Peoples Democratic Republic of Algeria Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research Teacher Training School of Constantine

Distance Training for Middle School Teachers

Specialty Module Prepared by Academic &ear

English !"MD# Synta$ Soraya Me%houd '(()* '((+

Lesson One

The Parts of Speech

Traditional grammar classifies words based on eight parts of speech: the verb, the noun, the pronoun, the adjective, the adverb, the preposition, the conjunction, and the interjection. Each part of speech explains not what the word is, but how the word is used. In fact, the same word can be a noun in one sentence and a verb or adjective in the next. The next few examples show how a word's part of speech can change from one sentence to the next. Books are made of in , paper, and glue. In this sentence, !boo s! is a noun, the subject of the sentence. "eborah waits patientl# while $ridget books the tic ets. %ere !boo s! is a verb, and its subject is !$ridget.! &e walk down the street. In this sentence, !wal ! is a verb, and its subject is the pronoun !we!. The mail carrier stood on the walk. In this example, !wal ! is a noun, which is part of a prepositional phrase describing where the mail carrier stood. '

The town decided to build a new jail. %ere !jail! is a noun, which is the object of the infinitive phrase !to build.! The sheriff told us that if we did not leave town immediatel# he would jail us. %ere !jail! is part of the compound verb !would jail.! The# heard high pitched cries in the middle of the night. In this sentence, !cries! is a noun acting as the direct object of the verb !heard.! The bab# cries all night long and all da# long. $ut here !cries! is a verb that describes the actions of the subject of the sentence, the bab#.

Word categories

()*( +,)()*( -E,$ ."/E0TI-E ."-E,$ +,E+)1ITI)( 2

0)(/*(0TI)( I(TE,/E0TI)(

1.1. An overview of no ns
A no n! an# word which names a person, place, thing, idea, animal, 3ualit#, or action. 1. "o nt #o ns: an#thing which can be counted4 singular and plural Example: car 5 cars '. $ass #o ns: entities which cannot be counted4 the# have no plural form. Example: mone# 2. "ollective #o ns: groups of people or things4 sing. and plural. Example: herd 5 herds 6. Possessive #o ns: express ownership b# adding an apostrophe. Examples: 7singular.8 9ell#'s anger 7plural.8 birds' feathers

1.%. An overview of prono ns

A prono n: a word which ta es the place of a noun 7called !the antecedent!8 1. Personal: the# refer to person:people spea ing, spo en to or spo en about. Examples: I, me, #ou, he, him, she, her, it, we, us, the# . '. Possessive: the# function independentl#4 the# show possession. Examples: m#, mine, #our, #ours, our, ours, his, her, hers . 6

2. &ndefinite: the# have no specific antecedents. Examples: another, both, ever#thing, nothing 6. 'efle(ive: the# show that the subject performs actions to:for itself Examples: m#self, #ourself, itself, ourselves, themselves ;. &ntensive: the# refer bac to a noun:pronoun to add emphasis to it Examples: 7same forms as reflexive pronouns8 <. 'eciprocal: the# show a mutual action or relationship Examples: each other, one another =. &nterrogative: the# are used to as a 3uestion Examples: who, which, what >. 'elative: the# are used to introduce a relative clause Examples: who, which, that ?. )e*onstrative: the# substitute for specific nouns Examples: this, that, these, those

1.+. An overview of verbs

. verb: expresses action or state of being 1. Transitive: it is an action verb4 it passes action on to a direct object Example: &e bought a car. '. &ntransitive: it does not indicate a transfer of action4 it does not re3uire a direct object Example: The eagle soared. ;

2. Linking: it joins the subject with a word that renames:describes it Example: The s # is blue. 6. $ain: it indicates the primar# activit# ;. A (iliar,: !helps! the main verb <. $odal: indicates abilit#, obligation, permission, possibilit# Examples: can, ma#, must, should, could, might, ought, would =. -inite: it describes a definite and limited action or condition >. #on.finite/0erbal: shows an unfinished action or condition
o o o

&nfinitives: to @ verb4 act as nouns, adjectives, adverbs Participles: past or present4 alwa#s act as adjectives 1er nds: present participle form4 act as nouns

1.2. An overview of adjectives

.n adjective: modifies nouns and pronouns 1. )escriptive: it names a 3ualit# of the noun
o o

Attrib tive: Eg. The brown cow. Predicate: Eg. It was a brown cow. )efinite/&ndefinite Articles: Eg. the, a, an Possessive: Eg. his, her, its, their )e*onstrative: Eg. this, that, these, those &ndefinite: Eg. several, few, less, man#, more &nterrogative: Eg. what, which, whose "ardinal: Eg. one, two, four <

'. Li*iting: it limits a noun

o o o o o o

o o o

Ordinal: Eg. third, fourth, fiftieth #o ns: Eg. the *ilk cow Proper: Eg. the 1er*an cow

1.3. An overview of adverbs

.n adverb: modifies verbs, adjectives, adverbs, sentences Examples: sang lo dl,, ran swiftl,

