Natural England Uplands Delivery Review Programme Upland Principles Summary guidance The restoration of blanket bog and

d the effects of managed burning on peatlands. DRAFT

February 2014

Contents
1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 3 2. The 2012 uplands evidence review and its findings ............................................................ 3 3. Scope of guidance and definitions ...................................................................................... 4 Blanket bog .......................................................................................................................... 4 Undamaged bogs, degradation and restoration ................................................................. 4 Managed burning ................................................................................................................ 4 4. Guiding principles on burning and restoration ................................................................... 5 Characteristics of Blanket Bogs in Different States ............................................................. 7 5. Setting Objectives ................................................................................................................ 8 6. Translating objectives to management ............................................................................... 8 1) Maintenance of fully functioning blanket bog and peatlands. ....................................... 9 2) Restoration ...................................................................................................................... 9 3) Management to prevent further deterioration ............................................................ 10 Annex 1: Key Findings from the Uplands Evidence Reviews...............................................11

Natural England Uplands Delivery Review Programme Upland Principles Summary guidance: The restoration of blanket bog and the effects of managed burning on peatlands.

Upland Peatlands in the UK

The UK is of international importance for peatlands, holding between 9-15% of Europes peatland area (46,000-77,000 km2) and about 13% of the worlds blanket bog. There is a growing recognition of the value of the benefits to society of fully functioning ecosystems such as blanket bog and the services delivered. These include: Provisioning - Producing products such as food (largely limited in blanket peatlands to grazing, game, honey, and downstream impacts on fisheries), fibre (wool), fuel (peat/wood), timber, and water supply. Regulating - maintaining water quality, preventing damaging run-off, storing organic carbon (preventing potential climate impacts of its loss as CO2), control of GHG fluxes, pollination. Cultural - blanket bogs may generate benefits that relate to societal cohesion, education, economics, aesthetics, academia, science, archaeology, recreation, health and well-being. Supporting - These are ecosystem functions that are necessary for the production of all other ecosystem services, and could be seen to include nutrient-cycling, soil formation and mediation of major global environmental cycles.

More detail on the context can be found in the Upland Evidence Review Reports.

Natural England: considers that all blanket bogs and other peatlands have the potential to be restored; concludes that burning on blanket bog has a range of impacts which are overall negative and should therefore be phased out; recognises that there are a range of activities that have resulted in degradation of blanket bog and the process of eliminating the impacts will, in some circumstances be gradual. We will work with customers and partners to agree a process by which the activities, including burning on blanket bog, are reduced and ceased.

Natural England Uplands Delivery Review Programme Upland Principles Summary guidance: The restoration of blanket bog and the effects of managed burning on peatlands.

1. Introduction
1.1. This guidance sets out high-level principles for Natural England staff to assist their advice and decisions on the restoration of all degraded upland blanket bogs and management by burning of all upland peatlands, in particular when considering SSSI notices to burn on protected sites or as part of an agri-environment scheme. It is supplemented by more detailed Upland Practitioner guidance (tier 3 HYPERLINK) which helps advisors to apply these principles at the site level, set priorities according to specific site circumstances and produce local objectives for discussion with land managers and stakeholders. This guidance has been developed in close consultation with representatives of land management organisations and other stakeholders with an interest in the upland environment and its management. Natural England recognises the crucial role they play in the delivery of its statutory responsibilities and their contribution to the delivery of ecosystem services. Issues raised by Natural England advisors and stakeholders have been considered during the development of this guidance but not all could be addressed by it because they were out of scope of the evidence reviews. Whilst Natural Englands prime responsibility is to consider blanket bog from an environmental perspective, we will also seek to develop solutions in our day-to-day work that support other community and business interests and activities and which provide wider social and economic benefits. These additional benefits include the full suite of ecosystem services.

1.2.

1.3.

1.4.

1.5.

