Eugenics Human Experimentation In the 1880s, in Hawaii, a California physician working at a hospital for lepers injecte twel!

!e young girls un er the age of 1" with syphilis# $ro in, %ichael &# ' $lant(, )eonar H#, e # *1++,-# Children as research subjects: science, ethics, and law# .xfor /ni!ersity 0ress /1

In 18+2, the 3ew 4ork pe iatrician Henry Heiman intentionally infecte two 5i iots5, one ,6year6ol an one 176year ol 8with gonorrhea as part of a me ical experiment# & re!iew of the me ical literature of the late 1+th an early "0th century foun that there were more than forty reports of experimental infections with gonorrheal culture, inclu ing some where gonorrheal organisms were applie to the eyes of sick chil ren# )e erer, 1usan E# *1++9-# Subjected to Science: Human Experimentation in America Before the Second World War# :H/ 0ress 1hamoo, & il E#; <esnik, =a!i ># *"00+-# Responsible Conduct of Research# .xfor /ni!ersity 0ress /1

In 1+00, /#1 &rmy octors in the 0hilippines infecte fi!e prisoners with ?u?onic plague an in uce ?eri?eri in "+ prisoners; four of the test su?jects ie as a result#

In 1+07, 0rofessor <ichar 1trong of Har!ar /ni!ersity intentionally infecte ", @ilipino prisoners with cholera, which ha somehow ?ecome infecte with plague# He i this without the consent of the patients, an without informing them what he was oing# &ll of the su?jects ?ecame sick, an thirteen ie # Horn?lum, &llen %# *1++8-# Acres of s in: human experiments at Holmesbur! "rison : a stor# of abuse and exploitation in the name of medical science# <outle ge# Horn?lum, &llen %# *"009-# Sentenced to Science: $ne Blac %an&s Stor# of 'mprisonment in America# Ahe 0ennsyl!ania 1tate /ni!ersity 0ress Cina, 1tephen :#; 0erper, :oshua &# *"010-# When (octors )ill# 1pringer $erm BarC Ahe /#1# <ecor httpCDDwww#counterpunch#orgD1+++D07D12Dgerm6war6the6us6 recor D 1+0761+,0 Ahe 0ellagra Inci ent 6%illions ie from 0ellagra o!er a span of se!eral eca es# Ahe /#1# 0u?lic Health 1er!ice finally acte to stem the isease in 1+E2# Ahe irector of the agency a mits it ha known for at least "0 years that 0ellagra is cause ?y a niacin eficiency ?ut faile to act since most of the eaths occurre within po!erty6 stricken ?lack populations# >etween 1+12 an 1+17, o!er 100,000 people ie in the /#1# 1outh from this isease# In 1+12, the /#1# 1urgeon $eneral, :oseph @ishman or ere a stu y one on 0ellagra# It was con ucte on /#1# prisoners an was foun to ?e a result of their iet 6 specifically lack of niacin in the ?o y# Howe!er, this information wasnFt re!eale to the pu?lic until 1+E2G BhyH Ahe irector of the /#1# 0u?lic Health 1er!ice, Hugh 1# Cumming, state that they

"

knew a?out the cure for twenty years an

i nothing a?out it ?ecause most eaths from

0ellagra only occurre in poor, ?lack populations# IEpi emiologists Explain 0ellagraC $en er, <ace, an 0olitical Economy in the Bork of E gar 1y enstrickerJ >y Harry %# %arks p 20 *?ase on the report of 1urgeon $eneral Hugh Cumming to 0resi ent Barren $# Har ingIn 1+08, three 0hila elphia researchers infecte o(ens of chil ren with tu?erculin at the

1t# KincentFs House orphanage in 0hila elphia, causing permanent ?lin ness in some of the chil ren, an painful lesions an inflammation of the eyes in many of the other chil ren# In the stu y, they referre to the chil ren as 5material use 5#
<oger Cooter# 'n the *ame of the Child# <outle ge*1++"- pp# 10,102

In 1+0+, @# C# Lnowles release a stu y escri?ing how he ha

eli?erately infecte two

chil ren in an orphanage with %olluscum contagiosum after an out?reak in the orphanage, in or er to stu y the isease# $ro in, %ichael &# ' $lant(, )eonar H#, e # *1++,-# Children as research subjects: science, ethics, and law# .xfor /ni!ersity 0ress /1

