DIRECT TO BLEACH ELECTRICAL ISSUES FOR A NEW TREND IN ELECTROCHEMICAL PLANTS

Copyright Material IEEE Paper No. PCIC-10-108

PAUL BUDDINGH, P.Eng.

MEMBER, IEEE ANDRITZ AUTOMATION Ltd. 13700 International Place, Suite 100 Richmond, BC V6V 2X8 Canada pbuddingh@ieee.org AbstractDue to increasing concerns with public health safety and security, and the shipment of chlorine, there is a growing interest by industry, suppliers and industrial bleach end users for smaller, modular Chlor-Alkali facilities. Large municipal and other water treatment users are particularly interested in this onsite approach. This case study paper presents the challenges faced and lessons learned by the scaling down of processes and equipment in the design and construction of Direct to Bleach plants. Index Terms Direct to Bleach, Bleach, Electrochemical, Chlor-Alkali, Electrolyzer, Rectifier, Harmonic Filter, DC Bus, Cell Room Safety

JIM SIMS, P.E.

Ineos Technologies, Inc. 3030 Warrenville Road, Suite 650 Lisle, IL 60532 USA Jim.Sims@Ineos.com salt is electrically dissociated into chlorine, caustic soda, and hydrogen. The chlorine and caustic soda are then recombined to form bleach. Several new Direct to Bleach plants have been built and commissioned over the last few years. Many industrial and municipal facilities are adopting this alternative as a means of ensuring a steady supply of a critical raw material and water disinfection agent. These plants also eliminate the need to deal with costly ramifications including increasing regulatory burdens applied to the shipping, storing, and use of a TIH chemical. The size of the Direct to Bleach plant is driven by the local market size within the relative short transportation limits of bleach. As bleach degrades with time, it is typically manufactured just-in-time and within a radius of one day road surface delivery. The economy of scale disadvantages of these smaller plants are offset by significantly reduced regulatory burdens, the ability to operate during times of low cost power, and regional niche markets.

I.

INTRODUCTION

This paper examines some electrical issues with a new type of electro-chemical process plant. Interest in developing Direct to Bleach plants is increasing for a number of reasons. Direct to Bleach facilities are typically owned, engineered and constructed by those outside the traditional large Chlor-Alkali industrial environment. As a result, many of the unique considerations necessary to adapt this process to standard electrical systems are not familiar to the companies and individuals concerned. The Chlor-Alkali industry dates back over 100 years, and many of the standards, work methods and safety practices that have been well developed and considered routine are not understood by newcomers to this industry. This paper outlines some important design considerations, safety aspects and construction issues.

II.

BACKGROUND

One of the largest and most widely used chemicals in the world is sodium hypochlorite, commonly called bleach. Bleach is used in many households in addition to most industrial, commercial, and municipal facilities for fresh and wastewater treatment systems. Bleach is made from reacting chlorine and sodium hydroxide (commonly referred to as caustic soda). Due to increasing public health and safety concerns about the shipment and storage of Toxic Inhalation Chemicals (TIH) such as chlorine, industries and municipalities have responded by making bleach directly onsite. This process uses common salt (sodium chloride) as a raw material. The

Fig. 1: Membrane type electrolyzer

III.

INEXPERIENCE WITH DESIGN REQUIREMENTS

Unconventional and challenging nonlinear electrical loads Problems with scaling down Unfamiliar specialized major electrical equipment often sourced internationally Electrical configurations that are contrary to conventional installation/inspection practice Harmonic filters Time of use power, in particular, rate chasing Emergency switching

utility minimizing the cost of electrical personnel and support for the plant. This approach, however, presents additional challenges in terms of both design and expense. These weaker O/H lines often use distributed bare capacitors to provide reactive power and voltage support. Due to time-of-use fluctuations, automatically switched capacitors are used on these lines. This can cause significant challenges in a harmonic rich environment inherent with large rectifiers, due to resonance with the distributed capacitors. Considerable complications can arise with harmonic filter design.

