingnot onlyatremendousmarketforvalueaddedandresponsiblefoodsbutalsoubiquitouscommentaries implicatingtheAmericanfoodsysteminissuesrangingfromglobalwarmingandbordersecurityto intellectualpropertyrightsandnationalsovereignty.ThispoliticizationoftheAmericandietoftendisrupts someofthemoreblindlyfetishisticmechanismsofglobalcapitalbyilluminatinghowastandardofliving dependsuponcheap,convenientcaloriesoftenderivedfromthebrutalexploitationofworkers,animals, andland.Muchmorethanparallelcampaignsopposingsweatshoplaborintheapparelindustry,thefocus onfoodimmersesconsumersinthecontradictionsofcapital,emphasizinghowdinersliterallyincorporate thesecontradictionsateverymeal. Atthesametime,currenttrendsinfoodpoliticsoftencorrespondtoamodelofcitizenshipand responsibilitythatimpoverishestraditionalmodesofpoliticalactionanddemocraticcontrol.Reducing politicstoconsumerismandpoliticaleconomytoethics,currentapproachestoresponsiblefoodstendto reflecttheactualforeclosureofpoliticalopportunity.Bylocatingpoliticalactiontotheactualand metaphoricalspaceofthemarket,thesetrendsreflectareductionofpoliticaldiscoursetothetermsof globalcapitalismtotheextentthatitisonlyintherhetoricoffreeconsumptionthatfreedomcanbe imagined.Thesetrendsthusveertowardpostpoliticalfantasiesthatdifferincontentbutnotinform fromtheneoliberalpromiseofaharmonioussocietygovernedonlybyvoluntarycontractsandconsumer sovereignty.Thoughfoodactivismistypicallycouchedinpromisesofdemocracyandequality,itoften erectsbarrierstotheseidealsbychargingthemarketwiththeresponsibilityforrealizingthem. Thistrendismostevidentintherecentshiftfromorganictolocalasthemarkofresponsiblefood. Despitetheirmanifestoverlap,thesemovementsarerootedindistinctidiomsthatrespondtovery specifichistoricalconditionsbothareanimatedbyanxietiesaboutthehealthofindividualbodiesand bodiespolitic,buttheturntolocalsreflectsarealizationthatthishealthisthreatenedlessbyindustrial pollutionandnuclearannihilationthanbytheerosionofnationalsovereigntyandtheexhaustionofthe earthsoilsupplies.Butlikeitspredecessor,thedominantarticulationofthepromiseoflocalfoods reflectsmorethananythingelseadeepsuspicionofconventionalpoliticsandthewholesalecolonization ofthepoliticalimaginarybythelogicofthemarket.

Theory&Event
Volume12,Issue2,2009

ResearchAreas
Philosophy>Political Philosophy SocialSciences>Political Science>PoliticalTheory

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SubjectHeadings
LocalfoodsPolitical aspectsUnitedStates. NaturalfoodsPolitical aspectsUnitedStates. FoodsupplyPolitical aspectsUnitedStates.

LocalistheNewOrganic
HistoriesoforganicfoodsintheU.S.invariablypointtothe1960s,aperiodizationthatowestoscientific, political,andideologicaldevelopmentsofthedecade.Beforetheinventionandrapidappropriationof chemicalpesticidesandfertilizersinthe1940s,allfoodswerewhatwouldtodaypassfororganic.And betweenRachelCarsonsSilentSpring(1962),whichcatalyzedconcernsaboutchemicalpesticidessuch asDDT,andFrancesMooreLappesDietforaSmallPlanet(1971),whichtiedglobalhungertothe industrializationoftheAmericandiet,Americanssawarapidproliferationofbooksandorganizations promotingareturntosmallscale,organicagricultureandalternativediets(vegetarianism,macrobiotics) linkingfoodchoicesnotonlytoconcernsaboutpublichealthandglobalinequality,butalsotoindividual authenticity,socialsolidarity,andtheethicsofcapitalistexchange.SymbolizedbytheRobinHood Commissions1969christeningofavacantBerkeleylotPeoplesParkinordertogrowanddistribute freemeals,theorganicfoodsmovementhasalwaysbeenfirmlyrootedinandhardlydistinguishablefrom thepoliticsandidealsofthe1960scounterculture. Ifrootingorganicfoodsinthisromanticizeddecadeisbothconvenientandstereotypical,itisalso illuminatingforitsdemonstrationofhoweventhismostidealisticofcounterculturesremainedenamored withapopulistdoityourselfethosandbeliefinAmericanentrepreneurialismthathasalwaysevokeda suspicionofinstitutionalpolitics.Thisethoswouldseemtobeatoddswiththeculturesclearconcerns aboutsocialjustice,butafocusonfoodoftenopensintoanynumberofconflictingissuesandvalues. Attentiontofoodrevealsourbodiesascomplexassemblagesinexorablyimplicatedinother assemblagesnotonlythemolecularassemblagesthatorganizenutritionandecology,butindustrial assemblagesofproductionanddistribution,economicassemblagesoflaborandexchange,andcultural assemblagesofcuisineandclass.3Astheartifactthatmostvisiblydemonstratestheunavoidabilityof theseassemblages,foodoftencontainsourmostdistilledandintensifiedpoliticalcommitments. Inthecaseoforganics,thesecommitmentshavealwaysbeensomewhatcontradictory.Julie Guthman,inacomprehensivestudyoforganicfarminginCalifornia,identifiesfourbroadconcerns

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NeoliberalismandtheEnd ofLiberalDemocracy IntroductionTheorizingthe printempsrable TrayvonMartin:Introduction

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HowColonialismPreempted ModernityinAfrica

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animatingtheorganicsmovement:thealienatingnatureofindustrialproduction,thehealtheffectsof processedfoods,thesocialjusticeconcernsendemictothecounterculture,andtheenvironmental impactofindustrialpollutants.Buttheseconcernshaverarelyaddeduptoacoherentpoliticalprogram, andsowhilethemovementhasalwaysbeenorganizedaroundabroadlyconceivedbacktotheland ethosthatwasareactiontopostwarsuburbanization,themovementhastypicallyfounditselfpromoting rival(andoftenbluntlyincompatible)valuesystemsonepromotingsocialsolidarityandcivic engagement,andanotherpromotingindividualautonomyandagrarianpopulism.4 Similarly,thoughSamuelFromartzssummaryclaimthatorganicfoodwassupposedtobepure, wholesome,natural,andsmallscale,atruealternativetoconventionalfoodseemsstraightforward enough,itiscuriousthatpuritywouldbeoneoftheorganizingthemesoftheorganicsmovementgiven thatthefoodsthemovementdefinesitselfagainsttheprocessedfoodsandchainrestaurants developedthroughthe1950swerepromotedprimarilyfortheirhygienicandsterilizedpackaging.5 OrganicfoodandfastfoodbothcapitalizedonanAmericanobsessionwithfoodandfilthjustas restaurantfranchisespromisedthesamehygienicfacilitiesateverylocation,organicsallowedeatersto purgeoneselfofthedirtythingsmoderneatingputinonessystembyeatingwholefoods uncontaminatedbyartificialsweeteners,preservatives,pesticides,andhormones,andbydevelopinga foodchain(andeventuallyanationaleconomy)uncorruptedbyfossilfuelsandcapitalistscience.6So whileorganicspromisedarelationshipwiththelandandonesfoodthatwasnotmediatedbyindustrial machinery,chemicaltoxins,ordubiousprofitmaximizingenterprises,italsotradedinanidealof individualauthenticitymoretypicallyassociatedwithliberalpolitics. FollowingMaryDouglas,wemightseethismidcenturyobsessionwithdirtasindicativeofbroader concernsaboutpoliticalorder.JustasDouglasillustrateshowconcernsaboutcleanlinesstypically reflectconcernsaboutordermoregenerally(thedietaryprescriptionsofLeviticus,forinstance,haveless todowithhygienethanwithmaintainingacovenantwithGod),itbecomesclearthatchainrestaurants appealbecausetheyoffernotjustprotectionagainstinvasivebacteria,butpredictabilityinan increasinglycomplexworld.7Similarly,theappealoforganicsliesbeyondconcernsabouttoxinsinthe industrialfoodsupply,capturinginsteadmuchbroaderconcernsaboutthecorruptionofthenaturaland politicalworlds.Inhishistoryofthecountercuisine,WarrenBelascoexplainshowthemovementsaw thecorruptedproductsoftheindustrialfoodsupplyassymbolsofthecorruptionofAmericansociety:
WonderBread...aptlysymbolizedthewhiteflightofthe1950sand1960s.Tomakecleanbread,...bakers removedallcoloredingredients(segregation),bleachedtheremainingflour(suburbanschoolsocialization), andthen,topreventdiscoloringdecay,addedstrongpreservativesandstabilizers (lawenforcement).8