2. The 2012 uplands evidence review and its findings

2.1. This guidance is informed by the Natural England Evidence Review Reports Restoration of degraded blanket bog (NEER003) and The effects of managed burning on upland peatland biodiversity, carbon and water (NEER004) published in May 2013. They can be accessed here. HYPERLINK and a summary of their main findings can be found in Annex 1. Whilst the review of restoration (NEER003) related just to blanket bog (including degraded forms), the review of burning (NEER004) covered a full range of upland peatland habitats (including degraded or modified versions). Burning on dry heath and wet heath vegetation is out of the scope of this guidance although many of the principles will also apply to wet heath. Topic review NEER003 on restoration found no evidence that any of our blanket peatlands cannot be restored, although costs of restoration effort may not be repaid rapidly by improvements in function, and the timescales for full recovery to approximate undamaged function may be long. Causes of degradation examined included drainage, burning, afforestation, peat cutting, overgrazing and atmospheric pollution. The characteristics of peat erosion and bare peat were also investigated.

2.2.

2.3.

2.4.

Natural England Uplands Delivery Review Programme Upland Principles Summary guidance: The restoration of blanket bog and the effects of managed burning on peatlands. 2.5. Topic review NEER004 found that although there remain acknowledged gaps, there is a large and increasing evidence base on the effects of managed burning on the flora and habitats, fauna, carbon sequestration and water quality of upland peatlands. Overall the effects of burning are considered to be negative in relation to peatland biodiversity, water quality and flow and carbon sequestration (with the majority of findings negative (51%) or neutral (34%) and the minority positive (14%) for the four main outcomes considered). Topic reviews HYPERLINK.

2.6.

3. Scope of guidance and definitions

Blanket bog
3.1. Blanket bog is a feature of European interest and is defined in the Habitats Directive 1992 as being Extensive bog communities or landscapes on flat or sloping ground with poor surface drainage, in oceanic climates with heavy rainfall, characteristic of western and northern Britain and Ireland. The EC interpretation manual (HYPERLINK) describes it in more detail and the JNCC have provided an interpretation of this for the UK HYPERLINK. There are, however, many definitions of blanket bog. For the purposes of this guidance, blanket bog means all moorland vegetation types on deep peat (over 40cm in depth) including all various degraded forms including bare peat. Blanket bogs may have small standing water bodies known as dystrophic pools. In order to achieve a joint understanding of how we identify it in the field, an applied definition of blanket bog is currently under discussion with industry and stakeholders. This will be presented in more detail in the tier 3 practitioner guidance in due course.

3.2.

3.3.

Undamaged bogs, degradation and restoration

3.4. The restoration topic review defined undamaged bogs using common standards monitoring attributes and thresholds as a benchmark and considered studies which revealed the ecosystem functioning of undamaged blanket bogs. Degradation was viewed as the result of any activity which changed bogs or their functions away from this state. In the guidance we have used the term fully functioning blanket bogs to mean those bogs that are actively sequestering carbon, are in favourable condition and delivering Favourable Conservation Status (FCS), have the full suite of peat forming species, are not releasing net carbon and contribute fully to the full range of ecosystem services. The review considered that restoration is the action required to restore some or all of the functions associated with an undamaged blanket bog and included deforestation, revegetation of bare peat, re-establishing Sphagnum bog mosses, controlling undesirable vegetation and the blocking of grips and gullies.

3.5.

Managed burning
3.6. Managed or controlled burning is the practice of burning different patches of vegetation on a site in rotation and has been used in the UK for many years to manage moorlands, heaths and some grasslands.

Natural England Uplands Delivery Review Programme Upland Principles Summary guidance: The restoration of blanket bog and the effects of managed burning on peatlands. 3.7. Managed burning in the uplands, usually on dry heath, aims to stimulate new plant growth for grazing livestock and game birds. Such variation in heather structure can benefit some other species and also may help in reducing biomass and the consequent impacts from wildfire events. Managed burning occurs on about a quarter of deep peat moorlands in England, mostly in those areas managed for red grouse, for example, the Pennines, Bowland Forest and Northumberland, but has also occurred elsewhere in the past. The frequency of burning on blanket bogs in England varies considerably. Managed burning influences the range of ecosystem services delivered by upland peatlands, through the impacts of fire itself, through its longer-term influence on the vegetation and through the interaction of both of these factors with the soil.

3.8.

3.9.