VI. LOCAL REQUIREMENTS

Industrial equipment is often sourced from vendors with manufacturing facilities located around the world. If not managed carefully, utilizing this equipment in North American plants can add substantial costs and major delays due to local safety code compliance. This issue is particularly acute with Direct to Bleach plants due to the specialized nature of the equipment and the cost saving efforts in this nascent industry. All equipment must meet local regulatory codes. In North America, equipment must meet the requirements of an appropriate Nationally Recognized Testing Laboratory (NRTL). UL listing in the USA and CSA certification in Canada are familiar NRTLs. The easiest method with which to address this concern is to build the regulatory requirements into the purchase specification contract for all equipment. In practice, however, having a contractual obligation may not be enough. Vendors can underestimate the steps and effort needed to meet the regulatory requirements and may delay the project. Active involvement by the project manager to ensure that all stakeholders are aware of these regulatory requirements early on can be critical to the overall success of the project.

IV. ELECTROCHEMICAL LOAD

Electrolysis of a purified brine solution is the basis for the Chlor-Alkali process. Production is proportional to electrical consumption. Power levels of smaller Direct to Bleach plants are in the 5 MW range, with larger facilities in the 20 MW range. This electrolysis process requires vast amounts of DC current at relatively low voltages. Currents range from 300030,000 DC amperes with voltages in the 100-600 volts DC range. Large, specialized electrical rectifiers and associated equipment are required to convert incoming AC power into the DC required by the process. The conversion of incoming AC power to DC power by the rectifiers is a nonlinear process that produces large amounts of harmonic current and other disturbances. Traditional rectifiers also demand a large reactive power component that is mitigated by installing harmonic filters that include power factor correction capacitors.

V.

NON INDUSTRIAL RURAL & RESIDENTIAL POWER SYSTEMS

VII. SHIPPING ISSUES

The shipping of rectifiers and other components has recently become a greater concern. Impact recorders are a worthwhile tool to monitor shipping damage. Careful consideration must be taken when selecting a shipper, particularly when shipping overseas. Shipments can be consigned by the original shipper to a firm unfamiliar with the care required for this type of equipment, the specific schedule or other special conditions. Delays and unnecessary problems can develop. On one occasion, the equipment left the plant properly packaged and arrived damaged, minus the crating and impact recorders. There was no record of the damage nor responsibility assumed by any of the intermediary parties. Other factors to consider: Containerized or below deck shipping can protect against seawater damage Stolen/Missing components due to improper packaging or incomplete paperwork Customs clearance and unexpected tariff fees that can negate expected savings

Conventional Chlor-Alkali plants are supplied by high voltage, high capacity power lines. These stiff high fault level systems are designed to tolerate the demands of electrochemical loads. Power company personnel supplying these large plants are well versed in dealing with high capacity industrial loads. Since Direct to Bleach plants are built close to the point of use, they are frequently built in residential or rural areas. Direct to Bleach plants have a lower power requirement and can be connected to lower voltage weaker residential and rural electrical systems. Local utilities often do not have the resources or experience to manage the substantial impact of the rectification equipment on a power system typically designed for farming, residential and light commercial loads. These systems are typically in the 12-25 kV range and the relatively low fault levels increase the power systems susceptibility to harmonic and other disturbances. Smaller bleach plants (producing less than 150 tpd of chlorine) are sometimes directly connected to these medium voltage distribution systems without an intermediary step down transformer. This results in a substantial cost savings and also provides the plant with the technical resources of the

VIII. CONCERNS ASSOCIATED WITH USED EQUIPMENT

There have been a number of Direct to Bleach plants reconstructed using components sourced from larger existing sites. While there can be substantial costs savings with this approach, there are a number of concerns with relocating bleach plants. Electrically, there are a number of specific components required. The transplanted transformer rectifiers are usually custom designs that cannot be replaced in short order with another device. As a result, the reliability of these units is of critical importance to the operation of these plants. Often, these transplanted units are aging and electromechanical components in particular are a frequent failure point. Original parts are difficult to source and creative methods must be used to keep this equipment operating [1]. Based on the authors experience, a list of recommendations for used electrical equipment in electrochemical plants is as follows: 1. Electrochemical rectifiers will operate satisfactorily beyond the normal 25-year design life if well maintained. Confirm that the electrical service to the new location has the same specifications as the previous location Have the electrical equipment fully tested prior to new plant design After moving and reinstallation, have the equipment fully inspected and run precommissioned tests Operate and maintain equipment as per its original age, not pro rated to the new installation date 2. The equipment must be suitable for the new environment; otherwise, derating or upgrades may be needed. 3. Control system, electronic and electromechanical and maintenance upgrades are often worthwhile. 4. Major upgrades to older rectifiers are not recommended. Well-intended major changes to transformers, rectifiers or output ratings can lead to problems. What starts out as a promising cost savings idea can balloon into an expensive, sometimes-unwieldy system. If the basic configuration is not suitable, a new transformer rectifier should be considered.