In 1+11, =r# Hi eyo 3oguchi of the <ockefeller Institute for %e ical <esearch injecte 1,7 hospital patients, some of whom were chil ren with syphilis# He was later sue ?y the parents of some of the chil su?jects, who allege ly contracte syphilis as a result of his experiments#

Re+iews and *otes: Histor# of %edicine: Subjected to Science: Human Experimentation in America before the Second World War , Annals of 'nternal %edicine, &merican College of 0hysicians, :uly 12, 1++2 !ol# 1"E no# " 12+

1+E1 =r# Cornelius <hoa s of the <ockefeller Institute for %e ical In!estigations, infects human su?jects with cancer cells# In a letter he a mitte to writing, =r# <hoa s state C IAhe 0orto <icans *sic- are the irtiest, la(iest, most egenerate an thie!ish race of men e!er to inha?it this sphere# Ahey are e!en lower than the Italians# I ha!e one my ?est to further the process of extermination ?y killing off eight an transplanting cancer into se!eral more### &ll physicians take elight in the a?use an torture of the unfortunate su?jects#J He later went on to esta?lish the /#1# &rmy >iological Barfare facilities in %arylan , /tah, an 0anama# He was also name to the /#1# &tomic Energy Commission# Bhile there he ?egan a series of ra iation exposure experiments on &merican sol iers an ci!ilian hospital patients# I0uerto <icans .utrage .!er 1ecret %e ical ExperimentsJ Carmelo <ui(6%arrero# Inter 0ress 1er!ice Aruman Clark, "uerto Rico and the ,nited States -.-/0-.11 *0itts?urghC /ni!ersity of 0itts?urgh 0ress, 1+92-, 12"2E, 12,; see also Ahomas %atthews, 2a "ol3tica puertorri4ue5a # el nue+o trato, trans# &ntonio :# Colora o, "n e # *<Mo 0ie rasC /ni!ersi a e 0uerto <ico, E itorial /ni!ersitaria, 1+92-, ,1,"; an )uis &ngel

@errao, "edro Albi6u7Campos # el nacionalismo puertorri4ue5o *1an :uanC E itorial Cultural, 1++0-, 999+

Ahe Auskegee syphilis experiment was a clinical stu y con ucte ?etween 1+E" an 1+9" in Auskegee, &la?ama, ?y the /#1# 0u?lic Health 1er!ice# In the experiment, 700 poor ?lack males, E++ who ha alrea y contracte syphilis, an "01 without it, were offere 5treatment5 ?y the researchers, who tol the test su?jects that they were treating them for the isease, ?ut in reality i nothing8e!en though they possesse penicillin, which was known to cure the ea ly isease at the time8so that they coul o?ser!e the effects of syphilis on the human ?o y# >y the en of the stu y in 1+9", only 9, of the test su?jects were ali!e# Awenty6eight of the original E++ men ha ie of syphilis, 100 were ea of

relate complications, ,0 of their wi!es ha ?een infecte , an 1+ of their chil ren were ?orn with congenital syphilis# Ahe stu y was not shut own until 1+9", when its existence was leake to the press, forcing the researchers to stop in the face of pu?lic outcry#

=r# :ohn Heller of the =epartment of 0u?lic Health 1er!ice sai C I5Ahe menFs status i not warrant ethical e?ate# Ahey were su?jects, not patients; clinical material, not sick people#5 IImpact on HealthcareJ Auskegee /ni!ersity www#tuskegee#e uDimpactonhealthcare

1+,0 6@our hun re prisoners in Chicago are infecte with %alaria in or er to stu y the effects of new an experimental rugs to com?at the isease# 3a(i octors later on trial at 3urem?erg cite this &merican stu y to efen their own actions uring the Holocaust#

&nnas, $eorge :#; $ro in, %ichael &# *1++2-# 8he *a6i doctors and the *urember! Code: Human Ri!hts in Human Experimentation# .xfor /ni!ersity 0ress# Horn?lum, &llen %# *1++8-# Acres of s in: human experiments at Holmesbur! "rison : a stor# of abuse and exploitation in the name of medical science# <outle ge#