4. Guiding principles on burning and restoration

4.1. Natural Englands overarching principle is that all blanket bogs and other peatland habitats on deep peat should be restored and maintained as fully functioning ecosystems wherever they occur. Where they are not fully functioning or reaching FCS they should be restored. HYPERLINK to tier 3 Upland Practitioner guidance. Within the protected sites network, for European sites (SACs) a fully functioning blanket bog contributes to delivering Favourable Conservation Status as guided by its European Conservation Objectives. Progress to meeting objectives for these (and national sites SSSIs) is measured through condition monitoring. Achievement of site conservation objectives, measured by favourable condition, is the desired end state for the site feature. Natural England believes that all blanket bogs and peatlands have the potential to be restored. However it recognises that: implementing restoration management may not always be possible due to practical constraints in place at a particular time. It can be very expensive and sufficient resources may not be available to carry out restoration works; the techniques needed to restore some blanket bog types are not always fully researched but they are being tried and tested by practise through projects. Natural England is open to taking opportunities to trial, encourage and develop innovative restoration techniques; in particular, techniques to restore more severely degraded blanket bogs which are dominated by dwarf shrubs are still developing, so it may be necessary at least in the short term to manage heather by burning or cutting to reduce its dominance; as the evidence base on restoration develops, Natural Englands standpoint will be reviewed.

4.2.

4.3.

4.4.

It is not possible to say how long full restoration may take both because sites vary in their degree and type of degradation. Other outcomes may need to be considered which might delay recovery times. In addition, the evidence review did not uncover any published research which reported the full recovery of blanket bog vegetation, which was restored from a degraded state.

Natural England Uplands Delivery Review Programme Upland Principles Summary guidance: The restoration of blanket bog and the effects of managed burning on peatlands. 4.5. 4.6. Where restoration is not practical or resources do not allow, we will agree management that does not impede the ability for future recovery. Whilst there are acknowledged gaps in the evidence there is a growing evidence base that on balance suggests that any positive benefits from burning are outweighed by negative impacts, particularly for biodiversity, carbon and water quality. Natural England will consider these on a site by site basis taking account of the local situation to assess the impacts of burning management on these interests and to determine future management. Natural England acknowledges that burning on blanket bog is currently viewed as an essential management tool by many grouse moor managers to deliver grouse moor outcomes on blanket bog. However, based on the evidence Natural England believes that burning is not a necessary management intervention for the maintenance of blanket bog habitats to deliver environmental outcomes. That is to say, burning is unlikely to be necessary to deliver nature conservation outcomes on upland peatlands other than where burning is specifically required as part of a restoration programme. The Heather and Grass Burning Code (2007) states that there should be a strong presumption against burning sensitive areas other than in line with a management plan agreed with Natural England. This includes peat bog and wet heathland areas. All moorland managers are encouraged to follow the Code. HYPERLINK HGB Code. A set of special circumstances apply where burning on sensitive areas is proposed. HYPERLINK T3. As part of the audit trail and to meet Habitats Regulations requirements on European sites, these should be set out clearly in a brief plan or statement showing the process to deliver site conservation objectives and any additional mechanisms needed. This also forms part of the Habitats Regulations Assessment which must be able to conclude that there is no adverse effect on site integrity. Natural England recognises that where burning management is taking place currently on blanket bog, the process of eliminating burning is likely to be gradual in some circumstances. We will work with customers and partners to agree a process by which it is reduced or ceased so as to achieve identified objectives for the site on an appropriate timescale, using the best evidence available. However, Natural England acknowledges that there are gaps in the evidence which may in some circumstances make it difficult to to be sure about the timescale and outcome of changes in management. On European Sites1 any plans or projects that include burning, including changing burning regimes, will need to be assessed through the Habitats Regulations 2010. There is thorough guidance available on European sites for Natural England advisors. HYPERLINK. On SSSIs there should be due regard to Natural Englands statutory duties and site specific objectives.

4.7.

4.8.

4.9.

4.10.

4.11.

A European site is designated through European Union law for its nature conservation features. Includes Special Protection Area (SPA) for its bird interest and Special Area of Conservation (SAC) for its habitat and/ or other species interest.