BareLifeandtheLimitsof theLaw

FromtheEmpireoftheGaze toNoisyBodies:Foucault, AuditionandMedicalPower

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Itcertainlydidnothurtthatthesamecorporationstargetedforproducingchemicallyladenfood(e.g., Dow)werealsoimplicatedinmanufacturingthenapalmandAgentOrangethatwerebeingusedin Vietnam.9 Justlikethecounterculturalassemblageofwhichitwasapart,theorganicsmovementeventually founditswayintoamoreconventionalcapitalistmarket.Thisactuallyhappenedquiterapidlyin1989, after60Minutes airedareportaboutAlar,apesticideandprobablehumancarcinogentheninwideuse onapplecrops.Withinayearofthisbroadcast,theEPAbannedAlar,Newsweek scoverdeclaredA PanicforOrganic,andtheUSgovernmentpassedtheOrganicFoodsProductionAct(OFPA) establishingthefirstformalregulationsfortheproduction,certification,andmarketingoforganicfoods.10 Withinfifteenyears,organicswouldmetastasizeintoa$15billionindustrywithfirmslikeHeinz,General Mills,andConAgraowningsomeofthemostrecognizableorganicbrandsandwithcriticspositioningBig OrganicasanindustryontheorderofBigOilandBigPharma.11 Onecouldcertainlypredictconflictandgrowingpainsinanorganicsmovementlinkedintoboththe 1960scountercultureandReaganeraconcernsaboutindividualhealth.Andtheassemblageoforganic foodsandthestruggleofnonwhitepeoplesmightcontrastdramaticallywiththeassemblagethatlinks themtoindividualhealthandthatsentthrongsofshopperstoupscalegrocerslikeWholeFoodsinthe 1990s.ButitwassurelyonlyamatteroftimebeforeBigFoodfoundawaytocapitalizeontheanxiety overindustrialfilth.Asorganicsgrew,itcontinuedtothriveonaperceiveddeliverancefromtoxicity.In eithercase,itpromisedreconciliationwithapurer,morenaturalorderthatwasthreatenedorabandoned byindustrialsocietyandthenewtechnologiessymbolizedbyTwinkies,TVdinners,andwhitebread.So likethe1960sitself,thestoryoforganicsisbynowawellrehearsednarrativeofdashedhopes,capitalist cooptation,andcorporatecorruption,suchthat,by2006,retailleviathanWalMartwassellingorganic produceandorganicspinachhadbeentaintedbyE.coli0157,atoxicbacteriathatowesitsvery existencetotheindustrialfarmingpracticesthatorganicsostensiblyopposed. Thisdisenchantmentwithorganicshasgivenrisetooneofthemorepopulargenresoffoodwritingand narrativenonfictioninthelastfiveyears,somethingwemightcalladventuresinimmediatefood.Inthis genre,amixofinvestigativejournalismandpublicdiary,writersinvestigatetheoperationsofBigFood andattempttodevelopamoreimmediaterelationshipwiththeirownfood.Thegenresprototypeis MichaelPollansTheOmnivoresDilemma,inwhichtheauthorinvestigatesfourdistinctkindsofmeals bysystematicallytracingthesupplychainsleadingtoeach.Purchasinganindustrialmealat McDonalds,PollanfollowstheingredientsbacktoIowacornfarmsandPersianGulfoilfieldsprocuring ingredientsforaBigOrganicmealfromWholeFoods,hevisitsthecorporatefarmsthatthechainrelies uponforvastquantitiesoforganicfoodshisbeyondorganicmealismadeofingredientsgarnered duringhisweeklivingandworkingonaselfsustainingfamilyfarminVirginiaandthebooksfinal

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chapterchroniclesthePerfectMeal,comprisingingredientsthatPollanhasgrown,foraged,orkilled withhisowntwohands.Thisexperimentinselfrelianceprovedahugebestsellerwhenitwasreleasedin theSpringof2006,butitisanythingbutunique.In2007alone,thenovelistBarbaraKingsolver, environmentalwriterBillMcKibben,andCanadianjournalistsAlisaSmithandJBMacKinnoneach publishedtheirownbookschroniclingtheiryearlongadventureseatingimmediatefoods,whileTheNew YorkerranachronicleofAdamGopniksmoreaudaciousattempttospendaweekeatingonlyfood raisedintheagriculturaldesertofNewYorkCity.12Asaresultoftheseandotherbooksandsome popularwebsitesbyjournalistsandfoodactivists(100milediet.org,eatlocalchallenge.com,locavore.org) TimeMagazineranacoverproclaimingForgetOrganic.EatLocalandOxfordUniversityPressdeclared locavoretobetheWordoftheYearfor2007.13 Clearly,ifthereisatrendinresponsiblefood,itisawayfromorganicsandtowardlocals.14Andwithout overstatingthedistinctionbetweenlocalandorganicfoodsmovements,itdoesseemclearthatifthe villainsintheorganicsmovementwereDDTandAlar,thatroleisplayedinthelocalfoodsnarrativeby foodmilesthegeographicdistancefoodtravelsfromfieldtofork.Onesignificanceofthisshiftfrom thecompositiontotheprovenanceoffoodisthattheorganicfocusonchemicalsdrawsattentionto contaminationandenvironmentalrunoff,whereasthelocavorefocusondistancedrawsattentionto resourcessquanderedinstoringandtransportingfood.Putanotherway,organicsisanimatedby concernsoverpurity,localsbyefficiency.Iforganicsexhibitedanxietiesaboutpollution,localsisquite specificallyaboutpeakoil. Idonotmeantooverstatethedistancebetweenthesetwoappealsforarevolutioninourfoodsupply theissuesandoftentheprincipalsarethesameineithercase.SamuelFromartzsOrganic,Inc.,for instance,treatslocalsas(literally)onechapterinabroadermovement.ButBillMcKibbenoffersatelling illustrationofthedistinction.InTheEndofNature(1989),anearlyandstillcanonicalwarningabout globalwarming,McKibbenarguedthatscientifichubrishadfacilitatedthewholesalecolonizationof naturesuchthatthereis(orsoonwillbe)noundomesticatedrealmwithwhichhumanscancommune. AndinEnough(2003),hearguedthatthesamehubris,nowwieldingnanoandbiotechnologies,has destroyedhumanity.Ineachcase,theorganizinglogicwascontamination,andtheresultwasastoryof (industrialorgenetic)pollution.By2007,however,ifMcKibbenstunewasthesame,hisemphasiswas not.InDeepEconomy ,themetaphoricsofpollutionhasgivenwaytothatofspatialityMcKibbenisnow muchlessinterestedinpuritythanheisinlocalityifthethreatbeforewascontamination,nowitis distance.Tobesure,theperilloominginDeepEconomy isnotcontaminationandthetransgressionof speciesboundaries,butenvironmentalcollapseduetotheexhaustionoftheworldsoilsupplies. Theseargumentsarenotmutuallyexclusive,buttheirframesarequitedistinct.Theearlierbooks focusontherelationsbetweenspecies(wearespeciesconquerorsinTheEndofNaturehybridsin Enough),whereasthelatteronefocusesontherelationsbetweenspacestheearlierbooksspeakto issuesofspeciespurityandindividualintegrity,thelattertoissuesofenergyconservationand territoriality.Notethissameshiftinsocialtheorymoregenerally,withanearlierdecadesfascinationwith cyberneticsandhybridity(Haraway,et.al.)givingwaytoafocusonbordersandsovereignty(Hardtand Negri,et.al.).15FollowingDouglas,wemightseeMcKibbensearlierbooksassymptomaticofananxiety aboutindividualintegrityinanageofmediasaturationandchemicallivinghislatestbooktoananxiety aboutterritorialbordersinanageofglobalization. Thereisanothersignificanceoftheshiftfromorganicstolocals.Forlocavores,therelevantcurrency forevaluatingfoodsystemsisnotpriceorenvironmentalrunoff,butrathercalories.McKibben,for instance,noteshowfrozenpeasburnanabsurdnumberoffossilfuelcaloriesinordertodeliverhardly anyfoodcalories,andPollannotesadeplorableexchangeratefororganiclettuce(57fossilfuelcalories burnedforeachforeachfoodcaloriedelivered).16Thisattentiontoacaloricgeneralequivalentopens intoastrictlyeconomicandproperlythermodynamicunderstandingoffoodinwhicheachobjectandlink inthefoodchainisbutabearerofenergytobetransferredtoanotherthroughmetabolism.Thisisquite explicitwhenMcKibbenandPollantalkaboutourindustrialfoodsystemasessentiallyamachinefor convertingvaststoresofpetrocaloriesintodigestiblehumanfood,justasapastoralfoodsystemisa machineforconvertingsolarcaloriesandhumanlaborpowerintodigestiblehumanfood.17Withcalories asthegeneralequivalent,locavoresmeasurefoodsintermsofhowmuchenergytheydeliveror squander,andtheyvaluatenationaldietsinthesamewaythateconomistscalculatedeficitsand surpluses.Ultimately,locavoresarguethattheindustrialfoodsystem,likethebloatedUSeconomy, operatesataloss,consumingmanymorecaloriesthanitdelivers.18Thelocavorecritiquethusparallels concernsabouttheUSnationaleconomy,andthedebateoverlocalfoodisinseparablefromconcerns aboutglobalgeopoliticsespeciallythewarsintheMiddleEast,theweakeningUSdollar,andthe loomingenvironmentalcrisesofpeakoilandclimatechange. Inthislight,localistheneworganicnotbecauseorganicswascooptedbyagribusiness,butbecause theorganicidealfailstospeaktothedefiningcrisesofthisnewcenturynotonlyenvironmentaland energycrises,butalsothemoreimmediatelypoliticalcrisisofsovereigntyunderthenovelpolitical formationofEmpire.ForifColdWarpoliticswasorganizedaroundagrandoppositionbetweenEastand WestandUSforeignpolicywasorganizedaroundaprophylacticpursuitofcontainment, communicationsandfinancialtechnologiesofrecentdecadeshavefacilitatedacompressionoftime space,suchthatthedominantpoliticalanxietiessofarthiscenturyimmigration,terrorism,globaltrade, andnationalsovereigntyhaveallsurroundedtheenduringviabilityoftheterritorialbordersthatunderlie theinstitutionsofgovernance.TherenewedUScommitmenttonationbuildingabroad,regional arrangementssuchasNAFTAandtheEUthatattempttoforgepoliticalalliancesaroundpopulations sharingnothingbutlocation,andcrudeeffortsatbordervigilantismeachofthesetrendsendeavorsto