In 1+,1, at the /ni!ersity of %ichigan, octors @rancis an 1alk an other researchers eli?erately infecte patients at se!eral %ichigan mental institutions with the influen(a !irus ?y spraying the !irus into their nasal passages# @rancis <ous, e itor of the 9ournal of Experimental %edicine wrote the following to @rancis regar ing the experimentsC 5It may sa!e you much trou?le if you pu?lish your paper ### elsewhere than in the 9ournal of Experimental %edicine# Ahe 9ournal is un er constant scrutiny ?y the anti6 !i!isectionists who woul not hesitate to play up the fact that you use for your tests human ?eings of a state institution# Ahat the tests were wholly justifie goes without saying#5
%eiklejohn, $or on 3#, %#=# 5Commission on Influen(a#5 in Histories& of the Commissions E # Aheo ore E# Boo war , %#=#, Ahe &rme @orce Epi emiological >oar , 1++,

2esser Harms: 8he %oralit# of Ris in %edical Research ?y 1i ney & Halpern, /ni!ersity of Chicago 0ress, "007, pp10+611E 7

In 1+,1 =r# Billiam C# >lack inoculate a twel!e month ol ?a?y 5offere as a !olunteer5 with herpes# He su?mitte his research to 8he 9ournal of Experimental %edicine an it was rejecte on ethical groun s, ?ut the 9ournal of "ediatrics pu?lishe it# Ahe e itor of the 9ournal of Experimental %edicine, @rancis 0ayton <ous, calle the experiment 5an a?use of power, an infringement of the rights of an in i!i ual, an not excusa?le ?ecause the illness which followe ha implications for science#5
>lack BC *@e?ruary 1+,"-# 5Ahe Etiology of &cute Infectious $ingi!ostomatitis *KincentFs 1tomatitis-5# 8he 9ournal of "ediatrics 20 *"-C 1,270

Ahe 1tate!ille 0enitentiary %alaria 1tu y was a controlle stu y of the effects of malaria on the prisoners of 1tate!ille 0enitentiary near :oliet, Illinois ?eginning in the 1+,0s# Ahe stu y was con ucte ?y the =epartment of %e icine at the /ni!ersity of Chicago in conjunction with the /nite 1tates &rmy an the 1tate =epartment# &t the 3urem?erg trials, 3a(i octors cite the malaria experiments as part of their efense# Ahe stu y continue at 1tate!ille 0enitentiary for "+ years# In relate stu ies from 1+,, to 1+,7, =r# &lf &l!ing, a professor at the /ni!ersity of Chicago %e ical 1chool, purposely infecte psychiatric patients at the Illinois 1tate Hospital with malaria, so that he coul test experimental malaria treatments on them# &nnas ' $ro in p"79 Horn?lum p97

1+," Chemical Barfare 1er!ices ?egins mustar gas experiments on approximately ,,000 ser!icemen# Ahe experiments continue until 1+,2 using 1e!enth =ay & !entists as human guinea pigs# *1e!enth =ay & !entists ?elie!e in non6!iolence an are therefore of no use to the 1tate-

@rom 1+,7 to 1+2E, at the Balter E# @ernal 1tate 1chool in %assachusetts, in an experiment sponsore ?y the /#1# &tomic Energy Commission an the Nuaker .ats corporation, 9E mentally isa?le chil ren were fe oatmeal containing ra ioacti!e calcium an other ra ioisotopes, in or er to track 5how nutrients were igeste 5# Ahe chil ren were not tol that they were ?eing fe ra ioacti!e chemicals an were tol ?y hospital staff an researchers that they were joining a 5science clu?5

Imme iately after Borl Bar II, researchers at Kan er?ilt /ni!ersity ga!e 8"+ pregnant mothers in Aennessee what they were tol were 5!itamin rinks5 that woul impro!e the health of their ?a?ies, ?ut were, in fact, mixtures containing ra ioacti!e iron, to etermine how fast the ra ioisotope crosse into the placenta# &t least three chil ren are known to ha!e ie from the experiments, from cancers an leukemias# @our of the womenFs ?a?ies ie from cancers as a result of the experiments, an the women experience rashes, ?ruises, anemia, hairDtooth loss, an cancer#