Natural England Uplands Delivery Review Programme Upland Principles Summary guidance: The restoration of blanket bog and the effects of managed burning on peatlands.

Characteristics of Blanket Bogs in Different States

4.12. Blanket bogs display a range of states from undamaged sites to severely degraded areas of bare or lost peat resulting from a complex of factors including location, climate, atmospheric pollution, historical and current management. As part of the guidance refresh, Natural England has identified six broad blanket bog states to help advisors decide what might be appropriate objectives and management for their site circumstances. There are likely to be more than one of these states on a site, and many areas will be intermediate between them. These states do not replace existing systems for classifying bog types or monitoring their condition. The tier 3 upland practitioner guidance describes the states in more detail with National Vegetation Classification codes and photographs. These states are simply a convenient and helpful tool to aid decision-making for the purposes of this guidance, to prioritise restoration and to help us explain our position to land managers. In summary, the states are: 1) Active hummock/hollow blanket bog: This is un-modified or little modified active (peat-forming), Sphagnum-rich blanket bog, basin or valley mire often with hummocks and hollows. Typically neither heather nor cottongrass achieve high abundance and there is usually a good Sphagnum understorey. It meets, or is close to meeting favourable condition attributes. 2) Modified blanket bog: Dwarf shrub cover is high, often reaching 50-75% of the canopy, and Sphagnum cover tends to be lower. Cottongrass is abundant or frequent as an understory and becomes dominant in the years following fire. It is active, only less so, with peat formation likely to be slower. It may be drained, but usually with few gullies or haggs. Characteristic of much of the Pennines.

4.13.

4.14.

4.15.

4.16.

3) Grass/sedge dominated blanket bog: Likely to still be active but dominated by graminoids such as purple moor-grass, cottongrass or deergrass with Sphagnum bog mosses scarce or absent (but not including grass/sedge dominated areas in modified bog (2 above) following recent burning). Unlikely to be extensively drained and usually with few gullies or haggs. 4) Dwarf-shrub dominated blanket bog: these are largely inactive, severely modified bogs where dwarf shrub cover exceeds 75% of the canopy and other typical mire species such as bog mosses and even cotton grass are only occasional or rare/absent. It may have moderate to severe gullying and hagging. Occurs often on drier peats and the more easterly moors. 5) Bare peat bog: Little or no vegetation with areas of exposed bare peat and extensive gullying and hagging. Unlikely to support representative peatland communities. Dwarf shrubs are dominant in small patches.

Natural England Uplands Delivery Review Programme Upland Principles Summary guidance: The restoration of blanket bog and the effects of managed burning on peatlands. 6) Afforested bog: blanket bog sites subject to plantation with trees as a commercial crop, usually exotic conifers.

5. Setting Objectives
5.1. When making decisions on whether blanket bog is fully functioning and where management by burning is practised or proposed, advisors should set out clear, site-specific objectives. These should be based on the best available information on the condition of peatland habitats and species and statutory Conservation objectives in the case of protected sites. Objective-setting is outlined in the Quick Start tier 1 guidance and in the more detailed Upland Practitioner tier 3 guidance. Decisions about management should be based on an assessment of likely effects in relation to the main objective of maintaining or restoring blanket bog to Favourable Condition for the site. This is likely to deliver other ecosystem services outcomes and contribute to delivering Favourable Conservation Status. As part of this process, clear communication with landowners and/or managers, including graziers, keepers and their agents is crucial. Proposed objectives and the rationale for them need to be clearly presented, along with a justification for the management proposed. In order to set objectives and prioritise restoration or management, an understanding of the state of the blanket bog and the services it provides and could provide is needed for the site. With this in mind, advisors should aim to achieve well-defined and measurable improvements in blanket peatland condition and functionality. Where blanket bogs are fully functioning, delivering ecosystem services and cannot be improved, we must aim to maintain this state. Where resources and practical considerations allow, we should seek to restore the functionality of blanket bogs. Where the provision of blanket bog services is not optimal and there are practical restrictions which mean we cannot improve current functioning, we must aim for management that does not impede the ability for future recovery.

5.2.

5.3.

5.4.

5.5. 5.6. 5.7.