Fig. 2: Transformer rectifier

A.

Transformers

IX. ELECTROCHEMICAL RECTIFIERS

The selection of these vital and expensive machines presents a number of challenges. Selecting a rectifier involves more than stating a voltage and current rating. In order to obtain a cost effective, reliable machine, one should only specify the items that are necessary for the application. The standard vendor offering should be used unless there is a compelling reason for change [2].

Transformers are matched to the requirements of rectifier output and the incoming power system. These are custom made for the application and paired with a rectifier. Off-theshelf replacements are not available and delivery times can be longer than one year. Specifying a transformer that will provide long-term reliable operation is critical. Normally, a mineral oil filled transformer is used. High fire point fluids can be used instead to reduce flammability, but is more expensive. Dry-type transformers are sometimes used for smaller rectifiers; however, they are generally not as robust nor as long lived as the oil-filled variety. Oil-filled transformers are typically air/forced air or watercooled. Water-cooling generally provides a smaller footprint. Stepped voltage taps are used to set the voltage range of the rectifier and this will affect the amount of reactive power necessary in the harmonic filter(s). Selecting the proper range of taps is an important task that can significantly affect the monthly electrical cost of operating the plant. Occasionally, an on-load tap changer is selected if rectifier load varies widely due to time of use energy rates or process reasons. On-load taps can adjust the voltage range without the need for an outage. Process parameters will set the tap range to specify. B. Power Converters

Chopper rectifiers can be considered if wide range voltages are needed, Choppers offer the advantage of providing a wider operating range with a desirable high power factor. They trade off component and system design complexity against the simpler, more commonly used thyristor rectifier. A

cost benefit analysis is needed when considering this approach. Thyristor rectifiers are the standard for Chlor-Alkali and Direct to Bleach. They are a good compromise of control range, cost, complexity, power factor and reliability. Thyristor rectifiers have been in use for 40 years and have proved reliable some circa 1970 vintage units are still in operation today. Generally, a twelve-pulse bridge configuration in this power range has an acceptable harmonic output. Claims of efficiency and power factor should be carefully investigated. Vendors can only control resistive and reactive voltage drops and these are difficult to improve upon. A significant difference in efficiency or power factor between vendors usually means that different conditions or configurations were used. Rectifier cooling systems are dependant on ambient conditions (including outdoor sun load) and rectifier rating. Today, most rectifiers in the range used by Direct to Bleach plants use water-cooling for thermal efficiency. Water-to-water heat exchangers are generally used with a freshwater or sometimes seawater supply, external to the rectifier. Internally, a deionized closed loop system is used. The deionized system allows mineral-free low conductivity water to directly cool energized electrical components. Regular deionizing system maintenance is mandatory. Ambient temperature, allowable temperature rise, flow rate and pressure of the available external water supply should be specified. The rectifier control system is very important. It largely determines how stable and trouble-free the rectifier operates. The control system regulates load power (usually current), operates pumps and switchgear and provides user interface. Inadequate control can cause a myriad of difficult to identify problems. References [3] [4] [5] explore the importance of control system methods. Control systems are generally categorized into digital or analog systems. Good control systems using the preferred Phase Locked Loop (PLL) method can be implemented in either form. Digital control has several advantages: No potentiometers or calibration required Low component drift due to temperature and age Interfaces directly with computerized plant Process Control Parameters are easily diagnosed and modified Other features that must be specified include fiber optic firing connections to the thyristors in order to eliminate electrical interference in the firing circuit. Independent overcurrent relays are necessary to provide protection in case the control system malfunctions. They cannot be combined with the control system. Rectifiers produce significant amounts of power and can create extensive damage if not carefully controlled and protected. Effective Arc Flash relays, using fiber optic methods, are now readily available and are recommended.