In a 1+,7 to 1+,8 stu y in $uatemala, /#1# researchers use prostitutes to infect prison inmates, insane asylum patients, an $uatemalan sol iers with syphilis an other sexually transmitte sexually transmitte iseases, in or er to test the effecti!eness of penicillin in treating iseases# Ahey later trie infecting people with 5 irect inoculations

ma e from syphilis ?acteria poure into the menFs penises an on forearms an faces that were slightly a?ra e # # # or in a few cases through spinal punctures5# &pproximately 900 people were infecte as part of the stu y# Ahe stu y was sponsore ?y the 0u?lic Health 1er!ice, the 3ational Institutes of Health an the 0an &merican Health 1anitary >ureau an the $uatemalan go!ernment# Ahe team was le ?y :ohn Cutler, who later participate in the Auskegee syphilis experiments# Cutler chose to o the stu y in $uatemala ?ecause he woul not ha!e ?een permitte to o it in the /nite 1tates#
5/#1# sorry for $uatemala syphilis experiment5# CBC *ews# .cto?er 1, "010# httpCDDwww#c?c#caDhealthDstoryD"010D10D01Dsyphilis6guatemala#html# <o? 1tein *.cto?er 1, "010-# 5/#1# apologi(es for newly re!eale syphilis experiments one in $uatemala5# 8he Washin!ton "ost# httpCDDwww#washingtonpost#comDwp6 ynDcontentDarticleD"010D10D01D&<"01010010,,29#htmlHhpi Otopnews# 5/1 sorry o!er eli?erate sex infections in $uatemala5# >>C 3ews# .cto?er 1, "010# httpCDDwww#??c#co#ukDnewsDworl 6us6cana a611,2,98+# Chris %c$real *.cto?er 1, "010-# 5/1 says sorry for Foutrageous an a?horrentF $uatemalan syphilis tests5# 8he :uardian *)on on-# httpCDDwww#guar ian#co#ukDworl D"010DoctD01Dus6 apology6guatemala6syphilis6tests#

>etween 1+,8 an 1+2,, fun e ?y the fe eral go!ernment, researchers at the :ohns Hopkins Hospital inserte ra ium ro s into the noses of 28" >altimore, %arylan schoolchil ren as an alternati!e to a enoi ectomy# 1imilar experiments were performe on o!er 9,000 /#1# &rmy an 3a!y personnel uring Borl Bar II# It went on to ?ecome a stan ar me ical treatment an was use in o!er two an a half million &mericans#

In 1+20, in or er to con uct a simulation of a ?iological warfare attack, the /1 3a!y use airplanes to spray large Puantities of the ?acteria 1erratia %arcescens o!er the city of 1an @rancisco, California, which cause numerous citi(ens to contract pneumonia6like illnesses, an kille at least one person# Ahe family of the man who was kille sue for gross negligence, ?ut a fe eral ju ge rule in fa!or of the go!ernment in 1+81# Serratia tests were continue until at least 1+7+# &lso in 1+20, =r# :oseph 1tokes of the /ni!ersity of 0ennsyl!ania eli?erately infects "00 women prisoners with !iral hepatitis#

In the 1+20s, researchers at the %e ical College of Kirginia performe experiments on se!ere ?urn !ictims, most of them poor an ?lack, without their knowle ge or consent, with fun ing from the &rmy an in colla?oration with the &EC# In the experiments, the su?jects were expose to a itional ?urning, experimental anti?iotic treatment, an injections of ra ioacti!e isotopes# Ahe amount of ra ioacti!e phosphorus6E" injecte into some of the patients, 200 microcuries, was 20 times the 5accepta?le5 ose for a health#

10

in i!i ual; for people with se!ere ?urns, this likely le to significantly increase rates# In 1+22, the CI& con ucte a ?iological warfare experiment where they release

eath

whooping cough ?acteria from ?oats outsi e of Aampa >ay, @lori a, causing a whooping cough epi emic in the city, an killing at least 1" people#
>lum, Billiam *"007-# Ro!ue State: A :uide to the World&s $nl# Superpower# Qe >ooks# pp# 120121# %ichael 0arenti, 8he Sword and the (ollar: 'mperialism, Re+olution, and the Arms Race, 1t# %artins 0ress, 1+8+, pp#9,81

I>iological Barfare an the 3ational 1ecurity 1tateC & ChronologyJ ?y Aom >urghar t
httpCDDwww#glo?alresearch#caD?iological6warfare6an 6the6national6security6stateD1,908