1.4. An overview of prepositions

. preposition: lin s a noun or a pronoun 7the object of the preposition8 with some other word or expression. Examples: about, below, in, over, until

1.5. An overview of conj nctions

. conjunction : lin s sentence elements, ie. words, phrases, clauses 1. "oordinating : it joins sentence parts of e3ual grammatical status Examples: and, but, for, nor, or, so, #et '. "orrelative: the# are coordinating conjunctions that wor in pairs4 the# join words, phrases, clauses, sentences. Examples: both...and, either...or, neither...nor 2. S bordinating: the# connect clauses of une3ual status Examples: after, because, that, though =

1.6. An overview of interjections

.n interjection is an unusual ind of word, because it often stands alone. Interjections are words which express emotion or surprise, and the# are usuall# followed b# exclamation mar s. Examples: Ouch!, Hello!, Hurray!, Oh no!, Ha! #u , ouch, eh .

7(ercise!
Identif# the part of speech of the following sentences: 1. The clown chased a dog around the ring and then fell flat on her face. '. The geese indolentl, waddled across the intersection. 2. 8ikes9 I'm late for class. 6. $runo's shabb, thesaurus tumbled out of the boo bag when the bus suddenl# pulled out into traffic. ;. Ar. Brederic angril# sta*ped out the fire that the local hooligans had started on his verandah. <. Cater that summer, she as ed herself, !&hat was & thin ing ofD! =. 1he thought that the twent# Eucchini plants wo ld not be enough so she planted another ten. >. Altho gh she gave hundreds of Eucchini awa#, the enormous mound left over frightened her. ?. Ever#where she went, she tal ed about the prolific veggies. > nderlined word in each of the

1F. The manager confidentl, made his presentation to the board of directors. 11. Bran enstein is the name of the scientist, not the monster.

1'. %er greatest fear is that the world will end before she finds a comfortable pair of pant#5hose. 12. That suitcase is hers. 16. 7ver,one in the room cheered when the announcement was made. 1;. The sun was shining as we set out for our first winter camping trip. 1<. S*all children often insist that the# can do it b# themselves. 1=. ) st covered ever# surface in the loc ed bedroom. 1>. The census ta er noc ed lo dl, on all the doors but nobod# was home. 1?. The# wondered if there trul# was honour a*ong thieves. 'F. Exciting new products and effective mar eting strategies will guarantee the compan#'s success.

%. Word f nctions
&ords can perform the following functions:

%.1. S bject and Predicate

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Ever# complete sentence contains two parts: a s bject and a predicate. The subject is what 7or whom8 the sentence is about, while the predicate tells something about the subject. In the following sentences, the predicate is enclosed in braces 7G H8, while the subject is highlighted. : d, GrunsH. : d, and her dog Grun on the beach ever# morningH. To determine the subject of a sentence, first isolate the verb and then ma e a 3uestion b# placing !whoD! or !whatD! before it 55 the answer is the subject. The audience littered the theatre floor with torn wrappings and spilled popcorn. The verb in the above sentence is !littered.! &ho or what litteredD The audience did. !The audience! is the subject of the sentence. The predicate 7which alwa#s includes the verb8 goes on to relate something about the subject: what about the audienceD It !littered the theatre floor with torn wrappings and spilled popcorn.!

;n s al Sentences
Imperative sentences 7sentences that give a command or an order8 differ from conventional sentences in that their subject, which is alwa#s !#ou,! is understood rather than expressed. 1tand on #our head. 7!Iou! is understood before !stand.!8 1F

$e careful with sentences that begin with !there! plus a form of the verb !to be.! In such sentences, !there! is not the subject4 it merel# signals that the true subject will soon follow. There were three stra, kittens cowering under our porch steps this morning. If #ou as whoD or what? before the verb 7!were cowering!8, the answer is !three stra# ittens,! the correct subject.

%.%. Objects
. verb ma# be followed b# an object that completes the verb's meaning. Two inds of objects follow verbs: direct objects and indirect objects. To determine if a verb has a direct object, isolate the verb and ma e it into a 3uestion b# placing !whomD! or !whatD! after it. The answer, if there is one, is the direct object: )irect Object The advertising executive drove a flash, red Porsche. )irect Object %er secret admirer gave her a bo < et of flowers. The second sentence above also contains an indirect object. .n indirect object 7which, li e a direct object, is alwa#s a noun or pronoun8 is, in a sense, the recipient of the direct object. To determine if a verb has an

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indirect object, isolate the verb and as to whom?, to what?, for whom?, or for what? after it. The answer is the indirect object. (ot all verbs are followed b# objects. 0onsider the verbs in the following sentences: The guest spea er rose from her chair to protest. .fter wor , ,and# usuall# jogs around the canal.