reliability reasons. Power supply utilities have strict limitations. Excessive harmonic levels can interfere with the operation of the plant, and affect neighboring plants and other electrical consumers on the same electrical grid. Installing an effective and reliable harmonic filter requires due diligence when planning a Direct to Bleach plant. When harmonics levels are excessive, the following types of problems can occur: If the harmonic current creates a resonance condition, electrical equipment will malfunction, overheat and fail [5] Inability to operate variable speed drives Failures of components in rectifiers, drives and other electronic equipment Shortened lifespan of insulating systems in rotating machinery and transformers Improper operation of control and monitoring equipment Fuse failures and nuisance tripping of circuit breakers Cables involved in system resonances may be subjected to excessive voltage stress and corona, which can lead to dielectric (insulation) failure Positive and negative errors are possible in operation of metering and instrumentation with harmonic distortion present Design of these filters is complicated and dependant on rectifier load, power system configuration, other harmonic sources and any existing capacitors connected to the system. The design of these filters must take into account many factors including changes and fluctuations in these parameters. A system approach is imperative for a successful outcome. The filter designer must have a proven track record. Too often, design software is used without sufficient knowledge and experience and problems can develop. The most common types of filters incorporate power factor capacitors into their design. This ensures that the filter compensates for the rectifiers low power factor, in addition to treating the harmonic current. Improving the power factor to the level required by the utility will provide a significant savings in monthly electrical costs. Filters must be designed to interact with the line capacitances and capacitors of the power supply utility and that of any neighbors connected to the same system. Failure to consider existing interconnections can lead to resonance and malfunction. One of the most frequent errors observed by the authors is designs that treat only the predominant theoretical harmonic frequency. (i.e., a 12-pulse rectifier system, with a filter tuned th to its characteristic 11 harmonic). Designers who only th th consider the theoretical currents might skip the 5 and 7 th harmonic filters. In this case, the 11 filter is seen as th th capacitive to the lower order 5 and 7 harmonic frequencies. th th If there are significant 5 and 7 residual harmonic currents, a resonance condition can be created leading to equipment damage. Another potential problem is harmonic filters transplanted along with used plant equipment to a new location and power system. Filter operation is dependant on the impedances of the power system, and transplants without a design analysis are susceptible to damage [5].

X.

POWER FACTOR AND HARMONIC FILTERS

A detailed harmonic filter analysis and design is required to compensate for the effects of harmonic currents in Direct to Bleach plants. Harmonic filters are generally required by the local electrical supply utility for regulatory and equipment

electrolyzer technology to ensure a consistent, reliable signal over a wide operating range.

XII. PROCESS EQUIPMENT & PLANT CONTROL SYSTEMS

High electrical noise and magnetic fields levels are just two unusual plant conditions that require special consideration when selecting low voltage plant process and control equipment. The special conditions under which standard production equipment operates cannot be overlooked when designing a Direct to Bleach plant.

Fig. 3: Overloaded and burned filter reactor

XI. DC BUS SYSTEMS

Another specialized type of equipment that requires considerable expertise is the high current DC bus used to transmit the rectified current to the electrolyzers. Typically, the busbars are made out of high conductivity aluminum or copper; they are configured as multiple plates and the energized surfaces are exposed. The open energized surfaces are necessary to dissipate the heat created by the thousands of amperes of DC current.
Fig. 5: Bleach plant operator control screen

XIII. UNFAMILARITY WITH DC UNGROUNDED SYSTEMS

A. Cell Room Electrical Design and Construction Practices

The design of the cell room is critical to the safe and reliable operation of the plant. Key parameters that must be included in the design of the support steel, piping, lighting, and instrumentation are listed below [6] [7]. Electrolyzer isolation deck. Any metal that comes into contact with the electrolyzer technology must be electrically isolated so that no current can find a route to ground. Personnel isolation radius. There must be a sufficient radius (or protection) to prevent an employee from inadvertently bridging from the isolation deck to ground. Null point. The electrolyzer technology feed and exit streams are electrically conducting fluids. These streams must pass through a cell room null point to ground or significant stray currents can occur. The stray currents can quickly destroy downstream instrumentation and equipment. Magnetic fields. With high current loads, tremendous magnetic fields are created. These fields must be taken into account when locating instrumentation.