@rom approximately 1+21 to 1+9,, the Holmes?urg 1tate 0rison in 0ennsyl!ania was the site of extensi!e ermatological research operations, using prisoners as su?jects# )e ?y =r# &l?ert %# Lligman of the /ni!ersity of 0ennsyl!ania, the stu ies were performe on ?ehalf of =ow Chemical Company, the /#1# &rmy, an :ohnson ' :ohnson# In one of the stu ies, for which =ow Chemical pai Lligman R10,000, Lligman injecte ioxin8a

highly toxic, carcinogenic component of &gent .range, which =ow was manufacturing for use in Kietnam at the time8into 90 prisoners *most of them ?lack-# Ahe prisoners e!elope se!ere lesions which went untreate for se!en months# =ow Chemical wante to stu y the health effects of ioxin an other her?ici es, an how they affect human skin, ?ecause workers at their chemical plants were e!eloping chloracne# In the stu y, Lligman applie roughly the amount of ioxin =ow employees were ?eing expose to# In 1+80 an 1+81, some of the people who were use in this stu y sue 0rofessor Lligman for a !ariety of health pro?lems, inclu ing lupus an psychological amage#

11

Lligman later continue his ioxin stu ies, increasing the osage of ioxin he applie to 10 prisonersF skin to 9,200 micrograms of ioxin, which is ,78 times the osage that the =ow Chemical official $eral L# <owe ha authori(e him to a minister# &s a result, the prisoners e!elope inflammatory pustules an papules# Ahe Holmes?urg program also pai hun re s of inmates a nominal stipen to test a wi e range of cosmetic pro ucts an chemical compoun s, whose health effects were unknown at the time# /pon his arri!al at Holmes?erg, Lligman is claime to ha!e sai 5&ll I saw ?efore me were acres of skin ### It was like a farmer seeing a fertile fiel for the first time5# It was reporte in a 1+7, issue of %edical *ews that + out of 10 prisoners at Holmes?urg 0rison were me ical test su?jects# In 1+79, the /#1# &rmy pai Lligman to apply skin6?listering chemicals to the faces an ?acks of inmates at Holmes?urg to, in LligmanFs wor s, 5learn how the skin protects itself against chronic assault from toxic chemicals, the so6calle har ening process#5

@rom the 1+20s to 1+9", mentally isa?le chil ren at the Billow?rook 1tate 1chool in 1taten Islan , 3ew 4ork were intentionally infecte with !iral hepatitis, in research whose purpose was to help isco!er a !accine# @rom 1+7E to 1+77, 1aul Lrugman of 3ew 4ork /ni!ersity promise the parents of mentally isa?le chil ren that their chil ren woul ?e enrolle into Billow?rook in exchange for signing a consent form for proce ures that he claime were 5!accinations#5 In reality, the proce ures in!ol!e

1"

eli?erately infecting chil ren with !iral hepatitis ?y fee ing them an extract ma e from the feces of patients infecte with the isease#
@re erick & olf 0aola, <o?ert Balker, )ois )aci!ita 3ixon, e # *"00+-# %edical Ethics and Humanities# :ones ' >artlett 0u?lishers# pp# 182187 Hammer >reslow, )auren# 5Ahe >est 0harmaceuticals for Chil ren &ct of "00"C Ahe <ise of the Koluntary Incenti!e 1tructure an Congressional <efusal to <ePuire 0e iatric Aesting5, Har+ard 9ournal of 2e!islation, Kol# ,0 .ffit, 0aul &# *"009-# 8he Cutter 'ncident: How America&s ;irst "olio <accine 2ed to the :rowin! <accine Crisis

In 1+2", 1loan6Lettering Institute researcher Chester %# 1outham injecte li!e cancer cells into prisoners at the .hio 1tate 0rison# Half of the prisoners in this 3IH6sponsore stu y were ?lack# &lso at 1loan6Lettering, E00 healthy women were injecte with li!e cancer cells without ?eing tol # Ahe octors state that they knew at the time that it might cause cancer#

In a 1+2E operation calle 5$reen <un5, the &EC roppe io ine61E1 an xenon61EE o!er a 200,0006acre area which containe three small towns near the Hanfor site in Bashington#