Transitive and &ntransitive 0erbs

-erbs that ta e objects are nown as transitive verbs. -erbs not

followed b# objects are called intransitive verbs. 1ome verbs can be either transitive verbs or intransitive verbs, depending on the context: )irect Object I hope the 1enators win the next game. #o )irect Object "id we winD

%.+. "o*ple*ents

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S bject "o*ple*ents
In addition to the transitive verb and the intransitive verb, there is a third ind of verb called a lin ing verb. The word 7or phrase8 which follows a lin ing verb is called not an object, but a s bject co*ple*ent. The most common lin ing verb is !be.! )ther lin ing verbs are !become,! !seem,! !appear,! !feel,! !grow,! !loo ,! !smell,! !taste,! and !sound,! among others. (ote that some of these are sometimes lin ing verbs, sometimes transitive verbs, or sometimes intransitive verbs, depending on how #ou use them: Linking verb with s bject co*ple*ent %e was a radiologist before he beca*e a full5time #oga instructor. Linking verb with s bject co*ple*ent Iour homemade chili s*ells delicious. Transitive verb with direct object I can't s*ell an#thing with this terrible cold. &ntransitive verb with no object The interior of the beautiful new $uic s*ells strongl# of fish. (ote that a subject complement can be either a noun 7!radiologist!, !instructor!8 or an adjective 7!delicious!8.

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Object "o*ple*ents
.n object co*ple*ent is similar to a subject complement, except that 7obviousl#8 it modifies an object rather than a subject. 0onsider this example of a subject complement: The driver seems tired. In this case, as explained above, the adjective !tired! modifies the noun !driver,! which is the subject of the sentence. 1ometimes, however, the noun will be the object, as in the following example: I consider the driver tired. In this case, the noun !driver! is the direct object of the verb !consider,! but the adjective !tired! is still acting as its complement. In general, verbs which have to do with perceiving, judging, or changing something can cause their direct objects to ta e an object complement: +aint it black. The judge ruled her o t of order. I saw the +rime Ainister sleeping.

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In ever# case, #ou could reconstruct the last part of the sentence into a sentence of its own using a subject complement: !it is blac ,! !she is out of order,! !the +rime Ainister is sleeping.!

%.2. Apposition
&hen two words, clauses, or phrases stand close together and share the same part of the sentence, the# are in apposition and are called appositives. In fact, an appositive is ver# much li e a subject complement, onl# without the lin ing verb: s bject co*ple*ent A# brother is a research associate. appositive A# brother the research associate wor s at a large polling firm. s bject co*ple*ent /ean became a *agistrate. appositive I have never met /ean the *agistrate.

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%.3. An Adjective
.n adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun b# describing, identif#ing, or 3uantif#ing words. .n adjective usuall# precedes the noun or the pronoun which it modifies.

%.4. An Adverb
.n adverb can modif# a verb, an adjective, another adverb, a phrase, or a clause. .n adverb indicates manner, time, place, cause, or degree and answers 3uestions such as !how,! !when,! !where,! !how much!. &hile some adverbs can be identified b# their characteristic !l#! suffix, most of them must be identified b# untangling the grammatical relationships within the sentence or clause as a whole. *nli e an adjective, an adverb can be found in various places within the sentence.

7(ercise 1! "ivide each of the following sentences into its constituent

parts of speech and label each part: 15 Aar# meticulousl# cleaned her room. '5 The girl is now a student at a large universit#. 25 %is brother grew happier graduall#. 65 It rained steadil# all da#. 1<

;5 %e had given the girl an apple. <5 %e gave me his phone number b t I lost it. =5 The# chose a dark brown paint. >5 The# made him chairman ever# #ear. ?5 The dancer moved gracef ll,. 1F5The da# was co*pletel, enjoyable. <5 . hot infusion of mint will stop #our stomach5ache. >5 %e gave me a handful of peanuts, a glass of tea and two ca es. 1F5 The mother loo ed at her children with pride. 7(ercise %! Coo carefull# at the word =ro nd> and classif# it in a accordance with its use in the following sentences. 15 &e meet him in an# ro nd table we do. '5 &e went ro nd b# the bridge. 25 I was thin ing, sitting ro nd the fire. 65 %e was spea ing in rich ro nd tones. ;5 The sound went ro nd and ro nd. 7(ercise +! Cengthen the following sentences b# adding different words 15 The elephant eats grass. '5 %e lost his watch. 25 The# write a letter. 65 The# offered me a present. ;5 &e are human beings.

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Lesson Two #o ns
. no n tells us what someone or something is called. It can be the name of a person ?:ohn@A a job title 7ph,sician@A the name of a thing 7ring@A of a place 7London@A of a 3ualit# 7patience8, of an action 7la ghter/la ghing@. The# are names we give to people, things, places, etc. to identif# them. Aan# nouns are used after a determiner, e.g. aA theA this and often combine with other words to form a noun phrase: e.g. the *anA the *an ne(t doorA that tall b ilding. (ouns and noun phrases answer the 3uestion whoB and whatB and ma# be: 5The subject of a verb O r agent in "airo sent a telex this morning. 5 The direct object of a verb: Bran sent an rgent tele( from 0airo this morning. 5 The indirect object of a verb: Bran sent his boss a telex. 5 The object of a preposition: I read about it in the paper. 5 The complement of be or a related verb li e see*! /ane is o r g est. 5 used 'in apposition': Caura A#ers, a BB" reporter, as ed for an interview. 5 used when we spea directl# to somebod#: 1>

