EXPERIMENT 1 SMALL SIGNAL STABILITY ANALYSIS OF A SINGLE MACHINE INFINITE BUS SYSTEM 1.

1 AIM: To become familiar with the various aspects of small signal stability of Single Machine Infinite Bus System (SMIB). 1.2 OBJECTIVES: To understand modeling and analysis of small signal stability of a SMIB system. To obtain linearized swing e uation and to determine the roots of characteristic e uation damped fre uency of oscillation and undamped natural fre uency. 1.3 SOFTWARE REQUIRED: M!T"!B 1.4 THEORETICAL BAC GROUND: Small signal stability is the ability of the power system to maintain synchronism when sub#ected to small disturbances. ! disturbance is considered to be small if the e uations that describe the resulting response of the system can be linearized for the purpose of analysis. Instability is of two forms $). Steady increase in generator rotor angle due to synchronizing tor ue. %) &otor oscillations of increasing amplitude due to insufficient damping tor ue. 'or small disturbance( the nonlinear e uations characterizing the dynamics of the system may be linearized around an operating point for the purpose of analysis. Small signal stability using linear techni ues provides valuable information about the dynamics of the system and assists in its design. The location of the roots of the characteristic e uation of the linearized differential e uation will reveal the stability status of the

system. )e can also obtain the response of rotor angle and fre uency of the rotor of the synchronous machines.

1.4.1 MODELLING FOR SMALL SIGNAL STABILITY: "et us consider a system as shown in the 'ig $.$

F!" 1.1 'or the purpose of analysis the system of 'ig $.$ a) may be reduced to the form of 'ig $.$ b) by using Thevenin*s e uivalent of the transmission networ+ e,ternal to the machine and the ad#acent transmission. Because of the relative size of the system to which the machine is supplying power( dynamics associated with the machine will cause virtually no change in the voltage and fre uency of Thevenin*s voltage - B. Such a voltage source of constant voltage and fre uency is referred to as infinite bus.

1.4.2 GENERATOR REPRESENTED BY CLASSICAL MODEL: )ith the generator represented as classical model and all resistances neglected( the system representation is shown in figure. $.%. .ere /0 is the voltage behind 1 d0. Its magnitude is assumed to remain constant at the pre2disturbance value. "et 3 be the angle by which /* leads the infinite bus voltage /B .!s the rotor oscillates during a disturbance 3 changes.

)ith /* as reference phasor(

F!" 1.2 E#$!%&'()* +!,+$!* -. SMIB /0/*(1 The comple, power behind 1d0 is given by

($.$) )ith stator resistance neglected( the air gap power (4 e) is e ual to the terminal power (4). In per unit( the air gap power is e ual to the air gap tor ue

($.%) "inearising ($.%) about an initial operating condition represented by 353o yields

($.6) The e uation of motion in per unit is

($.7) )here 89r is the per unit speed deviation( 3 is the rotor angle in electrical radians 9o is the base rotor electrical speed in radians per second and p is the differential :perator d;dt with time t in seconds "inearising($.7) and substituting for 8Te we get

($.<) )here =s is the synchronizing tor ue coefficient given by

($.>) )riting the e uations ($.<) and ($.7) in vector matri, form we get

($.?) This is of the form 1*5!1 @bu. The elements of the state matri, are seen to be dependent on the system parameters =A (.( 1T and the initial operating condition represented by the values of /* and 3 o . The bloc+ diagram representation shown in the 'ig $.7 can be used to describe small signal performance. 'rom the bloc+ diagram ($.6) we have

&earranging we get

($.B) Therefore the characteristic e uation is given by

($.C) This is of the general form

Therefore the undamped natural fre uency is

and the damping ratio is

!s the synchronizing tor ue coefficient =s increases( the natural fre uency increases and the damping ratio decreases. !n increase in damping tor ue coefficient = A increases the damping ratio( whereas an increase in inertia constant decreases both 9 n and D.

F!" 1.3 2'-+3 4!&",&1 -. S!)"'( M&+5!)( I).!)!*( B$/ S0/*(1 6!*5 +'&//!+&' "()(,&*-, 1-4('

1.7 EXERCISE: 'ig $.7 shows a system representation applicable to a thermal generating station consisting of four <<<M-!( %7 =-(>E .z units.

F!" 1.4 The networ+ reactance shown in the fig. are in per unit on %%%E M-!( %7 =- base (referred to the "T side of the step up transformer). &esistances are assumed to be negligible. The ob#ective of this e,ample is to analyze the small signal stability characteristics of the system about the steady state operating condition following the loss of circuit %. The post fault condition in per unit on the %%%E M-!( %7 =- base is as follows.

The generators are to be modeled as a single e uivalent generator by the classical model with the following parameters e,pressed in per unit on %%%E M-!( %7 =- baseF 1d05.6 .56.<M)s;M-!

a) )rite the linearized state e uations of the system. Aetermine the eigen values ( damped fre uency oscillation in .z( damping ratio and undamped natural fre uency for each of the following values of damping coefficient (in pu tor ue;pu speed) i) =A5E ii) =A5$E iii) =A52$E

b) 'or the case with =A5$E( find the left and right eigen vectors and participation matri,. Aetermine the time response if at t5E( 835<G and 895E

4&:H&!MF
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b5imag(&/-($($))I c5real("/-(%(%))I d5imag("/-(%(%))I delw5((bKc)2(aKd))K(2%KdeldelE) deldel5(%KdeldelEKs rt(cN%@dN%)) alpha5real(Ar($($))I beta5imag(Ar($($))I end end t5EI for i5$F$EEE w(i)5delwK(e,p(alphaKt))Ksin(betaKt)I dt(i)5deldelK(e,p(alphaKt))Kcos((betaKt)2(atan(d;c)))I at(i)5tI t5t@E.E%I end plotyy(at(w(at(dt)I

EXPERIMENT 2 INDUCTION MOTOR STARTING ANALYSIS 2.1 AIM: To perform induction motor starting analysis under various conditions and to find tor ue Pslip characteristics. 2.2 OBJECTIVE: To integrate whether the starting motor can be successfully started under various operating conditions. 2.3 SOFTWARE REQUIRED: M!T"!B 2.4 THEOREY: 2.4.1 MOTOR STARTING ANALYSIS: Auring the motor starting period( the starting motor appears to the system as small impedance connected to a line. It draws a large amount of current from the system( about si, times the motor rated current( which therefore results in voltage drops in the system and imposes disturbances to the normal operation of other systems loads. Since the accuracy tor ue is dependent on motor not be able to reach its rated speed to e,tremely low terminal voltage( in some cases the starting motor may not be able to reach its rated speed to e,tremely low terminal voltage. This ma+es it necessary to perform a motor starting analysis. The purpose of performing motor study is to investigate whether the starting motor can be successfully started under the operating conditions and to see it starting the motor will seriously impede the normal operation of the other loads in the system. The motor starting analysis chapter is divided in to the following sections. The motor starting tool bar section e,plains how to start a motor( starting calculation to open and view an output report of to select display options.