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reasserttraditionalnotionsofspaceinresponsetotherealpoliticalcrisisdefinedbythechallengeto statebordersandwhatMichaelHardtcallsadeclineofthedistinctionbetweeninsideandoutside.19 Inotherwords,localfoodsisbutonesymptomofabroaderconcernwithpoliticalspace,when traditionalnotionsofspacewouldseemtobecollapsing.Andtobesure,thesignificanceofthiscollapse cannotbeoverstated:globalpoliticssincethe17thCenturyhasbeenorganizedaroundtheestablishment andprotectionofclearlydelineatedspaceswithacleardistinctionbetweenpublicandprivatespace, withthepartitionofcommonlandintodiscreteestates,andwiththerelevantactorsbeingstates(not nations)confinedbybordersandoccupyingterritories.20Theidealofpoliticalrepresentationisanchored intheestablishmentofafixedpopulationboundtoaparticularterritoryoverwhichthegovernmenthas authoritytheinstitutionschargedwithdemocraticgovernanceareessentiallytiedtospaces.AsHardt andNegrihaveargued,whatisatstakein21stCenturypoliticsisnotmerelythecurrentorganizationof governanceandsovereignty,buttheverynotionofsovereigntyitself.Whatisatstakeinlocalfoodsis notonlyparticularlandscapesandcommunities,buttheveryideaofcommunityitself.

TwoDistinctAlienations
Alongsidetheshiftfromchemicalstocaloriesasthemetricforresponsiblefood,thelocavoremovement hasalsointroducedasoneofitsprimaryvirtuessociability.Foriforganicspromiseshealthylandand purebodies,locavoresexplicitlypromisestrongcommunitieswithimmediatebondsbetweenconsumers andproducers.BrianHalweilsesteemedEatHereopensbynotinghowlocalfoodeconomiesbuild solidaritybetweenfarmersandtheirurbanneighborsandrestsontheclaimthatthemovementsappeal liesinitspreservationofthesocialvalueofgoodfoodinconnectingpeoplewitheachother,their communities,andtheirland.21Withthestandardrefrainthatfarmersmarketsaremoresociablespaces thansupermarkets,facilitatingmorenumerousandmoremeaningfulconversations,thisliterature emphasizesthatlocalfoodsbuildstrongcommunities,implicitlyassumingthatweakcommunitiesare oneoftheprimaryconcernsofpoliticallifetoday.McKibben,directlybuthardlyuniquely,arguesthat consumersarewillingtopayapremiumforlocalfoodpreciselybecauseconventionalfoodoffersa surplusofindividualismandadeficitofcompanionship.22Clearly,thisliteratureappealsspecificallyto alonelinessthatispresumedtobepartoftheurbanexperience. Sociabilitywasneveracentralclaimoftheorganicsmovement,thoughthatmovementdidrespond directlytoanalienationendemictowhatRichardBullietcallspostdomesticsocietyinwhichveryfew Americanslivedonornearfarms.23Writingmorenarrowlyaboutanimals,Bullietarguesthatbecause peoplelivefaraway,bothphysicallyandpsychologicallyfromtheoriginsoftheirfood,theyhavecome toexperiencefeelingsofguilt,shame,anddisgustwhentheythinkabouthowtheirfoodisproduced. Thatis,themassmigrationfromworkingfarmsthroughthe20thCenturycreatedanalienatedand anxiouspopulation,eagertoassuagetheirguiltandreestablishtheirconnectiontothelandviaanethical commitmenttothingslikeorganicfoodsandvegetarianism. ThispostdomesticguiltresonateswithNietzscheanressentiment,andthisisprobablywhyGuthman findsanuneasyalliancebetweensocialandanindividualisticvaluesamongbothproducersand consumersoforganicfoods.Promisinganauthenticrelationshipwithnature,arelationshiprelinquishedin themovetoasuburbanlandscapeandarelationshipcelebratedinanostalgicmodelofAmerican freedom,organicsromanticallyconjuresbothaworldofsocialandecologicalreconciliationaswellas oneofstrong,autonomousindividuals.Assuch,itfeedsonguiltaboutboththedecadenceofconsumer societyaswellastheviolenceofcapitalistmarkets.MichaelPollansindictmentofWholeFoodsturns entirelyonhisclaimthatthechaincapitalizesonthisguiltwithamarketingcampaignthatconjuresa lessmediaterelationshipwiththeland,eventhoughthegrocerreliesonthesameinternational commoditychainsandregionaldistributionnetworksasothersupermarkets.24WhilesometieWhole Foodstremendoussuccessinrecentyearstoanenvironmentalawakeningorjustanotherhealth consciousnessfad,thereallessonofthissimulatedpastoralssuccessmightbethatressentimentisa growthindustry. Buttherhetoricofcommunitythatpervadesthelocavoreliteratureevokesahopeful,ratherthan resentful,nostalgia.Emphasizingtheprovenanceratherthantheconstitutionoffood,locavorespromote ajoythatisaffordedbyassemblageswithpeoples,cultures,andplaces.Thoughappealstolocals maintainthepresuppositionsoftheorganicsmovementregardingpurity(theE.colioutbreaksof2006 energizedthelocalsmorethantheorganicsmovement),locavoresareclearlylessconcernedabout biologicalpuritythanaboutalienationfromaculturalandterritorialhistory.Itmaybethattheappealto purityringsincreasinglyhollowtoapopulationincreasinglyinuredtochemicallivingsuchthatafull50% ofAmericanstakeatleastoneprescriptionmedicationeveryday.25Butthepointisthatitsmodelof authenticityisnotbiological,butratherculturalandgeographical. Localism,thus,appearsasonemoresymptomofthepoliticalconditionofpostmodernity,of globalization,orofEmpire.ForjustasHarveyarguesthat19thCenturysocialtheory(Marx,Weber)was preoccupiedwithissuesoftemporalitybecausetheindustrialrevolutionhadfundamentallyalteredthe rhythmsoflifeandtheexperienceoftime,thecontemporarypreoccupationwithlocalityarisesfromthe disruptionofspacepursuanttorecentdevelopmentsincommunicationandfinancialtechnologies.The creationofnonlocalizablespacesontheinternettheblurringofpublicandprivatespacesbyTotal InformationAwarenessandtheubiquitousvoyeurismofrealitytelevisionandMySpacetheblurringof workplaceandhomebythesome25millionAmericanwhoworkedfromhomein2006andthe concentrationofpoliticalpowerininternationalfinanceorganizationsratherthanterritoriallyboundstates