"aroline, shut that window, will #ou pleaseD (ouns can be classified into proper nouns and common nouns:

& C Proper no ns:

. proper noun is used for a particular place, thing or idea which is uni3ue. It is generall# spelt with a capital letter. .rticles are not usuall# used in front of proper nouns. +roper nouns include, for example: 5 +ersonal names 7with or without titles8: .ndrew, .ndrew 1mith, Ar. .ndrew 1mith, +resident 9enned#. 5 Borms of address: Aum, "ad, .untie, *ncle Bred. 5 Jeographical names: .sia, India, &isconsin. 5 +lace names: Aadison .venue, ,egent 1treet. 5 Aonths, da#s of the wee , festivals and seasons: .pril, Aonda#, Easter, 0hristmas. 71easons are usuall# spelt with a small letter but sometimes with a capital: spring or 1pring.

&&. "o**on no ns: .n# noun which is not the name of a particular
person, place, thing or idea is a common noun. &e can use a/an, the or the Eero article in front of common nouns.

"o ntable and nco ntable no ns

The distinction between countable and uncountable nouns is fundamental in English because onl# b# distinguishing between the two can we understand when to use singular or plural forms and when to use

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the definite, indefinite and Eero articles: a/anA the and , or the appropriate 3uantifier: a fewA * chA *an,A etc. 15 0ountable nouns: the# are sometimes nown as nit or co nt nouns. If a noun is countable: 5 we can use a/an in front of it: a boo , an envelope. 5 it has a plural and can be used in the 3uestion Dow *an,B! Dow *an, sta*ps/envelopesB K Bour stamps:envelopes. 5 we can use numbers: one stamp, two stamps. '5 *ncountable nouns: the# are sometimes nown as *ass or non.co nt nouns. If a noun is uncountable: we do not normall# use a/an in front of it: s gar is expensive. it does not normall# have a plural and it can be used in the 3uestion Dow * chB meat: . little oil. we cannot normall# use a number 7one, two8 in front of it. Dow * ch *eat /oilB 5 . lot of

1ometimes a noun is used uncountabl# when we are tal ing about the whole substance or idea, but countabl# when we are tal ing about: please. . t#pe, brand of things. 0ompare: and cheese8 to choose from. . particular example of a ph#sical or concrete thing. 0ompare: There were doEens of cheeses 7L inds of ,ecogniEed containers for things. 0ompare: and Three teas 7Lcups of tea8,

I prefer tea to coffee.

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1he has blond hair. m# soup.

and

There is a hair In

"oncrete and abstract no ns

Aan# co ntable no ns are concrete 7having an individual ph#sical existence8, for example: +ersons, animals, plants: )bjects: Jroups: *nits of measurement: +arts of a mass: a girl, a horse, a tree a bottle, a des , a t#pewriter. an arm#, a crowd, a herd. a franc, a ilo, a metre. a bit, a pac et, a piece, a slice

0oncrete uncountable nouns 7sometimes having ph#sical but not 'individual' existence8 include words li e: Aaterial, li3uid, gases: Jrains and powder: .ctivities: Canguages: cotton, mil , air. barle#, rice, dust, flour. camping, drin ing, eating, sailing. .rabic, Italian, /apanese, Tur ish.

. few co ntable no ns are abstract: e.g. a hope, an idea, a nuisance, a remar , a situation. .n abstract noun refers to an idea: a concept which exists onl# in our minds. . number of abstract nouns can be used onl# as countables: e.g. a denial, a proposal, a scheme, a statement. Aan# uncountable nouns are abstract: e.g. anger, e3ualit#, honest#.

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"o*po nd no ns
Aan# nouns in English are formed from two parts 7classroom8 or, less commonl#, three or more 7son5in5law, stic 5in5the5mud8. 1ometimes, compounds are spelled with a h#phen, sometimes not. The# are usuall# pronounced with the stress on the first s#llable, but there are exceptions. Single.word co*po nd no ns! There are man# words which we no longer thin of as compounds at all, even though the# are clearl# made up of two words: a 'cupboard, a 'raincoat, a 'saucepan, the 'seaside, a 't#pewriter #o ns for*ed with adjective E no n! a 'greenhouse, a 'heav#weight, 'longhand, a 'redhead #o ns for*ed with ger nd E no n! 'drin ing water, a 'fr#ing pan, a 'wal ing stic %ere, the meaning is 'something that is used for doing something': e.g. a fr#ing pan 7L a pan that is used for fr#ing8 #o ns for*ed with no n E ger nd 'horse5riding, 'sight5seeing, 'sunbathing %ere, the meaning is 'the action ofM': horse5riding 7L the action of riding a horse8. #o ns for*ed with adverb particles These compound nouns are combinations of verbs and adverb particles: e.g. 'brea down, 'income, 'ma e5up. #o ns for*ed with no n E no n