The motor starting study case section e,plains how you can create a new study case what parameters are re uired to specify a steady state. The display option sector e,plains available option for displaying some +ey system parameters of output result of the one line diagram. Qalculation section describes calculation method using the module. 2.4.2 DYNAMIC MOTOR ACCELERATION: In the acceleration( a dynamic model throughout the whole simulation models the accelerating model in the accelerating motor. 'or this study you can also need to specify the a load performance tor ue model for the load that the motor is driving.in the model page you can specify motor dynamic model from the < different types S!)"'( 12 e uivalent (Thevenin*s) circuit model with constant rotor resistance and reactance. S!)"'(22circuit model with deep bar effect rotor resistance and reactance D2'12 double cage circuit model with independent motor cages. D2'22 double cage circuit model with independent motor cages. TSC2 tor ue P slip characteristics curve model. !ll the three models are loc+ed on an electrical circuit representation of the motor. The TSQ model allows modeling a starting motor directly from manufacture performance curve. 2.4.3 STATIC MOTOR STARTING: In this model ( it is assumed that the starting motor can always be started as u specified from the motor P editor acceleration time at EO and of load and the module interpolates the acceleration time for the motor based on three two values.

2.4.4 STARTING A DEVICE: ! starting motor (a) have one of the $6 types of starting devices modeled in the motor starting studies 2.4.7 FEATURES OF MOTOR STARTING STUDY ! state load can be switched on and off at any time during a simulation with user defined category. The motor can be switched on and off repeatly at any time during simulation. The motor can be specified by an individual load or by loses at starting category. 2.4.8 MOTOR STARTING ANALYSIS REQUIRED DATA Bus data Branch data Qapacitor data Induction motor data Static load data "umped load data additional 2.4.9 BUS DATA Bus IR Rominal = "oad diversity factor 2.4.: BRANCH DATA: Branch IS

 Qable and transmission line length and unit.

2.4.; INDUCTION MOTOR DATA Induction motor IS &ated =);.4 T = "oading category Id T O loading / uipment cable data 2.4.1< CAPACITOR DATA: Qapacitor IS &ated =-( =-!&;bus T no. :f buses

2.4.11 LUMPED LOAD DATA: &ated =-( M-!( power factor "oading category IA T O loading 2.4.12 ADDITIONAL DATA: Motor acceleration at P no load T full load Starting device Pdata when needed Ro load T full load acceleration P time

2.7 PROGRAM:
clc; clear all; freq=60; j=63.87; Ns=1800; KW=1678.5; KV=2.3; FLA=526.675; BaseKV=((KW*1000 !(FLA*1.732 "=#; V1=1.026; V2=1.026; V3=1.026; $3%&=125; $s's=10; (l)"e=$s's!$3%&; *13=0; +13=0; +c3=0; (,=0.001-0.0001); (s=0; r1=0.02.; r2=0.022; /1=0.226; /2=0.226; 0e=0; 1=0; ,=0; ,1=0; 2s%ee3 )r%f04 3a,a=50 6 . 0 10 5.. 18 0 20 5.8 20 0 30 5.7 36 0 #0 5.6 50 0 50 5.5 60 0 60 5.5 71 0

70 5.# 81 0 80 5.2 86 0 .0 # 88 0 .6 3.2 8. 0 .8.5 1.7 .1 06 f7r )=1812 "() =(((3a,a()93 !100 -(sqr,(:1 *s)"(ac7s(3a,a()93 !100 (;() =("() !3a,a()92 ; 4() =a<s((V1 !((;() -(,-(l)"e ; V3() =a<s(4() *(;() *BaseKV ; &=(3a,a()91 *(1800!100 ; s() =(Ns:& !Ns; s4() =(Ns:1 !Ns; 3() =((r1-(r2!s() *(r1-(r2!s() -((/1-/2 *(/1-/2 ; 432() =(V1!sqr,(3() ; 7;e1a=(2*%)*Ns !60; 0;() =(3*V3() *V3() *(r2!s() !(7;e1a*3() ; 0acc() =(0;() :(3a,a()9# !100 ; 3els() =(s() :s4() ; 3el,() =a<s(((j*1000 *3els() !0acc() ; 1=&; N() =Ns*(1:s() ; ,=,-3el,() ; a,() =,; e"3 (; 2s 20; 2N 2a, %l7,(s90; 2%l7,(N90; 2%l7,(a,90; 2%l7,(a,94 /la<el(=$l)%= ; 'la<el(=07rq>e= ;

EXPERIMENT 3 HARMONIC ANALYSIS OF A RECTIFIER FEEDING RL LOAD

3.1 AIM:

To perform the harmonic analysis of a full bridge rectifier feeding &" load and to note down the harmonic level.

3.2 OBJECTIVES:

To compute the harmonic analysis of the output voltage and output current. To find the harmonic order by conducting ''T analysis.

3.3 SOFTWARE REQUIRED:

M!T"!B SIMU"IR=

3.4 THEORETICAL BAC GROUND:

HARMONICS:

.armonics are sinusoidal components of a periodic wave or uantity having a fre uency that is an integral multiple of the fundamental fre uency. The fundamental together with its fre uency multiples is referred as harmonic series. The fre uency multiples of 6f( <f( ?f etc.. are odd harmonics while( the fre uency multiples of %f( 7f( >f etc.. are even harmonics. The ''T analysis is done to find the harmonic order. The sinusoidal voltage or current which is dependent on time is represented by the following e,pression v(t) 5 -sin(wt) i(t) 5 Isin(wt@V)

F!" 3.1 S!)$/-!4&' V-'*&"( &)4 C$,,()* W&%(.-,1

Ron sinusoidal voltage wave is represented in fourier series as follows. v(t) 5-E@ -$ sin(wt) @ -% sin(%wt) @ -6 sin(6wt) WW..

F!" 3.2 N-)=S!)$/-!4&' V-'*&"( W&%(.-,1

F!" 3.3 F$)4&1()*&' V-'*&"( W&%(.-,1 3.7 SOURCES OF HARMONICS: !ny electrical load that presents a constant impedance to the power source throughout the cycle is a linear load. "inear loads draw sinusoidal current from the source and do not cause harmonics. ! non2linear load can be defined as one which draws current discontinuously or its impedance varies with each cycle of the ac waveform. It is the source of harmonics. Some of the non2linear loads which cause harmonics are given belowF Aiode and thyristor rectifiers. Switched mode power supplies.

 -ariable speed drives. /lectronic power supplies. AQ motor drives. Battery charges. /lectronic ballasts. !rc furnaces.

3.8 EFFECTS OF HARMONICS:

.armonics causes increase in system line losses. Interaction with power system e uipment and causes additional line losses( overheating( over loading. "eads to voltage distortion. "eads to low power factor. Interference with telecommunication lines. /rrors in metering device. "ow efficiency. "ow power factor. .armful disturbances to neighboring appliances. 3.9 SYSTEM MODEL:

F!" 3.4 S!)"'(=>5&/( 2,!4"( ,(+*!.!(, 6!*5 RL '-&4

3.: SYSTEM PARAMETERS:

're uency5>E.z. "oad resistance5E.<X. "oad inductance5>.<m..