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eachofthesetrendsupsetsestablishedideasofwhatitmeanstooccupyaspace.Andsince establishedpoliticalinstitutions(nationalsovereignty,representativegovernment,andprivateproperty) areallpredicatedonEnlightenmentunderstandingsoffixedbordersandreliablydiscretespaces,the stakesanddisorientationsofthisdisruptionwouldbedifficulttooverstate.AsParkinsandCraigputit, localfoodsinsistsontheincreasedvalueofthespecificityofplaceatatimewhenspaceseemsless groundedandmorevirtual.26 Oneseesthesesameconcernsanimatingfamiliardebatesinsocialtheoryaswellnotonlythose surroundingthedemocraticpotentialofonlinepublicspheres,27orthequasifacetofaceencounters facilitatedbyfairtradeagreements,28butalsoattemptstoupdateFoucaultonthegroundsthat disciplineisessentiallyrootedinatechniqueofspatialconfinementthatrequiresinstitutions(factories, prisons)thateveryoneknows...areinmoreorlessterminaldecline.29Thegeneralizationof disciplinethatHardtandNegripositowes,inpart,torecentdevelopmentsinimagingtechnologiesthat notonlyallowtheextensionofsurveillancenetworksthroughouttheincreasinglysmoothpublicspace, butalsoallowfornovelrepresentationsofthatspaceintheinterestofsocialcontrol.Thesetechnologies havealteredboththesignificanceandpossibilityofpublicprotest,buthavealsochangedthespatial representationandcontrolofcriminals.Readilyavailableandeasilycustomizableonlinemapsofsex offendersexemplifyanewstrategyofcontrollingpopulationsnotviaconfinement,butviaperpetual visibility.Populationstakesolacefromcriminalthreatstodaynotbyremovingcontainingthematdistant locales,butbymonitoringtheircloseproximitytothehome.
Figure1. Amapofregisteredsexoffendersintheauthorsneighborhood, createdinlessthanoneminuteusingwww.familywatchdog.us.

Clickforlargerview

Locavorismmanifestsanambivalentrelationshiptothischangingnatureofspace,simultaneously reclaimingandrejectingtraditionalpublicspaces.Alongsideanunabashedcelebrationofopenairfarmers markets,theliteratureonlocalfoodsalsoconveysamoreorlessexplicitcritiqueofurbanspace.That is,andasIlldiscussinthenextsection,localfoodscarriesanotablebiasagainstthetopographiesand theeconomiesofcities,abiasthatreflectsalossoffaithintheconventionalspacesofdemocratic politicsandthusbringsalongastraightforwardifmutedretreatfromdemocraticpolitics.Thelocavore literaturetradesinautopianfantasyofpostpoliticalreconciliationwithbothneighborsandtheland,a reconciliationthatorganicssacrificedwhenOFPAmandatedthatitsidealbemediatedbythestateand subjecttolegislativeandregulatorystruggle.Andso,organicsfailsdoubly:first,byfailingtospeakto theterritorialanxietiesofglobalization,and,second,byofferinganalternativetoconventionalfoodthat wasnolessimplicatedinconventionalpolitics.Today,localismspeakstothespecificalienationsand anxietiesofglobalization(frompeakoilthroughnationalsovereignty)aswellastoapopulation increasinglycynicalaboutpoliticalstruggle.Mostcrucially,itreflectsapoliticalconditioninwhichitis onlyintheirroleasconsumersthatAmericanscanimaginepoliticalefficacy.

PostpoliticalFantasies
Ofcourse,localeconomiesandevenlocavorismarenothingnew.Thelocavoreliteraturerarelystrays toofarfromJeffersonianidealswhenKingsolverexplainsthatherplanistoeatdeliberately(23),the referencetoThoreauisunmistakableandwhenHalweil,McKibben,andotherspromisethatalocaldiet strengthenscommunitiesandincreasessocialcapitalbypromotinganethicsofneighborliness,itsclear thattheyvereadBowlingAlone.Themovementspromiseofdirectpersonalrelationsbetweenproducers andconsumers(aswellassubjectsandobjects),relationsthatweresacrificedfirstbyindustrialization andthenbytheinevitabilityofglobalsupplychains,callstomindnothingsomuchasthesovereign, responsibleindividualsthataretheorganizingconceitofAmericanpoliticallore. Butsuchlocalismoftentradesinaretreatfrompolitics.LizabethCohennoteshowoneversionof localismthemassmigrationtosuburbsinthe1960swasatleastinpartaretreatintoraciallyand economicallyhomogenouszonesthatcouldavoidmanyofthedifficultpoliticalissuesendemicto crowdedandagingurbancenters.Thesestrategicallysegregatedneighborhoodsallowedcitizenstoerect barrierstoentryanddevelopanarrowconceptionofthepublicgoodthatincludedonlythemembersof theirspecificcommunityandwasmeasuredexclusivelybythemarketvalueoftheirhomes.30Fromthe viewoftheseconstrictedneighborhoods,Cohencontinues,itwasquiteeasytojustifytheunequal fundingofurbanmunicipalservices,especiallyschools,suchthatsuburbanlocalismwasnotnecessarily aveilforracism,butitintensifiedraciallyconcentratedpovertyjustthesame. Today,PeterSingeropposeslocavorismonpreciselythesegrounds:itlegitimatesaspecificinterest overthegeneralone,andjustifieslimitingeconomicsupporttoanalreadyprivilegedpopulationthatis uniqueonlyforitsgeographicproximity.31WhileSingersconcernisbroadlycosmopolitaninitsconcern thatlocalfoodswouldshutdowninternationalgrainmarketsthatsupportthirdworldfarmers,Gopnik diagnosesaprorural,antiurbanbiasinthelocalfoodsmovement,abiasthatisoncleardisplayin Kingsolverscelebrationsofcountrywisdomoverurbannaivete.32Kingsolverproactivelydeniesthatshe isvalorizingthecountryoverthecity,thoughthisdenialsitsclumsilyalongsideherrepeatedmockeryof peoplewhocannotidentifyparticularcropsandhercomparisonofherfamilysleavingtheirhomein