1E

In 1+2E, the /#1# &tomic Energy Commission ran se!eral stu ies on the health effects of ra ioacti!e io ine in new?orns an pregnant women at the /ni!ersity of Iowa# In one stu y, researchers ga!e pregnant women from 100 to "00 microcuries of io ine61E1, in or er to stu y the womenFs a?orte em?ryos in an attempt to isco!er at what stage, an to what extent, ra ioacti!e io ine crosses the placental ?arrier# In another stu y, they ga!e "2 new?orn ?a?ies *who were un er E7 hours ol an weighe from 2#2 to 8#2 l?sio ine61E1, either ?y oral a ministration or through an injection, so that they coul measure the amount of io ine in their thyroi glan s# In another &EC stu y, researchers at the /ni!ersity of 3e?raska College of %e icine fe io ine61E1 to "8 healthy infants through a gastric tu?e to test the concentration of io ine in the infantsF thyroi glan s# In 1+2E, the &EC sponsore a stu y to isco!er if ra ioacti!e io ine affecte premature ?a?ies ifferently from full6term ?a?ies# In the experiment, researchers from Harper Hospital in =etroit orally a ministere io ine61E1 to 72 premature an full6term infants who weighe from "#1 to 2#2 l?#

$olis(ek, &n rew *"00E-# 'n 8he *ame of Science# 3ew 4orkC 1t# %artinFs 0ress# 0p1E"6 1E,

In 1+27 an 1+29, se!eral /#1# &rmy ?iological warfare experiments were con ucte on the cities of 1a!annah, $eorgia an &!on 0ark, @lori a# In the experiments, &rmy ?io6 warfare researchers release millions of uninfecte mosPuitoes on the two towns, in or er

1,

to see if the insects coul potentially sprea yellow fe!er an

engue fe!er# Hun re s of

resi ents contracte a wi e array of illnesses, inclu ing fe!ers, respiratory pro?lems, still?irths, encephalitis, an typhoi # &rmy researchers preten e to ?e pu?lic health workers, so that they coul photograph an perform me ical tests on the !ictims# 1e!eral people ie as a result of the experiments#

In a stu y at the Balter E# @ernal 1tate 1chool, in 1+27, researchers ga!e mentally isa?le chil ren ra ioacti!e calcium orally an intra!enously# Ahey also injecte ra ioacti!e chemicals into malnourishe ?a?ies an then pushe nee les through their skulls, into their ?rains, through their necks, an into their spines to collect cere?rospinal flui for analysis# $olis(ek p"2E

>etween 1+70 an 1+91, the =epartment of =efense fun e non6consensual whole ?o y ra iation experiments on poor, ?lack cancer patients, who were not tol what was ?eing one to them# 0atients were tol that they were recei!ing a 5treatment5 that might cure their cancer, ?ut in reality the 0entagon was attempting to etermine the effects of high le!els of ra iation on the human ?o y# .ne of the octors in!ol!e in the experiments, <o?ert 1tone, was worrie a?out litigation ?y the patients, so he only referre to them ?y their initials on the me ical reports# He i this so that, in his wor s, 5there will ?e no

12

means ?y which the patients can e!er connect themsel!es up with the report5, in or er to pre!ent 5either a !erse pu?licity or litigation5#

@rom 1+70 to 1+91, =r# Eugene 1aenger, fun e ?y the =efense &tomic 1upport &gency, performe whole ?o y ra iation experiments on more than +0 poor, ?lack &mericans# He forge consent forms, an i not tell them what he was oing *they

thought they were recei!ing me ical care-# He expose their chests to 100 ra s of ra iation *the ePui!alent of a?out 9200 x6rays-, which cause intense pain, !omiting, an ?lee ing from their nose an ears# &t least eight, an as many as "0, of the su?jects ie as a result of the experiments#
)e>aron, Bayne =# *1++8-# America&s nuclear le!ac## 3o!a 0u?lishers# pp# ++100# Ahomas H# %augh II, 5Eugene 1aenger, +0; physician con ucte pi!otal stu ies on effects of ra iation exposure5, 2os An!eles 8imes, .cto?er 7, "009 *<etrie!e @e?ruary 18, "0105Human ExperimentsC >efore the 3a(i Era an &fterJ ?y =a!i :# <othman

In 1+71 an 1+7", ten /tah 1tate 0rison inmates ha ?loo samples taken which were then mixe with ra ioacti!e chemicals an reinjecte ?ack into their ?o ies# )e>aron, Bayne =# p 102