EXPERIMENT 4 AVAILABLE TRANSFER CAPABILITY 4.1 AIM: To estimate the available transfer capability between the sending area and receiving area through the tie2lines connecting the two areas.

4.2 OBJECTIVES: To determine the !TQ for maintaining system reliability while serving a wide range of transmission transactions. To study the methods of determining the !TQ and the importance of it.

4.3 SOFTWARE USED: M!T"!B 4.4 THEORETICAL BAC GROUND: 4.4.1 DEFINITION: !vailable Transfer Qapability (!TQ) is a measure of the transfer capability remaining in the physical transmission networ+ for further commercial activity over and above the already committed uses. !TQ can be e,pressed as !TQ5TTQ2T&M2Y/TQ@QBMZ )here( TTQ (Total Transfer Qapability) is defined as the amount of electric power that can be transferred over the interconnected transmission networ+ or particular path or interface in a reliable manner while meeting all of a specific set of defined pre and post contingency conditions.

T&M (Transfer &eliability Margin) is defined as the amount of transmission transfer capability necessary to ensure that the interconnected networ+ is secure under a reasonable range of uncertainties in the system conditions. QBM (Qapacity Benefit Margin) is the amount of transmission transfer capability reserved by the load serving entities to ensure access to generation from interconnected systems to meet generation reliability re uirements. It also helps to reduce the installed capacity of the plant. /TQ (/,isting Transfer Qapability) refers to the power transfer capability that must be reserved for already committed transactions. /,isting transaction is the power flow over the transmission paths at the desired time at which !TQ should be calculated. This is the already committed used power on the transmission path. Utilities would have to determine ade uately their !TQ*s to ensure that system reliability is maintained while serving a wide range of transmission transactions. !TQ between and within areas of the interconnected power system and !TQ for critical transmission paths between areas would be continuously updated and posted changes in scheduled power transfers between areas.

TRM CBM ATC

TTC

ETC

F!" 3.1 B&/!+ D(.!)!*!-) -. ATC

4.4.2 GOVERNING PRINCIPLES: The following !TQ principles govern the development of the definition and determination method of !TQ The !TQ value produced by the calculation must give a reasonable and dependable indication of transfer capabilities available to the electric power mar+et. !TQ calculation must recognize the dependency of !TQ on the points of electric power in#ection( the direction of transfer across the interconnected transmission networ+ and the points of power e,traction. &egional or wide2area co2ordination is necessary to develop the post information that reasonably reflects the !TQ of the interconnected transmission networ+. !TQ calculations must confirm to regional( sub2regional( power pool and individual system reliability planning and operating policies( criteria or guides. The determination of !TQ can accommodate reasonable uncertainties in system conditions and provide operating fle,ibility to ensure the secure operation of the interconnected networ+. 4.4.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF ATC The information of !TQ as an important indicator of the system performance( is useful in restructured energy mar+et in the following ways It provides the +nowledge of power system capability about the present system condition. &unning the system under !TQ limits also ensures system security and reliability to some e,tent( since the calculation of !TQ is based on the security constraints with the consideration of critical contingencies that can lead the system normal state to alert state. The !TQ is re uired in ma+ing decisions for the transactions between mar+et participants. The mar+et participants chec+ for the power contract themselves.

 The !TQ is also useful in enhancing the system stability. )ith the +nowledge of the limiting condition for the !TQ( the system operator can ta+e some operating or planning decision to avoid this limiting condition and thus enhance system capability. The !TQ can also serve as an indicator of power congestion through transmission lines. The !TQ is useful in transmission costing function. The IS: can put more transmission cost for the transaction through transmission path having low value of !TQ. 4.4.4 METHODS OF STATIC ATC DETERMINATION: Method based on linear sensitivity factors Method based on Qontinuation power flow Method based on :ptimization power flow

4.4.4.1 METHOD BASED ON LINEAR SENSITIVITY FACTORS: It offers a great potential for real time calculation of !TQ. Use of these factors offers an appro,imate but e,tremely fast model for static !TQ determination. In this we are having AQ power transfer distribution factor( !Q power transfer distribution factors( and line outage distribution factors for !TQ determination. 4.4.4.1.1 PTDF=DEFINITION: 'or !TQ determination the M) flows must be allocated to each line or group of line in proportion to the M)s being transmitted by each transaction. This is accomplished through the use of the linear 4ower Transfer Aistribution 'actors (4TA'). 'rom the power flow point of view( a transaction is a specific amount of power that is in#ected into the system at one bus by a generator and removed at another bus by a load. The coefficient of linear relationship between amount of transaction and flow on a line is called 4TA'. It is also called as sensitivity because it relates the amount of one change transaction amount to another change line power flow. The 4TA' is the fraction of the amount of transaction from one bus to another that flows over a given transmission

line. 4TA'i#(mn is the fraction of transmission from bus m to n that flows over a transmission line connecting bus i to #. "inear sensitivity factors method use AQ power flow. The AQ power flow model assumes that only the angles of the comple, bus voltage vary( and the variation in small voltage magnitudes is assumed to be constant. Transmission lines are assumed to have no resistance and hence no losses. The e uation for 4TA' is 4TA'i#(mn5 (1im2 1#mP 1in@ 1#n) ; ,i# )here ( ,i#is the reactance of transmission line connecting bus i and bus # 1imis entry in the ith row and mth column of the bus reactance matri, 1 and the ma,imum amount of power transfer is given by 4mn(i#ma, 5 (4i#ma,2 4i#o); 4TA'i#(mn )here 4i#ma, is the line*s flow limit 4i#o is the base case flow on the line !TQ is the minimum of the ma,imum allowable transactions over all the lines !TQmn 5 mini#Y 4mn(i#ma, Z 4.4.2 METHOD BASED ON CONTINUATION POWER FLOW: This method runs !Q load flow for each increment of transaction between an interface and chec+s whether any of the operating conditions such as line flow limit or bus voltage limit is violated. 'or the increment of transactions( continuation power flow is also used to find out ma,imum load ability or voltage instability point.

4.4.3 METHOD BASED ON OPTIMI?ATION OF POWER FLOW: !TQ determination can be formulated as an optimization problem which finds out ma,imum value of the transaction between given interface while satisfying the networ+ power balance and security constraints such as line flow( voltage limits and voltage instability points. 4.7 ALGORITHM: ST/4 $. ST/4 %. ST/4 6. ST/4 7. ST/4 <. ST/4 >. ST/4 ?. ST/4 B. ST/4 C. ST/4 $E. ST/4 $$. ST/4 $%. ST/4 $6. ST/4 $7. ST/4 $<. ST/4 $>. ST/4 $?. ST/4 $B. Start &ead the number of buses and their type. &ead the power generation (4g) and power demand (4d) at all the buses and calculate the net power in#ection (4). &ead the voltage at each buses or if not available initialize to flat start. &ead the voltage limits -min and -ma,. &ead the bus load angles or if not available initialize to flat start. &ead the Transmission &eliability Margin (T&M) T Qapacity Benefit Margin (QBM) values for all lines. &ead or compute the [2bus matri,. Set a suitable convergence tolerance and run 'ast Aecoupled "oad 'low ('A"'). 'rom 'A"' find the new power flows at all the buses. Qalculate the power flows through all lines 4i#54i24#. /,isting Transfer Qommitments (/TQ) 5 'low through the lines. Increase the power demand at all the load buses by a small set value. &un steps B(C($E. Qhec+ for voltage limit violation( if not violated go to $% else $<. Qalculate the power flows through all lines 4i#54i24#. Total Transfer Qommitments (TTQ) 5 'low through the lines. Qalculate !vailable Transfer Qapability !TQ5TTQ2T&M2Y/TQ@QBMZ