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Tucsontoratsleapingofftheburningship.33ItissimilarlydifficulttoreadSmithandMacKinnons locavorediarywithoutnotingtheirgrowinguneaseaboutlifeinacity,foreventhoughtheyofferveryfew ofthetypicalplaintsofurbanlife(traffic,crime,noise),thebookscentralredemptivetropeisa homestead10milesfromthenearesthighway,andSmithconfessesmorethanoncethatthemotivation fortheirprojectprobablyliesinherobsessivedesiretoownland. Thisretreatfromthecitytendstocarrywithitaretreatfrompoliticallife.Kingsolver,forinstance, enjoyingsomelocalicecream,declaresthatshecouldhearthecrashofcorporatecollapsewithevery bite.Toughwork,butsomebodysgottodoit.34Andwhilethisisclearlyajoke,therestofherbook bolstersthesuggestionthattheanswertothecorporatecontroloffoodreallydoeslieinanisolatedrealm divorcedfrompoliticallife.FornotonlydoesKingsolversyearlongexperimentbegin,literally ,byleaving thecity,thedetailedcalculationssheprovidesatthecloseofherbookarequintessentiallybourgeois thoughsheestimatesheryearofhomegrownfoodcostwellunder50permeal,thiscalculationignores theprimarycosts oftheexperiment:land(100acresinVirginia)andlostincome(twoincomes,inher household).35Morethanfuzzymath,thisrepresentsacharacteristiceffacementofsuchproperlypolitical issuesaspropertyrightsandlabormarkets,aneffacementthatisonlymademoreclearwhenKingsolver visitsItalyandintroducesSlowFoodasamovementfoundedbychefsandconsumers,eventhoughit wouldbemoreaccuratetosayitwasfoundedbyfarmersandcommunists.36Similarly,Halweils landmarkaccountoflocalfoodsexplicitlyderidestheinitiativeofwellmeaninggovernmentofficials, anddismissestheimportanceofconventionalpoliticsbyidentifyingmorediffuse,butpotentiallymore powerful,agentthatcanfixourfoodsystem:thefoodconsumer.37Halweilproceedsthenoffersalist ofsubjectpositionscapableofinitiatingrealchange:farmer,restaurateur,politician,banker, entrepreneur,studentlookingforacareer,orconcernedparent.38Theoddpresenceofpoliticianand conspicuousabsenceofcitizenfromthislistmayreflectarealorperceivedimpotence,butitcertainly exemplifiesthetrendforconsumeractivismstoignorethebroaderpoliticalenvironmentinwhich consumptionhappens. Readingtheliteratureonlocalfoods,theflightfromorganicslookslesslikeaconcernaboutthe cooptationoforganicsbyagribusinessthanacontaminationoforganicsbyconventionalpolitics.Various commentatorshavepointedoutthatoneofthethemesoftheorganicsmovementhasbeentrusta trustembodiedinanauthenticandtransparentrelationshipwiththelandandatrustthreatenedbya generalcynicisminAmericanpoliticsandaspecificlackofconfidenceingovernment.39Butsince1990, organichasservedlessasamarkofanalternativetoconventionalfood,acircumventionofthe institutionsofindustrialproductionandprocessing,thanasalegalcategorysubjecttofrequentand contentiousrevisionbytheUSDA.Fornotonlyisthefactthatafoodislabeledorganicprimafacie evidencethatitisnotpartofanalternativefoodsystem(thelabelsignifies,precisely,thatithasbeen certifiedbythefederalgovernment),butthemeaningofthetermhasbeenaconstantsourceofconflict, withdisagreementamongproducers,consumers,certifiers,legislators,andretailersoverwhether,for instance,cropsfertilizedwithrawsewageorcowstreatedwithantibioticswhensickcanbecalled organic.40SinceOFPA,organicfoodhasbeenimplicatednotonlyinglobalcapitalismandindustrial science,butalsowithallthreebranchesofthefederalgovernment.Thefactthatthehighcostoforganic certificationsystematicallyexcludesthesmallestandoftenmostpureproducersfromsellingorganic foodsonlyexacerbatesthemovementsenduringskepticismtowardthestate. Asaresult,themovementspursuitofintimaterelationswiththelandhasveeredtowardclassically liberalnotionsofindividualautonomyandprivateproperty.Thoughitmaybebutacuriousfootnotethat theprimaryretaileroftheseresponsiblefoods,WholeFoods,remainssteadfastinitsoppositiontothe interferenceofbothstatesandlaborunions,41Guthmannotesthatorganicfarmershavealwaysbeen deeplysuspiciousofstateinterventionandthatconsumershaveoccasionallyrespondedtofood contaminationandsafetyscares(likeAlar)withdemandsformorestateintervention(i.e.,regulation) [but]moreoften,theybegantobuysocalledhighqualityfood.42SoitisthatHalweilexplicitly dismissesthevalueofstateregulation,43andtheunmitigatedandubiquitousheroesofthelocavore literatureareroguefarmerswhoeschewinstitutionalsupportorstateassistance.44 Thisskepticismtowardstateinterventionisnotanomalousinacultureinwhichdiscoursesoffreedom areincreasinglyreliantontherhetoricofthemarket,inwhichtherhetoricofcitizenshiphasbeenlargely abandonedforthatofconsumerism.Noristhereanythingnewinsuchaflightfrompoliticsutopian movementsonleftandrighthavealwayspromisedofaworldwithoutconflict.Whatisparticularly interestinginthischapterofutopianliteratureishowitelevatestheconsumption(boththebuyingandthe eating)ofvalueaddedgoodstothelevelofpoliticalaction.Typically,thisinvolvesacelebrationof backyardgardens,farmersmarkets,or,moreambitiously,CommunitySupportedAgriculture(CSA)in whichindividualsbuysubscriptionstoparticularfarms.Ineachcase,politicalactioninvolvesnot mobilizinggroups,organizingcommunities,runningforoffice,orevenvoting,butrathermakingaseries ofethicallymotivatedconsumerchoices.Asaresult,themovementsskepticismtowardthestate informsaretreatfromtheoneinstitutiontraditionallycapableof(ifonlyperiodicallyinterestedin)resisting capitalconcentration:thestate.Allowingtheeconomiclogicofliberalismtoovershadowitspolitical commitmentstoequalityandfreedom,thelocavoremovementparticipatesintheconceptualapparatus thatWendyBrowncallsneoliberalism.45 Ofcourse,thelocavoremovementpromisesafoodeconomythatcouldnotbemoredifferentfromthe currentconcentrationofagriculturalresourcesunderthelikesofMonsantoandArcherDanielsMidland. Thelocalidealisofdecentralizedandautonomousfamilyfarmsratherthanthecorporatefactoryfarms thatcurrentlydominatethelandscape.Butthelocavoreliteratureisnotonlydismissiveofstateaction,it