@rom 1+7E to 1+9E, a lea ing en ocrinologist, =r# Carl Heller, irra iate the testicles of .regon an Bashington prisoners# In return for their participation, he ga!e them R2 a 17

month, an R100 when they ha to recei!e a !asectomy upon conclusion of the trial# Ahe surgeon who sterili(e the men sai that it was necessary to 5keep from contaminating the general population with ra iation6in uce mutants5# .ne of the researchers who ha worke with Heller on the experiments, =r# :oseph Hamilton, sai that the experiments 5ha a little of the >uchenwal touch5#
Cock?urn, &lexan er; :effrey 1t# Clair *1++8-# Whiteout: 8he C'A, (ru!s and the "ress# 3ew 4orkC Kerso# pp# 12912+

In 1+7", twenty6two el erly patients at the :ewish Chronic =isease Hospital in >rooklyn, 3ew 4ork were injecte with li!e cancer cells ?y Chester %# 1outham, who in 1+2" ha one the same to prisoners at the .hio 1tate 0rison, in or er to 5 isco!er the secret of how healthy ?o ies fight the in!asion of malignant cells5# Ahe a ministration of the hospital attempte to co!er the stu y up, ?ut the 3ew 4ork 1tate me ical licensing ?oar ultimately place 1outham on pro?ation for one year# Awo years later, the &merican Cancer 1ociety electe him as their Kice 0resi ent# )oue, 1ana *"000-# 8extboo of Research Ethics: 8heor# and "ractice# 1pringer pp"76"+

In 1+7E, /ni!ersity of Bashington researchers irra iate the testes of "E" prisoners to etermine the effects of ra iation on testicular function# Bhen these inmates later left prison an ha chil ren, at least four of them ha offspring ?orn with ?irth efects# Ahe

19

exact num?er is unknown ?ecause researchers ne!er followe up on the status of the su?jects# $olis(ek, pp11+, 1E8 I=uring an .cto?er "+, 1+," meeting of Ahe Committee on %e ical <esearch of the .ffice of 1cientific <esearch an =e!elopment, the committee state that Iexperiments on human ?eings are ?oth esira?le an necessary in certain types of research relate to the war effort#J 011+ .fficials were concerne for two reasonsC 1 If personnel were kille or isa?le ?y exposure, keeping the project secret woul ?e impossi?le an the ?om?6making sche ule woul ?e jeopar i(e # " If excessi!e ra ioacti!ity were to escape an sprea ?eyon the pro uction facilities, it might ?e etecte through a !erse health effects an therefore compromise the projectSs secrecy as well# =uring a %ay "E, 1+20 Committee on %e ical <esearch meeting IAhe Committee on %e ical 1ciences en orses the !iew that is essential to o?tain all necessary scientific information concerning ra iation oses an the effect on man ?y all means of ?iological experimentation, as promptly as possi?le, inclu ing if necessary human experiments un er esta?lishe principles of such experiments#J 01"0

18

In 1+71 Har!ar

octors felt it was o!erreaching to expect them to get consent to perform

human experiments# 01"1

In 1+77, the /#1# &rmy release the harmlessT >acillus glo?igii into the tunnels of the 3ew 4ork su?way system as part of a fiel stu y calle A Stud# of the <ulnerabilit# of Subwa# "assen!ers in *ew =or Cit# to Co+ert Attac with Biolo!ical A!ents# Ahe Chicago su?way system was also su?ject to a similar experiment ?y the &rmy

Tharmless to those with healthy immune systems >lum, pp1206121

%oreno# p "E, Cina ' 0erper p# +2 Bheelis, %ark;<U(sa, )ajos; =an o, %alcolm *"007-# (eadl# cultures: biolo!ical weapons since -.>?# Har!ar /ni!ersity 0ress# pp# "9"8# 5How the /#1# $o!ernment Expose Ahousan s of &mericans to )ethal >acteria to Aest >iological Barfare5# =emocracynow#org# "00260961E# httpCDDwww# emocracynow#orgD"002D9D1EDhowVtheVuVsVgo!ernmentVexpose #

In a 1+79 stu y that was pu?lishe in the 9ournal of Clinical 'n+esti!ation, pregnant women were injecte with ra ioacti!e cortisol to see if it woul cross the placental ?arrier an affect the fetuses# $olis(ek# pp""E6""2

1+