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&hen two nouns are used together to form a compound noun, the first noun 7noun modifier8 usuall# functions li e an adjective and is nearl# alwa#s in the singular. This is the largest categor# of compound nouns. . 'car e#, a 'chair leg, a ' itchen sin , 'Condon '.irport, 'Aoscow '1tadium $a er street, '0anterbur# ',oad . 'Bord 'car, an 'I$A com'puter, 'Congman '$oo s, '1hell ')il

Pl rals
The plural of a noun is usuall# made b# adding 's' to the singular: da#, da#s /G/. &hen FsF is placed after ceA geA se or Ge an extra s#llable :iG: is added to the spo en word. Other pl ral for*s 5 (ouns ending in o or chA shA ss or ( form their plural b# adding es! tomato, tomatoes church, churches d#namo, d#namos ilo, ilos sopranos brush, brushes iss, isses imono, imonos photo, photo s piano, pianos soprano, box, boxes dog, dogs house, houses FsF is pronounced /s/ after a pA k or f sound. )therwise, it is pronounced

$ut words of foreign origin or abbreviated words ending in o add s onl#:

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(ouns ending in , following a consonant form their plural b# dropping bab#, babies bo#, bo#s countr#, countries da#, da# s fl#, flies lad#, ladies gu#,

the , and adding ies! (ouns ending in , following a vowel form their plural b# adding s: don e#, don e# s gu#s 5 Twelve nouns ending in f or fe drop the f or fe and add ves. These nouns are calf, half, nife, leaf, life, loaf, self, sheaf, shelf, thief, wife, wolf: loaf, loaves wife, wives wolf, wolves scarfs or scarves etc. wharfs or wharves The nouns hoof, scarf, and warf ta e either s or ves in the plural: hoofs or hooves

. few nouns form their plurals b# a vowel change: Boot, feet women Joose, geese man, men tooth, teeth The plurals of child and ox are children and oxen 0ollective nouns, crew, famil#, team, government, staff firm committee louse, lice mouse, mice woman,

etc., can ta e a singular or plural verb4 singular if we consider the word to mean a single group or unit: )ur team is the best or plural if we ta e it to mean a number of individuals: )ur team are wearing their new shirts. '6

 0ertain verbs are alwa#s plural and ta e a plural verb: 0lothes police pants pliers scales p#jamas scissors shears trousers etc. spectacles etc Jarments consisting of two parts: $reeches binoculars glasses and tools and instruments consisting of two parts:

. number of words ending in ics, acoustics, athletics, ethics, h#sterics, mathematics, ph#sics, politics etc., which are plural in form, normall# ta e a plural verb: %is mathematics are wea . $ut names of sciences can sometimes be considered singular: Aathematics is an exact science. &ords plural in form but singular in meaning include news: The news is good. certain diseases: measles, ric ets, shingles and certain games: darts billiards dominoes draughts bowls

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1ome words which retain their Jree or Catin forms ma e their plurals according to the rules of Jree or Catin: crisis, crises :' raisis:, :' rais:E: erratum, errata memorandum, memoranda oasis, oases Pl ral of co*po nd no ns phenomenon, phenomena radius, radii terminus, termini

(ormall# the last word is made plural: $o#5friends Aen drivers brea 5ins travel5agents $ut when man and woman are prefixed, both parts are made plural: women drivers

The first word is made plural with compounds formed of verbs @ er nouns @ adverbs: %angers5on sisters5in5law loo ers5on wards of court runners5up and with compounds composed of noun @ preposition @ noun:

#o ns and the possessive case Fs is used with singular nouns and plural nouns not ending in s! a man's job men's wor a woman's intuition the butcher's shop a child's voice the people's choice the crew's 3uarters the horse's mouth the bull's horns women's clothes '<

the children's room

,ussia's exports

. simple apostrophe 7F8 is used with plural nouns ending in s: . girls' school The eagles' nest the students' hostel the smiths' car

(ames ending in s can ta e Fs or the apostrophe alone: Ar. /ones's 7or Ar. /ones' house8 Ieats's 7or Ieats' 8 poems

&ith compounds, the last word ta es the Fs: A# brother5in5law's guitar (ames consisting of several words are treated similarl#: %enr# the Eighth's wives the +rince of &ales's helicopter

;se of the possessive case and of E no n A. The possessive case is chiefl# used for people, countries or animals as shown above. It can also be used : )f ships and boats: the ship's bell, the #acht's mast )f planes, trains, cars and other vehicles, though here the of constr ction is safer: A gliderFs wings or the wings of a glider The trainFs heating s,ste* or the heating s,ste* of the train In time expressions: . wee 's holida# In two #ears' time dela# &ith for @ noun @ sa e: for heaven's sa e, for goodness' sa e. '= toda#'s paper tomorrow's weather two hours' ten minutes' brea

B.

of E no n is used for possession:

&hen the possessed noun is followed b# a phrase or a clause: The bo#s ran about, obe#ing the direction of a *an with a whistle. I too the advice of a co ple & *et on the train and I hired a car.