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iscuriouslysilentontheissueofwagelabor.WhenSmithandMacKinnon,forinstance,speakabout smallfarmsasthelastredoubtofagentlercapitalism,whattheymeanisthatmarketpricestendtobe roundeddowntheyactuallymakenomentionoflaborinthisgentlecapitalism.46EvenMichaelPollan, whoseemsmostsatisfiedwhenhesvisitingandworkingonfarms,rarelymentionstheexistenceof hiredagriculturalworkers.Instead,Pollancastsfarmsasautonomousspaceswheresovereign landholdersmixtheirlaborwiththelandtotheirmutualbenefithisaccountsofindividualfarmersearning theirtitlewiththeirindustryandrationalityarestraightoutofAmericanmythologyandevenevoke Locke.47Alongsidehisobviousconcernsaboutthetreatmentofalienatedfastfoodworkers,this depictionoftheandfulfillinglaborofautonomousfarmersexaggeratesthecontrastbetweencityand country.Withthisaestheticizationoflabor,Pollanintimatesthatfarmsareinnocentofthealienationand exploitationthatdriveurbaneconomies. Theproblemwiththiscontrastistwofold.First,itismisleading.AsGuthmanpointsout,mostlabor evenonthesortsoffarmsthatlocavoresvalorizeisactuallydonebylowpaid,itinerant,andabused immigrantlabor,justasinconventionalagricultureandindustrialmanufacture.Inasystematicstudyof Californiasorganicfarms,Guthmanturnsupnoevidencetosuggestthatworkingconditionsand remunerationonsmallfamilyfarmsarebetterthanonlargecorporateones.48Morethananunstated assumptionthatsmallisbeautiful,thelocavorecelebrationoffamilyfarmsrepresentsaprototypically bourgeoiseffacementofwagelabor.Pollan,again,barelymentionsit,eveninhisexcoriationofthese samefarmsfortheirduplicitousmarketingstrategiesandtheirabusesofbothanimalsandtheland.49 Moredishonestly,Fromartzprofilesthebenevolentlaborpracticesatoneunionizedorganicberryfarmin Californiaasevidenceforthegentlenessofthiskindofcapitalism,thoughhefailstomentionthatthisis theonly organizedorganicfarminthestate.50 Second,andrelated,thiseffacementofwagelaborbytheproductivepowerofconsumptiontends towardthefetishizinglogicofcapitalism,sinceitcharacterizeseatingnotonlyasapoliticalactbutalso asavaluecreatingactivity.Inonesense,thismaybenodifferentfromMarxsargumentthat consumptionisaformofproduction(sinceeatingproducesenergy)andproductionaformof consumption(sincefarmingburnsfuel).51Likelocavores,Marxoffersathermodynamicapproachtofood inwhichcommoditiesarebutbearersofameasurablequantaofenergyindeed,becausethevalueofa commodityispreciselytheamountofenergystoredinit,Marxcastscommercetheproduction, distribution,exchange,andconsumptionofcommoditiesastransfersofenergyfromoneformto another,bothliterallyandmetaphoricallyasocialmetabolism.52Moneyisaconvenientand nonperishablemeasureofvalue,butwhatisbeingboughtandsoldincommerceisanothergeneral equivalentcalories.(Infact,thenutritionalliteratureattheopeningofthe20thCenturydidrefertoa foodscaloriccontentasitsfoodvalue.)Marxthusoffersastructuralparallelbetweenproducingand consumingsincebotharemetabolictransfersofenergy,measuredeitherincaloriesorinprice. Butwhenlocavoresrepeatthismoveexplaininghowindustrialagriculturemetabolizespetrocalories intosteak,andhowbuyinglocallettuceproducessustainablefarmstheirargumentcannotbe separatedfromaculturethatsystematicallyreducestheresponsibilitiesofcitizenshiptothelogicof consumerism.Thissamethermodynamicapproachtofoodthereforehasstrikinglydifferenteffectin MarxandPollan.InMarx,itillustrateshowconsumergoodsembodyexploitedlaborinPollan,itallows shoppingasaproxyforlabor.Inthenineteenthcentury,itreflectedthestandardizationoflaborunder industrialmanufacturetoday,itreflectsthereductionofsocialandpoliticallifetomarketrelations.Tobe sure:Pollansassessmentoffoodsystemsseemsunimpeachable,hisethicalcallforalessmediate relationshipwiththeenergysourcesthatprovidetheconditionsofourlivesseemsbeyondreproach,and hisresorttoendorsingresponsibleshoppingpracticesowestothefactthatlargenumbersofpeople simplycannotengageinraisingtheirownfood.(Hisvivid,firstpersonaccountofslaughteringchickens seemsmotivated,primarily,todemonstratethatsomethingnonquantifiabletheexperiencenotonlyof labor,butofdeathisirretrievablylostinthistransaction.)53Yetitinevitablyparticipatesinapolitical conditioninwhichcitizenshiphasbeenreducedtoconsumerism,andtheveryabilitytoconceptualize politicalactionorindividualfreedomhasbeencapturedbythelogicofthemarket.Byestablishingthe marketastheinstitutionthroughwhichdemocraticcitizenshipcanbeeffected,hisargumentparticipates inaneoliberalvogueforsubordinatingpoliticalstruggletomarketexchange.Sowhileconsuminglocal fooddoesproduceamarketinsustainableagriculture,italsoproducesthemarketasthesolutionto politicalproblems .54 Cohenpointsoutthatearlierversionsofconsumeristpolitics(suchastheboycottsattheheartofthe USCivilRightsmovement)workedtoreinforcesocialsolidarity,whereastheconsumermodelof citizenshipsincethe1980shasworkedtoimpoverishtraditionalmodelsofpoliticalaction.Inparticular, Cohenchronicleshownichemarketinghasfracturedandsegregatedsocietyintosmallerandmore homogenousconsumerprofileswithnarrowerandmorepersonalinterests,suchthatasmarketactivity cametoorganizeagreatersegmentofthepublicimaginationithasbecomemoredifficulttoenvisionan expansivecollectiveidentityorpublicgood.ForCohen,thetrueironyisthatwhileearlierinstancesof consumeractivismpromotedandfostereddemocraticparticipation,thesuccessandpopularityof consumeractivismhascorrespondedwithasteadydeclineinthemosttraditionalandtypicalformof politicalaction:voting.55 Oneinterpretationofthiscorrespondenceisthatconsumeristpoliticsisarusethatdistractscitizens frommeaningfulpoliticalengagement.Butaslightlymoresympatheticcastwouldsaythatthe dominanceofconsumerpoliticsowestoarealimpotenceofcitizensinthetraditionalarenasof democraticpolitics.Inotherwords,thepointisnotthatlocavoresalibicapitalism,butthatthelocavore

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literaturehaswideappealbecauseitspeakstoanactuallackofopportunitiesforpoliticalaction.My argumenthereparallelsrecentanalysesofotherpoliticaltrends,suchasJodiDeansassessmentofthe democraticpotentialoftheinternetandTimothyLukesstudyoftheenvironmentalmovementsembrace ofgreenconsumerism.56WhenDeanarguesthatblogsandchatroomsprovideanillusionofmeaningful participationinpublicdiscourse,andwhenLukearguesthatthatrecyclingdoeslesstostallglobal warmingthantogiveindividualasensethattheyareempoweredtochangetheworld,neithersimply reducesthesestrategiestoduplicitousredirectionsofpubliclymindedenergytowardnonpolitical, nonsocial,noninstitutionalsolutionstorealproblems.57Rather,bothemphasizethatthesestrategies appealbecausetheycoverovertherealpowerlessnessthatindividualsexperienceunderglobalization theyoffersolacefromarecognitionthatthereare,infact,veryfewopportunitiesfordemocraticaction andthatcitizensareactuallyquitepowerlesstochangetheshapeoftheirownlives.58 Thesenarrativeseachofferasenseofempowermentinanageinwhichithasbecomeallbut unthinkablethatagriculturalpolicy,environmentalregulation,ortheglobaltradeininformationwillbe subjecttodemocraticcontrol.Ineachcase,theseagendasareanimatedbyfantasiesofpoliticalefficacy aswellaspostpoliticalreconciliation,sincetheyeachpositaworldinwhichglobalcrisesareforestalled notviarepresentativepoliticsandstateregulation,butbysmoothlyfunctioningmarketsactually governedbyindividualethics.Thenarrativesofimmediatefoodoffersolacefromthealienatinglogicof globalcapitalandtheexploitationoffarmersbypromisingresponsibleconsumptionthroughthe beneficentandmutuallybeneficialtransactionsoffarmersmarketsandCSA.Finally,thebifurcated nostalgiaforbothJeffersonianselfrelianceandsixtiessolidaritythatunderliespopularapproachesto foodpoliticsowestoareallossoffaithintheinstitutionstraditionallychargedwithenactingpolitical solutions.