4.8 EXERCISE: To determine the !TQ of the given sample bus system.

.E%@.E7i .E$@.E6i .E$%<@.E%<i

% %<>.>@$$E.%i

6 $6B.>@7<.%i F!" 4.2 S!)"'( '!)( 4!&",&1 -. *5,(( 2$/ /0/*(1 4.8.1 DATA OF THREE BUS SYSTEM: TABLE A.1 LINE DATA OF THREE BUS SYSTEM BUS '&:M $ $ % &/SIST!RQ/ (&) T: % 6 6 .E% .E$ .E$%< &/!QT!RQ/ (1) .E7 .E6 .E%< SUSQ/4T!RQ/ (B) .E< .E6 .E>

TABLE A.2 BUS DATA OF THREE BUS SYSTEM BUS R: $ % 6 BUS Q:A/ - (pu) $ E E $ $ $ !RH"/ E E E ":!A M) M-!& E E %<>. $$E.% > $6B. 7<.% > H/R/&!T:& M) M-!& E E E E E E

PROGRAM: clcI clear allI n56I [5L%E.EEEE2<E.EEEEi 2$E.EEEE@%E.EEEEi 2$E.EEEE@6E.EEEEiI 2$E.EEEE@%E.EEEEi %>.EEEE2<%.EEEEi 2$>.EEEE@6%.EEEEiI2$E.EEEE@6E.EEEEi 2$>.EEEE@6%.EEEEi %>.EEEE2 >%.EEEEiMI bi5imag([)I br5real([)I th5angle([)I m[5abs([)I pd5LE 7 EMI pg5LE E %MI ps5pg2pdI pd$5pd(%)I d5LE %.< EMI g5LE E EMI s5 g2 dI v5L$.E< $ $.E7MI dl5LE E EMI dv5LE E EMI for iter5$F$EE p5LE E E MI 5LE E EMI dv5LE E EMI y5$I if v(%)\.C< !TQ brea+I else for iteration5$F$EEEEE if y\E.EEEEE$ brea+I else for i5%Fn p(i)5EI (i)5EI

for #5$Fn p(i)5(v(i)Kv(#)Km[(i(#)Kcos(th(i(#)2dl(i)@dl(#)))@p(i)I (i)52(v(i)Kv(#)Km[(i(#)Ksin(th(i(#)2dl(i)@dl(#)))@ (i)I end end delp($F%)5ps(%F6)2p(%F6)I del ($)5 s(%)2 (%)I delp 5Ldelp del MI for i5%Fn for #5$Fn if i]5# #$(i(#)52(v(i)Kv(#)Km[(i(#)Ksin(th(i(#)2dl(i)@dl(#)))I #%(i(#)5(v(i)Kv(#)Km[(i(#)Kcos(th(i(#)2dl(i)@dl(#)))I #6(i(#)52(v(i)Kv(#)Km[(i(#)Kcos(th(i(#)2dl(i)@dl(#)))I #7(i(#)52(v(i)Kv(#)Km[(i(#)Ksin(th(i(#)2dl(i)@dl(#)))I end end end for i5%Fn #$(i(i)52 (i)2(bi(i(i)Kv(i)N%)I #%(i(i)5p(i)@(br(i(i)Kv(i)N%)I #6(i(i)5p(i)2(br(i(i)Kv(i)N%)I #7(i(i)5 (i)2(bi(i(i)Kv(i)N%)I end ^$$($F%($F%)5#$(%F6(%F6)I ^$%($F%($)5#%(%F6(%)I ^%$($($F%)5#6(%(%F6)I ^%%($($)5#7(%(%)I ^5L^$$ ^$%I^%$ ^%%MI ^I del5(inv(^)Ktranspose(delp ))I ddl(%F6)5del($F%)I dl5dl@ddlI dv(%)5del(6)I v5v@dvI y5(abs(dv(%)))I end

end !TQ5pd(%)2pd$I pd(%)5pd(%)K$.E$I d(%)5 d(%)K$.E$I pg(6)5pg(6)K$.E$I g(6)5 g(6)K$.E$I ps5pg2pdI s5 g2 dI end end

EXPERIMENT 7

LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS WITH STATCOM 7.1 AIM: To understand the modeling of ST!TQ:M (static synchronous compensator) for power flow studies using Rewton &aphson method. 7.2 OBJECTIVES: To investigate the operating principle and power in#ection modeling of statcom. To investigate the control and operating limits of ST!TQ:M 7.3 SOFTWARE REQUIRED: Q;Q@@ or M!T"!B or /T!4 7.4 THEORETICAL BAC GROUND: 7.4.1 POWER INJECTION MODEL OF STATCOM: !ccurate power flow calculation should consider the steady state losses of ST!TQ:M. The converter losses include mainly three partsF the power losses in the dc capacitor( the switching losses( and conduction losses. The percentage of each loss component relates to the control mode of ST!TQ:M and the steady2state operating point. The e uivalent circuit of ST!TQ:M is shown in 'ig <.$. In this circuit( the inductance( xs represents the lea+age inductance of the transformer( the series resistance( rs represents the sum of the switching and conduction losses( and the shunt resistance( rp represents the power losses in the dc capacitor. 'rom 'ig.<.$( it can be seen that the -SQ acts as an ac voltage source behind e uivalent impedance( where both magnitude and 4hase angle of the source are controllable. The voltage vector is given as

-c = + c + t m-dc (<.$)

)here -dcF Ac voltage across the capacitor +c +t m

F

Qonverter dc to ac gain F &atio of the coupling transformer. F Modulation ratio of 4)M control F Qontrol angle of -SQ

F!"7.1E#$!%&'()* +!,+$!* -. STATCOM The current in#ected by ST!TQ:M into the ac system is given as

Is =

-c -s _s

(<.%)

)here -s = -s s is the voltage of ac system bus s( and

_s = _s = rs + #, s

(<.6)

The active and reactive power in#ections of ST!TQ:M into the ac system are given as(

4s =

&e(-s IsK )

+ c + t m-dc -s cos( s + ) -s% cos (<.7) = _s

+ c + t m-dc -s sin(s + ) -s% sin = (<.<) _s

Js =

Im(-s IsK )

Then the power balance e uations at the ac system bus( sare e,pressed as(

4s = 4ssch 4scal
sch cal (7.?) Js = Js Js

(<.>)

)here 4s sch 5 4S P 4A

(<.B) (<.C)

Jsch s 5 JS 2 J A

cal are calculated real and reactive powers respectively at bus s. 4scal and Js

are fi,ed for load buses. 4s sch is fi,ed for generation buses. !s the 4ssch and Jsch s ST!TQ:M being connected to the ac system at bus s( 4s sch and Jsch are not fi,ed. s Since real and reactive power e,change between the ac system and ST!TQ:M is varying. The active power output at the ac side of -SQ is given as(