&ith inanimate 'possessors', except those listed in . above: The walls of the town e#s of the car %owever, it is often possible to replace noun N @ of @ noun I b# noun I @ noun N in that order: The town walls e#s The first noun becomes a sort of adjective and is not made plural: The roofs of the church L the church roofs . *nfortunatel#, noun @ of @ noun combinations cannot alwa#s be replaced in this wa# and the student is advised to use of when in doubt. the church roof the car the roof of the church the

7(ercises
7(ercise 1: 0hoose from the words bellow to complete each sentence. "ecide if the word should be countable or uncountable. If the word is countable, add a/an or ma e it plural as appropriate: "hicken s ccess '> dislike i*prove*ent lang age life

15 Aar# used to eepMMM.in her garden in her garden until the# started to get out. '5 . score of 6FO ma# not be ver# good but it is certainl#MMM..on her last mar . 25 .fter so man# previousMMMM., it was inevitable that one of his films would be unpopular. 65 MMMMis too short to, worr# about eeping #our house spotlessl# clean. ;5 I have had MMMM.of green vegetables ever since I was a child. <5 )ur students stud# both MMMM.and literature in their English degree. 7(ercise %: Aost of these sentences are wrong. 0orrect them when necessar#: 15 The government need to impose taxes. '5 1usan is wearing a blac jeans. 25 I need to bu# a new p#jama. 65 .n increase in taxes caused man# crisis. ;5 &here are #ou going to put #our furnitureD <5 Aathematics deal with calculating e3uations and matrix. =5 %as the police arrived #etD >5 It was a good suggestion. ?5 There is sand in m# shoes.

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7(ercise +: If necessar#, correct these sentences. If the# are alread# correct, put a P. 15 Ton# computers have been stolen. '5 &hen the teacher had called out the girlQs names, the# all stepped forward. 25 &e had to stud# 0harles "ic enQs earl# novels at school. 65 I went to the newsagentQs to bu# a paper. ;5 There were hundreds of birdQs nests in the trees. <5 The# are m# mother5in5lawQs favourite sweets. =5 I too the boo s to CewisQ house #esterda#. >5 If the# had been an#one elseQs paintings I wouldnQt have gone to the exhibition. ?5 The worlds airlineQs are moving towards a total ban on smo ing. 1F5 The readers letters page in the newspaper is full of complaints about the article. 115 I met a cousin of the du e of Edinburgh last wee . 7(ercise 2! 7 0ompound nouns8 &hat do #ou callMM.D 15 . 1helf for boo s. A book shelf '5 . train which carries goods. 25 . test to detect drugs. 65 . case for putting pencils in. ;5 . film lasting two hours. <5 The pages of a boo that list the contents. =5 .n expert in robotics. >5 . shop which sells to#s. 2F

?5 .n assa# which is four pages long. 1F5 .n issue of human rights. 7(ercise 3! &hen Cuis canQt remember the exact name of something in English he describes it instead. "o #ou now what he is describing in the following sectionsD The answers are compound nouns made from the following words: 7an example is given8 $argain mother staff friend ground pac age pedestrian tongue tour pen hunters language precinct sign

15R/ohn wor s for an airline. %e doesnQt fl#, but heQs one of the people who wor in the airport building.Q Ground staff. '5 R%e wor s in town in that area where there are shops, but no cars or buses are allowed to goQ. 25 R"uring the sales in the shops, there are a lot of people loo ing to bu# things at low pricesQ 65 RIt is someone I often exchange letters with, but I have never met.Q ;5 R&eQre going on a holida# arranged b# a travel compan#. It includes accommodation, flights, and so onQ. <5 R+ortuguese is the first language I learned when I was a bab#.Q =5 RA# friend canQt tal . %e uses hand and bod# movements to show what he meansQ.

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Lesson Three Prono ns

. prono n can replace a noun or another pronoun. Iou use pronouns li e !he,! !which,! !none,! and !#ou! to ma e #our sentences less cumbersome and less repetitive. Jrammarians classif# pronouns into several t#pes, including the personal pronoun, the demonstrative pronoun, the interrogative pronoun, the indefinite pronoun, the relative pronoun, the reflexive pronoun, and the intensive pronoun. -or* of personal/refle(ive prono ns and possessives!

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Sing lar

Personal prono ns S bject Object I Ae Iou #ou %e %im 1he %er It It one one &e Iou the# *s Iou them

Possessi 'efle(ive ves Prono ns Adjectives Prono ns A# Aine A#self Iour Iours Iourself %is %is %imself %er %ers %erself Its 5 Itself 7one's8 5 oneself )ur Iour their )urs Iours theirs )urselves Iourselves Themselves

Pl ral

1. Personal Prono ns
. personal prono n refers to a specific person or thing and changes its form to indicate person, number, gender, and case. a. S bjective Personal Prono ns . s bjective personal prono n indicates that the pronoun is acting as the subject of the sentence. The subjective personal pronouns are !I,! !#ou,! !she,! !he,! !it,! !we,! !#ou,! !the#.! In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is a subjective personal pronoun and acts as the subject of the sentence: & was glad to find the bus pass in the bottom of the green napsac . 8o are surel# the strangest child & have ever met. 22