SomePoliticsisLocal
PerhapsIveoverstatedthecase.ThoughbookslikeTheOmnivoresDilemmaendeavortoreconcile agrarianpopulismwithsocialconscienceviaresponsibleconsumption,Pollansmorerecentwritings haverecognizedtheinadequacyofconsumeristpolitics.Votingwithourforkscanadvancereformonly sofar,hehassinceproclaimedrealchangedemandsthatpeoplewadeintothemuddypoliticalwaters ofagriculturalpolicyandvotewiththeirvotesaswell.59Indeed,Pollansactivismsurroundingthe2007 USFarmBillinspiredthousandsofAmericanstoactuallyinvestigatethistypicallyobscureand enduringlyimpenetrablepieceoffederallegislation,studyingsomeverycomplexanddecidedly unromanticdynamicsguidingagriculturalpolicyandbudgetaryprocess,alltowardtheendofa responsibleassessmentoftheimpossibilityofredirectinginternationalagriculturalmarketsandtrends withouttheactiveparticipationofstates. Similarly,Guthmanidentifiessignificantdifferencesbetweenvariousapproachestolocalfoods.Most notably,sheidentifiestwotypesofCSA:oneinwhicheaterspayanominalsubscriptionfeeinexchange forashareofthefarmsyield,andanotherinwhicheatersinvestintheequityofthefarmandshareits profits,itsrisks,andresponsibilities.Theformer,whichGuthmancallsmorecommonandlessradical, isabasicsubscriptionarrangementinwhichconsumerscommittoaparticulargrowertheysacrifice someindividualchoiceofgoods,butdonotsignificantlyaltertheirroleasconsumer.Butinthelatter version,subscribersreallyarecoownersinthefarm(albeitonalimitedbasis),andGuthmanmakesa convincingcasethatitoffersasignificantdecommodificationofbothfoodandland,especiallyasthese farmsrarelyshowaprofitandtypicallydependupongrantsfortheirviability.60Thecommonversionis benevolentconsumerism,whereasthelatter,whilestillorganizedaroundconsumeractivity,compels eaterstotakeontheresponsibilitiesandrisksrequiredofcommunityownership.Thecommonversion strivesforpostpoliticalassemblage,puttingaclassbiasedairofharmoniousexchangeontheotherwise unchangedinstitutionofthemarkettheradicalversionisselfconsciouslypolitical,theorizingand enactingaformofcollectiveactionthattransformsthenatureofownership,citizenship,andcontrol. Suchsocial,political,andinstitutionalprojectsarepredicatedonabeliefincollectiveefficacyandthe possibilityofanalternativetothedominanttrendtowardneoliberalization.Assuch,theirviabilitydepends notmerelyontheirofferingcreativeandsustainableprogramsforareworkedfoodsystem,butalsoonan abilitytoimaginepoliticalagencyandhumanfreedomintermsthatdonotreducetothelogicof consumerism.Theydependfundamentallyonabeliefinthepracticalityofcollectiveaction,andthey dependonabeliefinanalternativetothecurrentmarketbasedsolutionstocoordinatingtheproduction anddistributionofessentialresourceslikefoodandwater.Inthislight,whiletherecentfailureoftheUS CongresstosignificantlyreworkthetermsoftheFarmBillcertainlymeansseveralmoreyearsofunwise subsidiesandcorporatecontrolofagriculture,therealsignificancecouldbemorelongstanding.Insofar asthisfailureisseenasyetmoreevidencethatstatesareincapableorunwillingtoaddressthe environmentalviolationsandhumaninjusticesendemictotheUSfoodsystem,itoffersyetanother reasontodoubtthepossibilityofinstitutionalsolutionstosocietysproblems,andyetanotherreasonto tradeapoliticizationofconsumptionforaconsumeristpolitics.
ChadLavin ChadLavinisassistantprofessorofPoliticalScienceandSocial,Political,Ethical,andCulturalThoughtatVirginiaTech.Heis theauthorofThePoliticsofResponsibility (UniversityofIllinoisPress,2008).Thisessayispartofalargerprojectonthe politicsandanxietiesoffood.

Footnotes
1.GreatthankstoElizabethMazzoliniforfosteringmyacademicinterestinfoodandforhelpfulfeedbackonanearlierdraftof thisessay,toJodiDeanforencouragingthissymposium,andtoTheBillandCarolFoxCenterforHumanisticInquiryatEmory Universityforgenerouslyfundingthisresearch.

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2.WhatArePeopleFor?(SanFrancisco,CA:NorthPointPress,1990),145. 3.ElspethProbyn,CarnalAppetites:FoodSexIdentities (NY:Routledge,2000). 4.JulieGuthman,AgrarianDreams:TheParadoxofOrganicFarminginCalifornia(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress, 2004). 5.SamuelFromartz,Organic,Inc.:NaturalFoodsandHowTheyGrew(NY:Harcourt,2006),ixHarveyLevensteinThe ParadoxofPlenty:ASocialHistoryofEatinginAmerica(OxfordUniversityPress,1993),ch15. 6.Levenstein,ParadoxofPlenty ,183. 7.MaryDouglas,PurityandDanger (NY:Routledge,1966).Onthedesireforpredictablefoodsinaglobaleconomy,see MichaelPollan,TheBotanyofDesire:APlantsEyeViewoftheWorld(NY:RandomHouse2001),ch4.Onthedifficulties encounteredandcompromisesrequiredinmarketingethnic(i.e.,Mexican,Italian,andChinese)chainrestaurantsintheUS, seeBarryGlassner,TheGospelofFood:EverythingYouThinkYouKnowAboutFoodisWrong(NY:Ecco,2007),ch5. 8.WarrenBelasco,AppetiteforChange:HowtheCountercultureTookontheFoodIndustry (NY:PantheonBooks1989),49 50. 9.Norisitentirelyacoincidencethatthemanwhowona1920NobelPrizefordevelopingsyntheticfertilizer,FritzHaber,also developedZyklonB,thegasusedinHitlersconcentrationcamps.SeeMichaelPollan,TheOmnivoresDilemma:ANatural HistoryofFourMeals (NY:Penguin,2006),43. 10.LauraShapiro,Suddenly,ItsaPanicforOrganic,Newsweek (March27,1989). 11.Forversionsofthisstory,seeBelasco,AppetiteforChangeLevenstein,ParadoxofPlenty Fromartz,Organic,Inc. Pollan,TheOmnivoresDilemma. 12.BillMcKibben,DeepEconomy:TheWealthofCommunitiesandtheDurableFuture(NY:TimesBooks,2007)Barbara KingsolverwithStevenHoppandCamilleKingsolver,Animal,Vegetable,Miracle:AYearofFoodLife(NY:HarperCollins, 2007)AlisaSmithandJBMacKinnon,Plenty:OneMan,OneWoman,andaRaucousYearofEatingLocally (NY:Harmony Books,2007)AdamGopnik,NewYorkLocal,TheNewYorker (Sep3and10,2007). 13.SeeJohnCloud,EatingBetterThanOrganic,Time(Mar2,2007)CarloPetrini,SlowFoodNation:WhyOurFoodShould BeGood,Clean,andFair ,trans.C.Furlan&J.Hunt(NY:RizzoliExLibris,2007)DanielImhoff,FoodFight:ACitizensGuide totheFoodandFarmBill(Healdsburg,CA:WatershedPress,2007). 14.Ihavenotmentionedacompetingtrend,SlowFood,becausetheconcernwithslownessseemsbutonemanifestationofa concernwithlocality.IntheirmonographontheSlowFoodorganizationandphilosophy,WendyParkinsandGeoffreyCraig explicitlycasttimeandspaceascoequalconcerns,alongsidepleasure( SlowLiving[NY:Berg,2006]).Formoreonconcerns aboutspeedowingtoapostmoderncollapseofspace,seeDavidHarvey,TheConditionofPostmodernity (Oxford:Blackwell, 1990). 15.FrancesFukuyamahassimilarlytradedhisfearofthecorruptinginfluenceofgeneticengineering( OurPosthumanFuture [NY:Farrar,Strauss,andGiroux,2002])foraconcernaboutAmericanexpansionism( AmericaattheCrossroads [New Haven,CT:YaleUniversityPress,2006]). 16.McKibben,DeepEconomy ,65Pollan,OmnivoresDilemma,167. 17.Ibid.SeealsoRichardManning,TheOilWeEat,Harpers (February2004). 18.NickCullathershowshowthisthermodynamicsthinkinghasdirectedUSforeignpolicysincetheearly20thCentury, especiallyasitcastglobalhungerasacaloricdeficit,ameasurethatcanbetabulatedaseasilyascurrencyorpetroleum. NickCullather,TheForeignPolicyoftheCalorie,AmericanHistoricalReview112.2(April2007),339. 19.MichaelHardt,Sovereignty,Theory&Event5.4(2002). 20.Thelistofrelevanttextsherecouldbeverylong.Forasamplingofpeoplemakingthisargument,seePierreManent,A WorldBeyondPolitics?(PrincetonUniversityPress,2006)HenriLefebvre,TheProductionofSpace,trans.D.Nicholson Smith(Oxford:Blackwell,1991)SusanBordo,TheFlighttoObjectivity (Albany:SUNYPress,1987)andDavidHarvey,The ConditionofPostmodernity. 21.BrianHalweil,EatHere:ReclaimingHomegrownPleasuresinaGlobalSupermarket(NY:Norton,2004),10,16. 22.DeepEconomy ,109. 23.Attheopeningofthe20thCentury,40%ofAmericanslivedonfarms(meaningthatmostAmericansatleastvisitedafarm atsomepoint).Acenturylater,thatnumberhaddeclinedto2%.RichardBulliet,Hunters,Herders,andHamburgers (NY: ColumbiaUniversityPress,2005),3. 24.OmnivoresDilemma,ch9.ForMackeysresponseandensuingdialogue,see http://www2.wholefoodsmarket.com/blogs/jmackey/2006/05/26/anopenlettertomichaelpollan(accessed27May2009). 25.GregCritser,GenerationRx (NY:HoughtonMifflin,2005)RayMoynihanandAlanCassels,SellingSickness (NY:Nation Books,2005). 26.ParkinsandCraig,SlowLiving,62.Foraparallel,seeFredricJamesonsargumentthatconspiracytheories,byexplaining thattheworldisactuallycontrolledbycovertbutunambiguouswieldersofpower,offersolacefromadisorientingand increasinglyanarchisticglobalmarket.CognitiveMappinginMarxismandtheInterpretationofCulture,ed.C.NelsonandL. Grossberg(Urbana:UniversityofIllinoisPress,1988). 27.JodiDean,CommunicativeCapitalism:CirculationandtheForeclosureofPolitics,CulturalPolitics 1.1(March2005). 28.J.K.GibsonGraham,APostcapitalistPolitics (Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,2007),ch4. 29.GillesDeleuze,PostscriptonSocietiesofControl,inNegotiations197201990,trans.M.Joughin.NY:ColumbiaUniversity Press,1997),178.SeealsoMichaelHardtandAntonioNegri,Empire(Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,2000),esp.23 7. 30.LizabethCohen,AConsumersRepublic:ThePoliticsofMassConsumptioninPostwarAmerica(NY:Vintage,2004),228. 31.PeterSingerandJimMason,TheWayWeEat:WhyOurFoodChoicesMatter (NY:Rodale,2006). 32.Gopnik,NewYorkLocalKingsolver,Animal,Vegetable,Miracle,78andpassim.Foranothercritiqueoflocalistelitism, seeBarryGlassnersfastfoodpopulismthatcelebratestheconvenientandaffordablefoodsthatlocavoresmalignbuton