4ac =

&e(-c IsK )

-c% cos -c -s cos( s + ) = _s

(<.$E)

The real power of dc side of -SQ is given as(

4dc = -dc Idc = -dc (Qdc

d-dc -dc + ) (7.$$) dt rp

The power balance between the ac and dc side of the ST!TQ:M is given as(

4ac = 4dc (<.$%)

The active power e,change e uation is given as(

4e, = 4ac 4dc

(<.$6)

& = E ( the active By substituting / uations (<.$E) and (<.$$) in / .(<.$6) and setting dc power e,change e uation is reduced to(
4e, = rp (+ c + t m) % -dc cos + _s -dc rp + c + t m-s cos( s + ) = E (<.$7)
7.4.2 CONTROL STRATEGIES OF STATCOM )ith the developments on power electronic switches( 4)M control is becoming a more practical technology for power system applications. In 4)M control( switching losses associated with the relatively fast switching of the electronic devices have an important effect on the power flow calculation( as these have a direct effect on the charging and discharging of the dc capacitor( and hence should be considered in the modeling. The proposed model can readily be adapted to represent 4)M and phase control of ST!TQ:M. In 'ig.<.$( eliminating the dc voltage control loop will yield the basic diagram of a controller with a typical phase control strategy. The output voltage magnitude of the -SQ relates to the dc side voltage and the control strategy of itself. If the -SQ applies the phase control( the magnitude is a function of the dc side voltage and the phase angle of the -SQ. If the 4)M mode is applied( the output voltage magnitude is a function of the control phase angle and the modulation ratio of the 4)M.

7.4.3 OPERATING LIMITS OF STATCOM:

It is very important to ade uately address the system limits when studying voltage stability. -oltage collapse often occurs as a conse uence of some devices hitting their limits in a heavily stressed power system. 'or a ST!TQ:M( the limits on the ac current( Is modulation ratio( m phase angle( and dc voltage( -dc. can be directly introduced into this model. Because the current limit is the main limiting factor in -SQ2based devices(
ma, this thesis will implement it in R& power flow. /ither the ma,imum limit( Is or
min minimum limit( Is is reached( depending on whether the controller is operating in the

inductive or capacitive domain. 7.4.4 NR @NEWTON RAPHSONA EQUATIONS WITH CONTROL AND OPERATING LIMITS OF STATCOM: In order to implement the ST!TQ:M model in R& power flow( two augmented bus types are introduced( which are used to representing the specific control strategy and the operating limits of ST!TQ:M. :ne is an augmented 4- bus( namely !4-. This is a controlled bus where the active and reactive power in#ections and the voltage magnitude are specified( while the voltage phase angle of ac system bus( control angle and;or modulation ratio and;or dc voltage of ST!TQ:M are treated as the state variables.

F!" 7.2 B$/ *0>(/ +-)%(,/!-) &)4 ().-,+(1()* -. *5( ->(,&*!)" '!1!* The other is an augmented 4J bus( namely !4J. This is an uncontrolled bus where the active and reactive power in#ections are specified( while the voltage magnitude and angle of ac system bus and the dc voltage of ST!TQ:M are treated as
min ma, the state variables in its place. )hen the ac current Islies between Is and Is the bus

is treated as !4- type( otherwise it is !4J type. 'ig.<.% shows the conversion of bus types and the enforcement of the current limit. In order to implement the model in R& power flow( the ST!TQ:M control strategy must be properly e,pressed. !s mentioned above( there are two control strategies for ST!TQ:M and different variables must be selected depending on whether a 4)M or phase control is used in the controller. 'or 4)M control( the control variables are modulation ratio and control phase angle ( and the control ob#ective is to maintain the dc voltage -dc and ac voltage -sat their reference value. 'or phase control( the control variable is phase angle `( and control ob#ective is to maintain the ac voltage -sat the reference value.

!ccording to the operating principles( control strategies and operating limit of ST!TQ:M( the augmented R& power flow e uations are described as followsF @IA PHASE CONTROL STRATEGY: In unconstraint operation and phase control strategy of ST!TQ:M( the modulation ratio m is given a certain value( and ac bus s is set as !4- type( ^acobian elements in detail are illustrated in !ppendi, B and the augmented R& power flow e uations are given by(
4s s 4s J = Js s s 4e, 4e, s 4s -dc Js -dc 4e, -dc 4s s Js -dc 4e,

(<.$<)

@IIA PWM CONTROL STRATEGY In unconstraint operation and 4)M control strategy of ST!TQ:M( the dc voltage -dc is assigned a certain value( and bus s is set as !4- type( ^acobian elements in detail are illustrated in !ppendi, B and the augmented R& power flow e uations are given by(

4s s 4s J = Js s s 4 e, 4e, s

4s Js 4e,

4s m s Js (<.$>) m m 4e, m

@IIIA ENFORCEMENT OF THE CURRENT LIMIT: )hether ST!TQ:M is operating with 4)M control or phase control( if the ac current
min ma, limit ( Is or Is )is violated( it will act as an unregulated voltage compensator whose

production or absorption reactive power capabilities will be a function of the nodal voltage at the ST!TQ:M point of connection. In this situation( the phase angle and;or
min ma, modulation ratio m of the -SQ are fi,ed at the values corresponding with Is or Is ( and

the dc voltage( -dc is uncontrollable. Then the ac system bus s is converted to !4J type( and the augmented R& power flow e uations are given as(

4s s 4s J = Js s s 4 e, 4e, s

4s -s Js -s 4e, -s

4s -dc s Js -s -dc -dc 4e, -dc

(<.$?)

7.7 EXERCISE: To conduct the load flow analysis for three bus system shown in figure 6 with and without ST!TQ:M (placed at bus three) and demonstrate the voltage control by ST!TQ:M for various loading conditions $ .E%@.E7i .E$@.E6i .E$%<@.E%<i % %<>.>@$$E.%i

$6B.>@7<.%i

F!" 7.3 S!)"'( '!)( 4!&",&1 -. *5,(( 2$/ /0/*(1 6!*5 /*&*+-1 STATCOM PARAMETERS: rs 5.E$ 1s5.$ rp5%EE =5=cK=t5.C

DATA OF THREE BUS SYSTEM: T&2'( A.1: L!)( D&*& -. *5,(( 2$/ /0/*(1 BUS '&:M $ $ % &/SIST!RQ/ (&) T: % 6 6 .E% .E$ .E$%< &/!QT!RQ/ (1) .E7 .E6 .E%< SUSQ/4T!RQ/ (B) .E< .E6 .E>

T&2'( A.2 B$/ 4&*& -. *5,(( 2$/ /0/*(1 BUS R: $ % 6 BUS Q:A/ - (pu) $ E E $ $ $ !RH"/ E E E ":!A M) M-!& E E %<>. $$E.% > $6B. 7<.% > H/R/&!T:& M) M-!& E E E E E E