6. Translating objectives to management

6.1. Natural England believes that all blanket bogs and peatlands have the potential to be restored. The primary objective is for those which are not functioning fully ie those which are inactive or less active is restoration. Our objectives follow a hierarchy as set out below: 1) Maintenance of fully functioning blanket bog and peatlands. The primary objective for active bogs is to retain their functionality. 2) Restoration. The primary objective for inactive or largely inactive bogs or bogs which are otherwise not fully functioning. 3) Management to prevent further deterioration. Where resources or practical considerations do not currently allow for restoration.

Natural England Uplands Delivery Review Programme Upland Principles Summary guidance: The restoration of blanket bog and the effects of managed burning on peatlands.

1) Maintenance of fully functioning blanket bog and peatlands.

6.2. This objective applies to active hummock/hollow blanket bog. These active bogs are considered to be climax habitats and should require little intervention to maintain peatland biodiversity, peat accumulation and structure. If active management is proposed it should be compatible with maintaining these features and functions. These areas should not be burned; Management by burning should not be introduced and any existing practice should cease; Livestock grazing at low intensity may be compatible with these objectives but is unlikely to be necessary; Whilst this type is the most functioning type, there may be scope for improvement.

2) Restoration
6.3. Natural England believes that all blanket bogs and peatlands have the potential to be restored. Natural England will through necessity have to prioritise interventions based on environmental benefit and value for money. The tier 3 Upland Practitioner guidance shows how the restoration of the six identified blanket bog states relate together. HYPERLINK. It indicates the broad types of management required, the strength of the evidence base and the effort required to apply these interventions successfully. Management by burning should not be introduced unless it forms part of a restoration plan. Burning should be phased out. Priorities for restoration should be set locally and agreed with managers, stakeholders and partners within the relevant national policies and legislation which guide the delivery of uplands environmental outcomes. For example, Biodiversity 2020 within and outside the protected sites network including targets for favourable condition, geodiversity, the Landscape Convention, the Historic Environment, climate change adaptation and soils. Natural Englands work on objective setting, and the joint Defra Natural England outcomes framework document are useful tools which should be used by advisors. Tier 3 upland practitioner guidance HYPERLINK. Gov.uk. link to outcomes framework HYPERLINK. The uplands evidence review did not uncover any published research which reported the full recovery of blanket bog vegetation, which was restored from a degraded state. Therefore having undertaken restoration management to move a blanket bog from a degraded state towards a less degraded state, it is important that progress should be monitored and objectives reviewed to assess whether the blanket bog is progressing to the ideal hummock/hollow state. Tier 3 Upland Practitioner guidance HYPERLINK. There are a range of possible interventions for the restoration of blanket bog. These include 1) 2) 3) 4) Grip and gully blocking to improve hydrological functioning; Re-vegetation: To stabilise eroding peat surfaces; Introduction of peat forming vegetation to aid re-activation; Removal of trees;

6.4.

6.5.

6.6.

6.7.

6.8.

Natural England Uplands Delivery Review Programme Upland Principles Summary guidance: The restoration of blanket bog and the effects of managed burning on peatlands. 5) Controlling undesirable vegetation, including by burning and cutting. Mostly, restoration management will be highly compatible with maintaining interest for birds, geodiversity and archaeology.

6.9.

3) Management to prevent further deterioration

6.10. Whilst Natural England believes that all blanket bogs and peatlands have the potential to be restored, it may not always be possible at present and it may be justifiable to agree management which will aim to prevent further degradation and permit fuller restoration in the future. Management by burning should not be introduced and should be phased out. Where it may not currently be possible to begin restoration measures it may still be appropriate to agree changes to management, including burning, in the interim to prevent or slow down further deterioration. The following list, which is not exhaustive, show circumstances where this approach might apply: there are other recognised overriding environmental interests. For example, the land is important for birds, is designated as a Special Protection Area (SPA) and actions to manage or restore blanket bog are not necessary for these interests; the land is important for its geodiversity or historic environment interest and restoration may not be a priority for these interests; there is no mechanism to influence land management change. For example if the peatland is outside the protected sites network and/or there is no agri-environment agreement; techniques for restoring the most severely degraded, heather-dominated blanket bog (state 4) are still in development and not fully tested. In this case, some trial restoration sites are to be encouraged; there are severe physical constraints to restoration such as steep slopes, shallow peat and no donor sites; there is a lack of resources including funding to deliver restoration.