De stole the sel ie's s in and forced her to live with him. &hen she was a #oung woman, she earned her living as a coal miner. .fter man# #ears, the, returned to their homeland. We will meet at the librar# at 2:2F p.m. &t is on the counter. .re ,o the delegates from AalagawatchD b. Objective Personal Prono ns .n objective personal prono n indicates that the pronoun is acting as an object of a verb, compound verb, preposition, or infinitive phrase. The objective personal pronouns are: !me,! !#ou,! !her,! !him,! !it,! !us,! !#ou,! and !them.! In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is an objective personal pronoun: 1eamus stole the sel ie's s in and forced her to live with hi*. The objective personal pronoun !her! is the direct object of the verb !forced! and the objective personal pronoun !him! is the object of the preposition !with.! .fter reading the pamphlet, /ud# threw it into the garbage can. The pronoun !it! is the direct object of the verb !threw!.

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The agitated assistant stood up and faced the angr# delegates and said, !)ur leader will address ,o in five minutes.! In this sentence, the pronoun !#ou! is the direct object of the verb !address.! "eborah and ,oberta will meet mar et. %ere the objective personal pronoun !us! is the direct object of the compound verb !will meet.! Jive the list to *e. %ere the objective personal pronoun !me! is the object of the preposition !to!. I'm not sure that m# contact will tal to ,o . 1imilarl# in this example, the objective personal pronoun !#ou! is the object of the preposition !to!. 0hristopher was surprised to see her at the drag races. %ere the objective personal pronoun !her! is the object of the infinitive phrase !to see.! s at the newest cafS in the

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%. Possessive Personal Prono ns

. possessive prono n indicates that the pronoun is acting as a mar er of possession and defines who owns a particular object or person. The possessive personal prono ns are !mine,! !#ours,! !hers,! !his,! !its,! !ours,! and !theirs.! (ote that possessive personal pronouns are ver# similar to possessive adjectives li e !m#,! !her,! and !their.! In each of the following sentences, the highlighted word is a possessive personal pronoun: The smallest gift is *ine. %ere the possessive pronoun !mine! functions as a subject complement. This is #ours. %ere too the possessive pronoun !#ours! functions as a subject complement. Dis is on the itchen counter. In this example, the possessive pronoun !his! acts as the subject of the sentence. Theirs will be delivered tomorrow. In this sentence, the possessive pronoun !theirs! is the subject of the sentence. 2<

O rs is the green one on the corner. %ere too the possessive pronoun !o rsH function as the subject of the sentence.

+. )e*onstrative Prono ns
. de*onstrative prono n points to and identifies a noun or a pronoun. !This! and !these! refer to things that are nearb# either in space or in time, while !that! and !those! refer to things that are farther awa# in space or time. The demonstrative pronouns are !this,! !that,! !these,! and !those.! !This! and !that! are used to refer to singular nouns or noun phrases and !these! and !those! are used to refer to plural nouns and noun phrases. (ote that the demonstrative pronouns are identical to demonstrative adjectives, though, obviousl#, #ou use them differentl#. It is also important to note that !that! can also be used as a relative pronoun. In the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is a demonstrative pronoun: This must not continue. %ere !this! is used as the subject of the compound verb !must not continue.! This is pun#4 that is the tree I want. 2=

In this example !this! is used as subject and refers to something close to the spea er. The demonstrative pronoun !that! is also a subject but refers to something farther awa# from the spea er. Three customers wanted these. %ere !these! is the direct object of the verb !wanted!.

2. &nterrogative Prono ns
.n interrogative prono n is used to as 3uestions. The interrogative pronouns are !who,! !whom,! !which,! !what! and the compounds formed with the suffix !ever! 7!whoever,! !whomever,! !whichever,! and !whatever!8. (ote that either !which! or !what! can also be used as an interrogative adjective, and that !who,! !whom,! or !which! can also be used as a relative pronoun. Iou will find !who,! !whom,! and occasionall# !which! used to refer to people, and !which! and !what! used to refer to things and to animals. !&ho! acts as the subject of a verb, while !whom! acts as the object of a verb, preposition, or a verbal. The highlighted word in each of the following sentences is an interrogative pronoun: Which wants to see the dentist firstD

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!&hich! is the subject of the sentence. Who wrote the novel ,oc boundD 1imilarl# !who! is the subject of the sentence. Who* do #ou thin we should inviteD In this sentence, !whom! is the object of the verb !invite.! To who* do #ou wish to spea D %ere the interrogative pronoun !whom ! is the object of the preposition !to.! Who will meet the delegates at the train stationD In this sentence, the interrogative pronoun !who! is the subject of the compound verb !will meet!. To who* did #ou give the paperD In this example the interrogative pronoun !whom! is the object of the preposition !to.! What did she sa#D %ere the interrogative pronoun !what! is the direct object of the verb !sa#.! 2?