EXPERIMENT 8 TRANSIENT STABILITY ANALYSIS WITH STATCOM 8.1 AIM: To become familiar with the various aspects of transient stability studies of 62bus ST!TQ:M connected system. 8.2 OBJECTIVES: To understand modeling of ST!TQ:M for transient stability analysis using e,plicit numerical integration method. 8.3 SOFTWARE REQUIRED: M!T"!B ; 4S!T;/T!4 8.4 THEORETICAL BAC GROUND: -oltage collapse of the transmission system has caused more than CEO of the blac+outs. -oltage magnitude regulation in the networ+ can be achieved by controlling the production( absorption( and flow of reactive power throughout the system. The industry needs fast2acting dynamic sources of reactive power to counter fast voltage2collapse events. Sources or sin+s are the 'le,ible !Q Transmission System ('!QTS) sometimes permanently connected and others are automatically ad#usted to maintain fi,ed voltage magnitude at connection points. The static synchronous compensator is a main member of the '!QTS family of voltage source converter (-SQ) based devices. It is being to improve voltage regulation as well as to increase load ability margin. The ST!TQ:M is a shunt connected reactive power compensation device that is capable of generating and;or absorbing reactive power and its output can be varied to control the specific parameters of an electric power system. It is a solid state switching converter capable of generating or absorbing independently controllable real and reactive power at its output terminals when it is fed from an energy source at its input terminals.

+ 8.7 MODELLING OF POWER SYSTEM COMPONENTS

The modeling of various power system components are presented below.

8.7.1 S0)+5,-)-$/ M&+5!)( 1-4(' The synchronous generators are modelled as classical machines with rotor angle ( ) and speed ( ) as state variables.

(>.$)

F!".8.1 S0)+5,-)-$/ M&+5!)( 1-4('

The e uivalent circuit for classical model of the generator is given in 'ig.>.%.a. This e uivalent circuit is the Thevenin*s form. The Rorton form of the e uivalent circuit is shown in 'ig.%.b.
Ra + jXd' E' I V INorton V I YNorton

/0 5 - @ (&a@#1d0 ) I

IRorton5 [Rorton- @ I

F!" 8.2. M-4(''!)" -. G()(,&*-,/ &)4 R(>,(/()*&*!-) .-, N(*6-,3 S-'$*!-)

@2A N-,*-) (#$!%&'()*

IRorton is the Rorton current source. The e,pressions for the current source and the admittance is given by IRorton 5 /0 ;(&a@#1d0 ) (>.6)

[Rorton 5 $ ; (&a@#1d0 )

(>.7)

8.7.2 T,&)/1!//!-) '!)( 1-4(' Transmission line is modelled as lumped a2 model. The transmission lines are modeled as b2 circuits using positive se uence parametersF series resistance( series reactance and half line charging. 8.7.3 L-&4 M-4(' The loads are modelled as admittances. The admittances are computed from the initial load flow solution as shown below. [" 5 ( 4" P # J") ; c-"c% where( 4" and J" are the active and reactive powers of the load c-"c is the magnitude of the voltage of the load bus computed by load flow analysis [" is the load admittance and it gets added to the diagonal of bus admittance matri, Y corresponding to the node where the load is connected. (>.<)

8.7.4 M-4(''!)" OF STATCOM The ST!TQ:M consists of a voltage source converter which produces a set of 6 phase ac output voltages each in phase with and coupled to the corresponding ac system voltage through a lea+age inductance of coupling transformer. The dc input voltage is provided by an energy storage capacitor. The functional model of ST!TQ:M is shown in 'ig?.6 where a -SI is connected to a utility bus through magnetic coupling. The e,change of reactive power between the converter and the ac system can be controlled by varying the amplitude of 62phase voltage of the -SI. If the amplitude of the output voltage of -SI is greater than the amplitude of utility bus voltage( then a current flows from -SI to ac system. If the amplitude of the output voltage of -SI is lesser than the amplitude of utility bus voltage( then a current flows from ac system to converter. !d#usting the phase shift between converter output voltage and ac system voltage can control real power e,change between converter and ac system voltage.

AC System Coupling Transformer Vd! + Voltage Sour!e Vd! + C In"erter #

Id!

F!" 8.3 F$)+*!-)&' M-4(' -. STATCOM 8.7.4.1 T,&)/!()* /*&2!'!*0 1-4(' !ssuming balanced( fundamental fre uency voltages( ST!TQ:M with 4)M voltage control can be accurately represented in transient stability studies using the basic model shown in 'ig.?.7. 4ac 5 4 dc @ 4 loss. (>.>)

/ uation (%.>) basically represents the balance between the controller*s ac power 4ac and dc power 4dc under balanced operation at fundamental fre uency

ddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddddd

8.7.4.2 V-'*&"( 1&")!*$4( +-)*,-''(, This controller controls the !Q output voltage magnitude of the voltage source inverter by controlling the modulation inde,( m of the 4)M controller. The controller has a bias corresponding to the steady state value of the modulation inde,( mE .

I ma,
+

Vref

% $

V dpa! V pa!

Kp ($+ sT$) KD + sT%

m&

+ +

Kmac $+ sTmac
Vi

I min

mE

F!".9.7 V-'*&"( 1&")!*$4( +-)*,-''(,

The differential e uations are derived from the controller bloc+ shown in 'ig >.<

V pac =

Vi K mac V pac Tmac

m$ =

(>.?) (>.B)

$ T%

V K + K T V dpac p p $ dpac K D m$

8.7.4.3 DC VOLTAGE CONTROLLER

V d!dp V d!p

Vdc ref

% $

Vdc ma,
K pdc + K idc S

'&

+ +

K mdc

F!".9.8 DC %-'*&"( +-)*,-''(, dc The AQ voltage controller controls the phase angle of the output voltage of the voltage source inverter. The phase angle determines the e,change of active power between the controller with the ac system and is used to directly control the AQ voltage magnitude. The controller has a bias corresponding to the phase angle( .

$ +VsTmdc

Vdc min

The differential e uations are derived from the controller bloc+s given in 'ig >.> as(

& = $ V K V V dcp dc mdc dcp Tmdc & K & $ = Vdcdp K idc + V dcdp pdc

(>.C) (>.$E)

'rom power balance condition( 4ac 5 4 dc @ 4 loss 'rom 'ig 7 4ac5 -i I s cos(i s ) 4dc 5 -dc I dc (>.$$) (>.$%) (>.$6)

The capacitor dynamic e uation is

(>.$7) Aiscretized form of these e uations and interfacing ST!TQ:M as a current with networ+ are given in !ppendi, 8.8 ALGORITHM TO ADVANCE SIMULATION BY ONE TIME STEP The stepwise computations to be performed to advance the simulation by one step from t2 8t to t are as follows. The time step width (8t) used in the algorithm is E.EEE$ sec. A//$1>*!-)/: The machines are considered to be classical(no controllers) Aamping ignored "oads are assumed as constant admittances

P,(>&,&*!-): N-*(: i. The loads are converted into the constant admittances and these are pushed in to diagonal elements of the corresponding load buses. The initial conditions for 3( 9 and voltages are obtained from load