6.11.

10

Annex: Summary of Findings from the Uplands Evidence Reviews

1. Introduction Top

1.1. This annex provides a brief summary of the findings of the evidence reviews on blanket bog restoration and burning effects on upland peatlands which are described in full in the corresponding Evidence Review Reports. 1.2. For burning, only effects based on strong or moderate evidence are listed below. HYPERLINK NEER03 & NEER04.

2. Characteristics of undamaged bogs

2.1. The restoration review (NEER003) found that undamaged blanket bogs: are characterised by at least 40cm of peat (or 30cm over rock); support vegetation composed of wetland plants: at least 50% cover of six key species, which include purple moor-grass, bog-mosses, cottongrasses and other sedges, dwarf shrubs, and insectivorous plants and other bog specialists, with ericaceous dwarf shrubs, deergrass or hares -tail cottongrass not covering more than 75%; accumulate peat which is formed mainly from bog moss and cottongrass remains, possibly also purple moor-grass Molinia caerulea, but with dwarf shrubs only as a sub-component; are carbon (C) sinks, but emit methane; support high water tables in an active surface layer overlying a permanently waterlogged anaerobic layer of peat; show rapid run-off responses to rainfall, though this is slowed by any areas of Sphagnum bog mosses; and have low export of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) but also contain some peat pipes.

3. Burning extent, frequency, type and characteristics

3.1. The burning review (NEER004) found that: Rotational burning occurs on about a quarter of deep peat on moorland in England, mostly in the Pennines, Bowland and Northumberland. Over the remainder of the resource, burning on deep peat is now infrequent or does not normally take place, although it did occur on some of this land in the past. There has been an increase in the extent and frequency of managed burning on moorland in England, including specifically on degraded dry blanket bog in the North Peak ESA. There has been a similar recent increase in the number of gamekeepers employed and potential number of shooting days per year on grouse moors in the north of England, although this relates to all heather-dominated moorland rather than specifically peatlands. Remote sensing surveys show that there is considerable variation in the frequency of burning on upland peatlands:

11

Annex: Summary of Findings from the Uplands Evidence Reviews

o nationally, the average burn return period for heather-dominated peatland was 27 years in 2000, although this included the majority of upland peatland that is subject to little or no rotational burning; in areas where rotational burning occurs on deep peat, the average return period on heather-dominated areas (between 2001 and 2009) was shorter: 12 years in the North York Moors, 15 years in the North Pennines and 25 years in the Peak District; in most of these areas, the proportion burnt per year on upland peatland and dry heath were similar; and the proportion burnt per year in the national dataset was similar on SSSIs and (the smaller area of) non-designated upland peatland.

o o

Burns into the bryophyte and lichen layer and in to sensitive areas occur in a proportion of cases on blanket bog and wet heath (in 11-17% of all, including unburned, samples in two recent national surveys). Heather moorland in one area (the Peak District) which is mostly managed by rotational burning is less prone to the occurrence of wildfires than other moorland habitats. Although they still occur relatively frequently, this reflects lower than predicted occurrence in relation to the (large) area of heather moorland. Moisture content, vegetation type and phenology, recent weather and human factors are important factors in the ignition of fires. Fuel load and structure are critical factors in fire behaviour, particularly in fireline intensity (heat output per unit length of fire front) and rate of spread, although residence time and depth of penetration of lethal temperatures into the soil are perhaps more important in determining severity of impact, but are much less well understood.

4. Impacts of management
4.1. Ploughing blanket bogs and planting trees: lowers water tables; causes subsidence of the peat; changes the ground flora; reduces methane emissions; increases C capture rates.

4.2. Cutting peat on blanket bogs can damage bog vegetation. Bare peat surfaces dry out but it remains wet lower down in the peat mass. 4.3. Cutting drains (grips): lowers the water table, especially down slope of the drain; discourages Sphagnum bog-mosses, while encouraging plants that like drier environments;

12

Annex: Summary of Findings from the Uplands Evidence Reviews

is associated with more peat piping and accelerates erosion in steeper drains; may alter catchment river flows but this depends on catchment and drain characteristics; reduces methane emissions.