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whichmostcitydwellersdepend( GospelofFood,ch6). 33.Kingsolver,Animal,Vegetable,Miracle,2. 34.Ibid.,153. 35.Ibid.,307. 36.Ibid.,249.OthertreatmentsofSlowFoodaremuchmoreopenaboutthelinksoftheorganizationtoradical,leftwing politics.SeePetrini,SlowFoodNationParkinsandCraig,SlowLivingandCorbyKummer,ThePleasuresofSlowFood(San Francisco,CA:ChronicleBooks,2002). 37.Halweil,EatHere,1578. 38.Ibid.,165. 39.Fromartz( Organic,Inc.,ix)frameshisbookonorganicsasanissueoftrust,andLevenstein( ParadoxofPlenty ,ch13) noteshowtheorganicsmovementcoincideswithaproliferationofalternativemedicines,signalingasimilarlackofconfidence intheAmericanmedicalestablishment. 40.Fromartz,Organic,Inc.,ch6Pollan,OmnivoresDilemma,1556. 41.WholeFoodsfounderandCEOJohnMackeyisanavowedlibertarian,andthechainisknownforchampioningthe benevolentlaborpracticesdesignedtofrustrateunions. 42.Guthman,AgrarianDreams ,12,24. 43.Halweil,EatHere,ch9. 44.ThemostcommonpersonalityhereisJoelSalatin,owner/operatorofPolyfaceFarmsandselfdescribedChristian conservativelibertarianenvironmentalistlunaticfarmer(Pollan,OmnivoresDilemma,125).Amorestrikingcharacter, however,isprobablyArthurHarvey,anorganicblueberryfarmerwhosuedtheUSDAin2002andwho(againevoking Thoreau)hasrefusedtopayfederalincometaxessince1959duetohisoppositiontomilitaryspending(Fromartz,Organic, Inc.,introduction).Suchheroicindividualsareastapleoftheliterature. 45.WendyBrown,NeoliberalismandtheEndofLiberalDemocracy,Theory&Event7.1(2003). 46.Plenty ,163. 47.PollancelebratesSalatinforfarminginamannerthathislandwillbeinnowaydiminishedbytheprocessinfact,itwillbe thebetterforit,lusher,morefertile,evenspringierunderfoot,castingthefarmerasthequintessentialLockeansubject,adding valuetothelandbycultivatingit( OmnivoresDilemma,127). 48.AgrarianDreams ,175. 49.OmnivoresDilemma,ch9. 50.Organic,Inc.,ch2.ThankstoJulieGuthmanforconfirmingthis. 51.KarlMarx,Grundrisse,trans.M.Nicolaus(NY:Penguin,1973),85100. 52.Marx,Capital,Volume1,trans.B.Fowkes(NY:Vintage,1977),198andpassim.OnMarxsinterestinthermodynamics, seeFrederickGregory,ScientificMaterialismintheNineteenthCentury (Boston:D.ReidelPublishingCompanty,1977)Anson Rabinbach,TheHumanMotor (NY:BasicBooks,1990)AmyWendling,AlienationandMachineProduction:Capitalist EmbodimentinMarx .PhDThesis(PennStateUniversity,2006). 53.OmnivoresDilemma,22638. 54.NotehowCarloPetrini,theItalianfounderofSlowFood,freelycallsconsumerscoproducersinordertohighlightthe productivepowerofconsumption,butfindshimselfopenlydisgustedbythewealthyorverywealthypatronsofafarmers marketinSanFranciscowhoseemtobebuyingselfrighteousnessasmuchaspeppers( SlowFoodNation,12935).The lessonhereseemsthat,withthecurrentstateofAmericanpolitics,Petrinispoliticizationofconsumptionfreelytranslatesintoa consumeristpolitics.Similarly,whileEvanWatkinsusesthetermmarketworktodefetishizecapitalismandexplainhow consumeractivityamountstotheprocessofconstructingthemarket,thepointhereisthatlocavoremarketworkdoesnot merelyconstructamarketforresponsibleagriculture,butconstructsaparticularunderstandingofpoliticalaction.SeeEvan Watkins,EverydayExchanges:MarketworkandCapitalistCommonSense(StanfordUniversityPress,1998). 55.Cohen,ConsumersRepublic ,4045. 56.Dean,CommunicativeCapitalismLuke,Ecocritique:ContestingthePoliticsofNature,Economy,andCulture (Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,1997),ch6. 57.Luke,Ecocritique,119. 58.Ibid.,Dean,CommunicativeCapitalism,61. 59.Pollan,YouAreWhatYouGrow,inManifestosontheFutureofFood&Seed,ed.V.Shiva(SouthEndPress,2007)139. SeealsoPollan,DontCallIttheFarmBill,CallIttheFoodBill,forewordtoD.Imhoff,FoodFight. 60.Guthman,AgrarianDreams ,1845. Copyright2009ChadLavinandTheJohnsHopkinsUniversityPress

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