[ T&!RBUSii 5 [ ii@ [ "i .ere i is for all load buses ii. The diagonal elements of [ bus corresponding to all synchronous generators are modified asF [ T&!RBUSii 5 [ ii@ $; (& $i@ # 1 d*) iii. The diagonal elements of [ bus corresponding to ST!TQ:M are modified asF [ T&!RBUSii 5 [ ii@ $;(& t@ # 1 t) EB>'!+!* M(*5-4 = R$)"(= $**& F-$,*5 O,4(, M(*5-4. The general formula giving the value of , for the (n@$)st step is 1n@$ 5 1n @ $;>K(+$ @ % +% @ % +6 @ +7). )here( +$ 5 f(,n ( tn)8t( +% 5 f(,n@ +$;% ( tn@8t;%)8t +6 5 f(,n@ +%;% ( tn@8t;%)8t +7 5 f(,n@+6 ( tn@8t)8t EB>'!+!* &'"-,!*51. The stepwise computations to be performed to advance the simulation by one step from t28t to t are as follows. The time step width (8t) used in the algorithm is E.EEE$ sec. Step 1. 'ind the Rorton current in#ections at all the generator busesI 'or synchronous machine F I NOR =
Eq R$ + jX d 0

'or ST!TQ:M connected bus F

I sh sh =

KVdc Rt + jX t

Step2. Solve the networ+ e uations( which yields appro,imate bus voltage vector -appro,. L[M T&!RBUS L-M 5 LIM R:& Step3. !pplication of 'ourth :rder &unge2=utta (&=) method involves the following se uence of steps.

'or synchronous generatorF

irst estimate! +$

3)K8t (

l$

9)K8t

Sec"#d estimate! +%

3@l$;%)K8t (

l%

9@+$;%)K8t

Third estimate! +6

3@l%;%)K8t (

l6

9@+%;%)K8t

"$rth estimate! +7

3@l6)K8t(

l7

9@+6)K8t

8 35 $;>K(+$@%+% %+6 +7)( 3 5 3E @ 8 3 ( 9 5 9E @ 8 9.

8 95 $;>K(l$@%l% %l6 l7)

Similarly include the ST!TQ:M state variables also. Step%. &epeat steps with updated values of state variables. Step&! Introduce the fault and repeat step > and later the fault will be cleared and repeat the procedure.

H&)4'!)" )(*6-,3 4!/+-)*!)$!*!(/. 'or the normal time advance and the first solution at the discontinuity( the induction generator is represented by the Rorton e uivalent. The second solution is iterative as far as terminal voltage is concerned since slip( being a state variable( cannot change across a discontinuity. The second solution is computed using the model described by Rorton e uivalent. The pre2disturbance solution at a discontinuity is called the first solution and the post disturbance solution is called the second solution. Solution (t #)
*irst
d

Se!ond

Solution (td+)

.
t td # +t td td+t

F!"8.9 H&)4'!)" )(*6-,3 4!/+-)*!)$!*!(/C 4-*/ 4()-*( *5( >-!)*/ +-1>$*(4 20 *5( &'"-,!*51

8.9 EXERCISE: To conduct the load flow analysis for three bus system shown in figure 6 with and without ST!TQ:M (placed at bus three) and demonstrate the voltage control by ST!TQ:M for various loading conditions STATCOM PARAMETERS: rs 5.E$( 1s5.$( rp5%EE(=5=cK=t5.C $ .E%@.E7i % %<>.>@$$E.%i

.E$@.E6i 6

.E$%<@.E%<i

$6B.>@7<.%i

F!" 8.: S!)"'( '!)( 4!&",&1 -. *5,(( 2$/ /0/*(1 6!*5 /*&*+-1

DATA OF THREE BUS SYSTEM: T&2'( A.1: L!)( D&*& -. *5,(( 2$/ /0/*(1

BUS '&:M $ $ T: % 6

&/SIST!RQ/ (&)

&/!QT!RQ/ (1)

SUSQ/4T!RQ/ (B)

.E% .E$

.E7 .E6

.E< .E6

.E$%<

.E%<

.E>

T&2'( A.2 B$/ 4&*& -. *5,(( 2$/ /0/*(1

BUS R:

BUS Q:A/

- (pu)

!RH"/

":!A M)

H/R/&!T:& M-!& M) E $$E.% 7<.% E E E M-!& E E E

$ % 6

$ E E

$ $ $

E E E

E %<>.> $6B.>

EXPERIMENT 9 RELAY COORDINATION OF RADIAL TRANSMISSIONDDISTRIBUTION SYSTEM 9.1 AIM: To perform relay coordination of a radial distribution system. 9.2 OBJECTIVES: To understand the significance of relay coordination in power system protection. To manually perform relay coordination of a radial distribution system( to determine the T.M.S( 4SM settings and validate the results using /T!4; M!T"!B;MI4:)/&.

9.3 SOFTWARE USED: M!T"!B ; /T!4 ; MI4:)/& 9.4 THEORETICAL BAC GROUND: 9.4.1 RELAY: ! protective relay is a comple, electromechanical apparatus( often with more than one coil( designed to calculate operating conditions on an electrical circuit and trip circuit brea+ers when a fault is detected. Unli+e switching type relays with fi,ed and usually ill2defined operating voltage thresholds and operating times( protective relays have well2established( selectable( time;current (or other operating parameter) curves. Such relays may be elaborate( using arrays of induction dis+s( shaded2pole magnets( operating and restraint coils( solenoid2type operators( telephone2relay style contacts( and phase2shifting networ+s. 4rotection relays respond to such conditions as over2current( over2voltage( reverse power flow( over2 and under2 fre uency( and even distance relays that would trip for faults up to a certain distance away from a substation but not beyond that point. !n important transmission line or generator unit will have cubicles dedicated to protection( with a score of individual electromechanical devices. The various protective functions available on a given relay are denoted by standard !RSI device numbers.

T&2'( 9.1 A22,(%!&*(4 '!/* -. +-11-)'0 $/(4 ,('&0 4(%!+( )$12(,/ R('&0 4(%!+( .$)+*!-) )$12(, %$ %< %? 6% 7E 7> 7? 7C <E <$ <C P,-*(+*!%( .$)+*!-) Aistance Synchronizing Undervoltage Airectional power "oss of e,citation(field) 4hase balance (current balance ( negative se uence balance) 4hase se uence voltage Instantaneous :vercurrent Time :vercurrent Time 2 :vercurrent :ver voltage

>E >? B$ B> B? The different types of overcurrent relays used are

-oltage balance Airctional :vercurrent 're uency (Under and :ver fre uency) "oc+out Aifferential

Instantaneous over current relay 2:peration is instantaneous in the sense that the relay has no intentional time delay. Time setting is absent. Aefinite time over current relay 2 ! definite time delay can be set after which the relay operates. It has both time setting and plug setting. Inverse definite time overcurrent relay2 The operating time of the relay is inversely proportional to the magnitude of fault current.

9.4.2 NEED FOR RELAY COORDINATION: &elay coordination is the process of determining the settings for the relays that will provide an orderly shutdown and determine the se uence of relay operation with sufficient margin. It is by means of relay coordination that we ensure that if a fault occurs in a networ+ only the brea+er nearest to the fault operates leaving the healthy sections in service. Thus can be achieved by time grading or discrimination by time in which the relay farthest from the source is set to operate first and others follows it.