Fig. 4: Typical DC bus

These large currents produce proportional DC current and AC ripple current induced magnetic fields. This must be carefully considered when designing a bus system. Fabrication, assembly, installation and maintenance all require specialized knowledge. Design issues sometimes overlooked include galvanic corrosion of joined dissimilar metals, joint preparation, clearances and safety concerns, flexible connections, seismic demands in certain geographical areas and the effects of magnetic fields on building steel and electrical apparatus. Changes in applied current vary the magnetic field and require care in the selection of instrumentation used in the

The magnetic field can make it difficult to use ferrous hand tools in the cell room. Leakage current or grounding. As the fluids used in the cell room are conductive, a fluid leak could create a path for current leakage or a path to ground. A fluid leak could cause undesirable current to come from the electrolyzer technology or from the main electrical DC buses, which can cause arcing or major galvanic corrosion. Fluid leaks create conductive salt deposits. It is important to keep the electrolyzer deck and DC buswork clean with frequent washdowns using a source of clean de-ionized water. Otherwise stray current and shock hazards will develop. In emergencies, the main electrical feed to the transformer/rectifier must be disconnected, isolated and locked out. There have been numerous cases where a small trickle of current resulted from a residual electrical charge on a shut down rectifier. Current passing through the shutdown electrolyzer technology can result in significant damage to, or explosion of, the electrolyzer technology. This also presents a shock hazard to unwitting personnel.

XIV. SPECIALIZED SKILLS REQUIRED

Specialized skill sets are required for the design, operation and maintenance of these plants. Special training is required to address the electrical practices necessary to operate and maintain Direct to Bleach plants.

XV. OPERATING CHALLENGES

Chlor-Alkali and Direct to Bleach plants operate in a competitive marketplace with small operating margins. The larger Chlor-Alkali plants produce commodity chemicals, and these plants must be able to operate at very high production rates for extended periods in order to be financially viable. In contrast, with Direct to Bleach, the product demand varies from day-to-day and one season to the next. It is not unusual to have a market demand that is 3-4 times greater in the summer than winter due to higher water usage and enhanced disinfection needs. Direct to Bleach plants must operate in a manner that allows for rapidly changing capacity needs. The ability to respond to hourly changes in electrical rates (with rates peaking in the morning and early evening and lower overnight) is an important cost saving measure. Due to the limited shelf life of bleach, Just-in-Time manufacturing is used to deliver this chemical to the point of use. The supply must be reliable due to stringent public safety and health requirements.

B.

Electrical Cell Room Safety Standard

IEEE 463: IEEE Standard for Electrical Safety Practices in Electrolytic Cell Line Working Zones is the reference standard for this industry. Excerpts from this standard have been adopted as article 668 of the National Electrical Code (NEC) in the USA. However, in many countries, including Canada, [8] has not been incorporated into the local electrical safety code. This can make it a challenge for anyone without a Chlor-Alkali industry background to understand Cell Room safety. Many commonly assumed electrical safety rules do not apply. In particular, the almost universally accepted grounded or earthed systems, electrical tools and apparatus are not suitable in the areas of open energized DC bus and ungrounded electrochemical cell surfaces. The working area around these energized surfaces is defined as the Cell Line Working Zone [8]. One intention of [8] is to prevent a path for high-energy DC current to pass from the cell line through a faulty AC connection in hand tools and equipment via its ground connection. Reference [8] lists a number of safer work practices. At this time, the preferred power tool to be used in these areas is battery powered [8]. The rules of [8] are used with all equipment in the zone, including cranes, arc welders, and non-electrical equipment including hoses, which must be constructed of non-conductive materials. Note: In the USA and Europe, the Chlor-Alkali trade associations publish technical guidance documents that should be used to assist in the design of cell room electrical safety [6]. Persons with implanted pacemakers, ferromagnetic medical devices, or other electronic devices vital to life shall not be permitted in cell areas [8] or near rectifiers. Working in the cell line-working zone requires specific PPE and work practices as defined in 463. A number of safeguards are used when working in the zone including guarding, insulation and isolation of energized surfaces.

XVI. CONCLUSIONS
This paper outlines electrical concerns that face developers, designers and owners of Direct to Bleach plants. There is increasing demand for Direct to Bleach plants by a wide variety of end users. The nature of the product and constraints on its use require plant designs that are smaller, more flexible and simpler to operate than the conventional Chlor-Alkali facilities. The larger established plants have a track record of successful work practices, well-defined methodologies and the extensive resources of knowledgeable personnel. Electrical system designers of Direct to Bleach plants would be well advised to draw on the proven practices and standards developed by the Chlor-Alkali industry and recreate them in a smaller, simple to operate manner. Direct to Bleach plants are expected by industry experts to grow significantly in the next decade. Due to their smaller size, there will be many more Direct to Bleach plants spread over a larger geographical area. Direct to Bleach plants will not be located in industrial parks and a large percentage will be placed in densely populated urban areas. Bleach is considered an indispensable resource for these local markets due to its use as a disinfection chemical for wastewater, potable water, hospitals and food processing. Interruptions in supply cannot be tolerated for any length of time for this essential product. As these Direct to Bleach plants expand across North America, they will play an increasingly important role in the safety, public health, and well-being of the communities in which they are located.