4.4. Managing peatlands by burning: results in a change in vegetation composition and structure, causing an initial decline in dwarf shrub cover and diversity and an increase in graminoids (grass-like plants), followed by an increase in dwarf shrubs (though most often the studies were on sites subject to rotational burning so refer to longer-term effects); reduces the cover of bryophytes; creates bare ground and reduces the structural diversity of bog surfaces; through changes in vegetation composition and structure is likely to affect the functioning of the peatland ecosystem, reduce the likelihood of the maintenance and restoration of active, functioning peatlands and hence have effects on associated ecosystem services; benefits open-ground invertebrates such as ground beetles and surface-active spiders although these are not necessarily characteristic peatland species; influences moorland breeding birds through its impact on vegetation structure, but different species prefer different structures; may result in loss of eggs from early nest attempts of some ground-nesting moorland birds if done late in the burning season (up to 15th April); affects the C cycle in peatlands by increasing DOC in watercourses (especially soon after burning), reducing peat accumulation, reducing above- and below-ground C storage, increasing particulate C loss (erosion) and peat subsidence, and increasing both transpiration and photosynthesis; affects water quality, by increasing DOC and changes pH and concentrations of some chemicals, for example increasing aluminium, iron and sodium and decreasing calcium, chlorine and bromine; reduces the diversity and community composition of aquatic invertebrates in watercourses; may increase runoff, but catchment water flow and flood risk effects are likely to be catchment specific; can interact with grazing in the initial period following burning resulting particularly in a greater increase in the extent of bare ground; results in increased grazing of purple moor-grass by sheep and deer, but this may be shortlived; and reduces fuel load and may therefore have benefits for fire risk management, alongside other measures such as cutting and/or the creation of a network of firebreaks and control zones. There may be an increased need for fire risk management in future, if certain climate change scenarios become a reality.

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Annex: Summary of Findings from the Uplands Evidence Reviews

5. Impacts of other environmental pressures
5.1. The atmospheric deposition of Ammonium and other pollutants can damage Sphagnum bogmoss species but some can survive current deposition rates. 5.2. High cover of heather is associated with more peat pipes, leads to increased DOC and may result in release of more methane than where Sphagnum or cottongrass are the main species. 5.3. Gullying and hagging are natural phenomena. They lower the water table and are most associated with high, flat areas of bog whilst linear gullies can also form in peat on steeper slopes. Gullies and haggs mostly erode slowly but some show rapid erosion of up to 6cm loss per year. The natural processes can be exacerbated by certain management interventions.

6. Impacts of restoration management

6.1. Felling trees on afforested peatlands can encourage blanket bog vegetation to recover especially where planting is recent or where waste wood is chipped. 6.2. Re-vegetation of eroding peat can be achieved using nurse grasses or heather aided by applications of lime, fertiliser and stabilising treatments such as geo-jute; will help prevent loss of particulate organic carbon (POC); will not prevent ongoing loss of peat as DOC or as carbon dioxide (CO2); and may be managed to restore Sphagnum, provided the right combinations of water table, chemistry, species, mulches and/or nurse species are used.

6.3. Dominance of purple moor-grass can be reduced with intensive application of grazing, cutting and or herbicides. 6.4. Gully blocking will trap eroding peat sediment which will become re-vegetated. 6.5. Blocking grips: raises water tables; increases abundance and diversity of invertebrates; encourages wetland plants; is unlikely to show rapid recovery of catchment flow properties and reduction of DOC export, which may also be strongly influenced by local factors; will probably decrease CO2 emissions but increase methane emissions; will result in reduced Green House Gas flux, especially where pools formed by blocks are left open rather than infilled or re-profiled and if Sphagnum bog-moss vegetation, rather than heather or cottongrass, is encouraged between grips;

6.6. Not all grips in a peat mass necessarily need to be blocked. Those on shallow slopes will revegetate naturally, and may infill.

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