If relay coordination is not performed it may result in a) "oss of selectivity resulting in nuisance tripping. b) "oss of reliability of power supply to the healthy parts of the power system.

9.4.3 TO PERFORM RELAY COORDINATION:

The mathematical e,pression to arrive at the re uired characteristics of a relay has been specified by I/// ad I/Q

)here

t=

Tp + ' (I ; I p ) $

LsecM

I P 'ault current level in QT secondary IpP 4ic+ up current selected t P Tripping time Tp P TMS (Time Multiplier Setting) The values of alpha( beta( " for the different types of over current relays have been specified by I/Q as follows

T&2'( 9.2 R('&0 *0>(/ &)4 *5( +-)/*&)* %&'$(/

Qurve description

Standard

!lpha .E% %.E % .E% $ % $

beta .E<$< $C.>$ %B.% .$7 $6.< BE $%E

" .$$7 .7C$ .$%$? E E E E

Moderately Inverse I/// -ery Inverse /,tremely Inverse Standard Inverse -ery Inverse /,tremely Inverse "ong time inverse I/// I/// I/Q I/Q I/Q I/Q

9.4.4 STEP BY STEP PROCEDURE: Araw the single line diagram of the radial distribution system with the ratings of all the concerned e uipment noted down. Qompute the nominal current that would flow through the system. Qompute the short circuit current (I/Q standard or I/// standard red boo+ or buff boo+ )

QT ratio is selected depending on the magnitude of the load current. The relay to be used and its placement is then determined Qompute the pic+up setting and time setting. 4lot the time -s current characteristics of all relay and verify their coordination. (The plot should include the thermal characteristics of the relays also). If characteristics intersect the procedure must be repeated for another suitable value of TMS.

9.7 EXERCISE: To perform relay coordination of the radial distribution system given below i.e to suitably place the relays and determine the T.M.S (Time Multiplier Setting) and 4.S.M (4lug Setting Multiplier)

F!" 9.1 S!)"'( '!)( 4!&",&1 -. ,&4!&' 4!/*,!2$*!-) /0/*(1

EXPERIMENT : SMALL SIGNAL STABILITY ANALYSIS OF A MULTIMACHINE SYSTEM

:.1 AIM: To become familiar with the various aspects of small signal stability of Multi Machine 4ower Systems. :.2 OBJECTIVES: To understand the modeling and analysis of small signal stability of a Multi Machine 4ower System. To obtain linearized swing e uation and to determine the roots of characteristic e uation damped fre uency of oscillation and undamped natural fre uency.

:.3 SOFTWARE REQUIRED: M!T"!B :.4 THEORETICAL BAC GROUND: Small signal stability is the ability of the power system to maintain synchronism when sub#ected to small disturbances. ! disturbance is considered to be small if the e uations that describe the resulting response of the system can be linearized for the purpose of analysis. Instability is of two forms $). Steady increase in generator rotor angle due to synchronizing tor ue. %) &otor oscillations of increasing amplitude due to insufficient damping tor ue. 'or small disturbance( the nonlinear e uations characterizing the dynamics of the system may be linearized around an operating point for the purpose of analysis. Small signal stability using linear techni ues provides valuable information about the dynamics of the system and assists in its design. The location of the roots of the characteristic e uation of the linearized differential e uation will reveal the stability status of the system. )e can also obtain the response of rotor angle and fre uency of the rotor of the synchronous machines.

:.4.1 MODELLING FOR SMALL SIGNAL STABILITY: 'or system stability studies it is appropriate to neglect the transmission networ+ and machine stator transients. The dynamics of machine stator transients( machine rotor circuits( e,citation systems( prime mover and other devices are represented by :A/. The result is that the complete system model consists of a large number of ordinary differential and algebraic e uations.

F!".:.1 S*,$+*$,( -. & +-1>'(*( >-6(, /0/*(1. :.4.2 FORMULATION STATE EQUATION: The linearized model of each dynamic device is e,pressed in the following form

M-4('!)" -. S0)+5,-)-$/ 1&+5!)(/: Qlassical model of synchronous machines is considered with the The dynamic e uations are a,is leading the d a,is.

Tmi K Di di T = ei dt %( i %( i %( i d i = ( i s ) dt
)here( )here( i 2 $W m number of machines 3 2 &otor angle in electrical radians 9s 2 Synchronous speed in electrical rad;s 9 2 &otor angular velocity in rad;s Tm 2 Mechanical tor ue of synchronous generator . 2 Inertia constant A 2 Aamping constant The / uations (B.$) are linearized around a steady2state operating point in order to see the effect of small disturbances on the system. The steady2state operating point is obtained from the load flow results. The linearized state / uations are: (B.$)

di Tm$ Tei K Di i = dt %( i %( i %( i d i = s i dt

(B.%)

The / uations (B.%) are functions of networ+ variables. To e,press the networ+ variables in terms of the state variables coordinated transformation is carried out.

:.4.3 COORDINATE TRANSFORMATION Retwor+ e uations for the $7 bus system with reduced [2bus are given asF

Ii $ )) $% )$m E0$ 0 I% %$ )) % )%m E% = Im m$ )) m% )m E0m

"et T be the transformation matri, that transforms the d and uantities of all machines to system frame( which a common reference frame is moving at synchronous speed. T is given asF
e j$ E T = E E E E E e jm

Retwor+ e uations in individual machine d2 coordinates areF

$ I =[*] E $ * = T [) ] [T ]

(B.6)

)here M is given as

"inearizing / uation (B.6) we get

$ j * * I = * E [ ] E E [ ] E

} { E$ E}

(B.7)

)here

)$$ *E = )m$e jm$E

I $ I = I % I 6

)$m e j$m E )mm

Eq$E 0 + 0 E + 0 EE = q %E 0 E + q6E0 Er 7E +

jE 0 d$E jE 0 d %E I 0 jE d 6E 0 jE m 7E

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+ j I + j I + j I + j E

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d$

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and d

components of 8I can be obtained. They are then substituted in the state e uations to eliminate the algebraic variables. /,pressing the state / uations in the standard canonical form

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[ x] = Li i Mt
! is the state space matri, :.7 STEP BY STEP PROCEDURE: $) )rite down the algebraic e uations in networ+ coordinates in the nodal form. )hile doing this the machine internal nodes are e,plicitly included. The loads are represented as constant admittance matrices. %) /liminate all passive nodes. This results in a reduced set of algebraic e uations. 6) Transform the reduced set of e uations obtained in step % to individual machine d coordinates. 7) "inearize the transformed e uations obtained at the end of step 6. <) "inearize the differential e uations for the machine. The resulting e uations will contain incremental changes in algebraic variables. >) /liminate the incremental changes in algebraic variables from the linearized the differential e uations obtained in step < using the e,pressions obtained for incremental changes in step 7. The resulting e uation will be in the state variable canonical form. ?) !pply eigenvalue techni ue for stability assessment.

:.8 EXERCISE:

To determine the small signal stability of the power system shown in 'ig B.%

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