XVII.

REFERENCES

XVIII.

VITA

[1] P.C. Buddingh & J. St. Mars, New Life for Old Thyristor Power Rectifiers using Contemporary Digital Control, IEEE IAS Transactions, pp. 1449-1454, Sep/Oct.2000. [2] Specifying Rectifiers for Electrochemical Applications. George Murison et el IEEE PCIC 1997-21. [3] J.D. Ainsworth, Harmonic Instability between Controlled Static Converters and AC Networks, Proc. IEE, No.7, pp. 949-957, July 1967. [4] J.H. Galloway, Harmonic Instability in Phase Controlled Rectifiers, IEEE PCIC conf. record, pp. 171-175, 1999. [5] P.C. Buddingh, Even harmonic resonance-an unusual problem, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications, Volume 39, Issue 4, pp. 1181-1186, July-Aug 2003. [6] Chlorine Institute Pamphlet 1, The Chlorine Manual, Edition 6, January 1997. Second Printing 2000. [7] Chlorine Institute Pamphlet 139, Electrical Safety in Chlor-Alkali Cell Facilities, Edition 4, April 2005. [8] IEEE 463, IEEE Standard for Electrical Safety Practices in Electrolytic Cell Line Working Zones. [9] NEC article 668 electrolytic cells. [10] IEEE Red Book. [11] J.C. Read, "The Calculation of Rectifier and Inverter Performance Characteristics," Proceedings of the lEEE, Vol. 92, Part 2, No. 29, pp. 495-509, October 1945. [12] IEEE 519-1992 IEEE Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electrical Power Systems. [13] Copper to Aluminum Transitions in High Current Direct Current Bus Systems William Veerkamp IEEE PCIC 1995-20.

Paul Buddingh, P.Eng. is a consulting engineer with more than 20 years experience designing specialized power systems for advanced technology equipment. He is a graduate of Lakehead University in Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada with a degree in Electrical Engineering. Upon graduation, Paul spent several years in Toronto, Canada working as a consulting engineer working in heavy industry. He then co-founded a company that successfully developed a new magnetic approach to solving zero sequence harmonic problems. Paul later moved to Vancouver, Canada and joined Universal Dynamics Ltd. (now ANDRITZ AUTOMATION Ltd.), where his present role is Director - Business Development, Engineered Systems. Pauls technical work centers on designing high reliability power systems for difficult loads, power converter issues, alternate energy sources and resolving power system problems and energy issues internationally. Paul is a registered Engineer in the provinces of Ontario, Manitoba and British Columbia and an author of several IEEE papers. He is past chair of the electrochemical subcommittee of the IEEE PCIC and is active on several IEEE Standards working groups. (Email: pbuddingh@ieee.org) Jim Sims, P.E. is an engineer with more than 25 years experience in the design, construction, and operation of chemical production facilities. He is a graduate of Oregon State University with a degree in Chemical Engineering. After finishing college, he joined Dow Chemical Company and worked for several years in a variety of chloro-organic production facilities. During this time, he also participated in Dows internal engineering design group, working on a variety of plant improvement and new product projects. After leaving Dow, Jim went to work for Weyerhaeuser Company, where he managed a large Chlor-Alkali facility for several years. When Weyerhaeuser exited its chemical operations, Jim joined Universal Dynamics Ltd., as a consulting engineer where his work focused on improving Chlor-Alkali operations at a number of international facilities as well as the design of new production facilities. He was then recruited to help form a new company, Equa-Chlor, and proceeded to build a new ChlorAlkali plant. After successfully completing the funding, design, construction, staffing, and startup of this new facility, Jim joined the international engineering company of CH2MHill as an Operations Manager with responsibilities for a variety of chemical projects on the west coast of the USA. Jim was then recruited by Ineos Technologies Inc, as the Technical Service and Commissioning Manager for North America. Jim has been a member of a variety of Chlorine Institute Committees and Task Forces. (Email: jim.sims@ineos.com)