3. 'elative Prono ns
Iou can use a relative prono n is used to lin one phrase or clause to another phrase or clause. The relative pronouns are !who,! !whom,! !that,! and !which.! The compounds !whoever,! !whomever,! and !whichever! are also relative pronouns. Iou can use the relative pronouns !who! and !whoever! to refer to the subject of a clause or sentence, and !whom! and !whomever! to refer to the objects of a verb, a verbal or a preposition. In each of the following sentences, the highlighted word is a relative pronoun. Iou ma# invite who*ever #ou li e to the part#. The relative pronoun !whomever! is the direct object of the compound verb !ma# invite!. The candidate who wins the greatest popular vote is not alwa#s elected. In this sentence, the relative pronoun is the subject of the verb !wins! and introduces the subordinate clause !who wins the greatest popular vote!. This subordinate clause acts as an adjective modif#ing !candidate.!

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In a time of crisis, the manager as s the wor ers who* she believes to be the most efficient to arrive an hour earlier than usual. In this sentence !whom! is the direct object of the verb !believes! and introduces the subordinate clause !whom she believes to be the most efficient!. This subordinate clause modifies the noun !wor ers.! Whoever bro e the window will have to replace it. %ere !whoever! functions as the subject of the verb !bro e!. The crate which was left in the corridor has now been moved into the storage closet. In this example !which! acts as the subject of the compound verb !was left! and introduces the subordinate clause !which was left in the corridor.! The subordinate clause acts as an adjective modif#ing the noun !crate.! I will read whichever manuscript arrives first. %ere !whichever! modifies the noun !manuscript! and introduces the subordinate clause !whichever manuscript arrives first.! The subordinate clause functions as the direct object of the compound verb !will read.!

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4. &ndefinite Prono ns
.n indefinite prono n is a pronoun referring to an identifiable but not specified person or thing. .n indefinite pronoun conve#s the idea of all, an#, none, or some. The most common indefinite pronouns are !all,! !another,! !an#,! !an#bod#,! !an#one,! !an#thing,! !each,! !ever#bod#,! !ever#one,! !ever#thing,! !few,! !man#,! !nobod#,! !none,! !one,! !several,! !some,! !somebod#,! and !someone.! (ote that some indefinite pronouns can also be used as indefinite adjectives. The highlighted words in the following sentences are indefinite pronouns: $an, were invited to the lunch but onl# twelve showed up. %ere !man#! acts as the subject of the compound verb !were invited!. The office had been searched and ever,thing was thrown onto the floor. In this example ,!ever#thing! acts as a subject of the compound verb !was thrown.! &e donated ever,thing we found in the attic to the woman's shelter garage sale.

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In this sentence, !ever#thing! is the direct object of the verb !donated.! .lthough the# loo ed ever#where for extra copies of the magaEine, the# found none. %ere too the indefinite pronoun functions as a direct object: !none! is the direct object of !found.! Aa e sure #ou give ever,one a cop# of the amended b#laws. In this example, !ever#one! is the indirect object of the verb !give! 55 the direct object is the noun phrase !a cop# of the amended b#laws.! Jive a registration pac age to each. %ere !each! is the object of the preposition !to.!

5. 'efle(ive Prono ns
Iou can use a refle(ive prono n to refer bac to the subject of the clause or sentence. The reflexive pronouns are !m#self,! !#ourself,! !herself,! !himself,! !itself,! !ourselves,! !#ourselves,! and !themselves.! (ote each of these can also act as an intensive pronoun. Each of the highlighted words in the following sentences is a reflexive pronoun:

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"iabetics give the*selves insulin shots several times a da#. The "ean often does the photocop#ing herself so that the secretaries can do more important wor . .fter the part#, I as ed *,self wh# I had faxed invitations to ever#one in m# office building. ,ichard usuall# remembered to send a cop# of his e5mail to hi*self. .lthough the landlord promised to paint the apartment, we ended up doing it o rselves.

6. &ntensive Prono ns
.n intensive prono n is a pronoun used to emphasise its antecedent. Intensive pronouns are identical in form to reflexive pronouns. The highlighted words in the following sentences are intensive pronouns: I *,self believe that aliens should abduct m# sister. The +rime Ainister hi*self said that he would lower taxes. The# the*selves promised to come to the part# even though the# had a final exam at the same time. 7(ercise1! Insert interrogative pronouns in the appropriate spaces: 15M.MM.is that man over thereD '5 MMM..umbrella is thisD Iours or /ohn'sD 25 MMM...did #ou meet at the part#D 65 MMMMdid #ou have to drin D 66

;5 MMMMof #our brothers wor s in this factor#D <5 MMMMdo #ou prefer, swimming or s iingD 7(ercise%! 0omplete the sentences using reflexive pronouns: 15 The# could not go into their house4 the# had loc edMMM. out. '5 It is not her fault. 1he reall# should not blame MMMM. 25 &hat a stupid fool I amT I could ill MMM. 65 %e lives b# MMM. ;5 Iou MMM.heard the explosion ver# clearl#. <5 0ould #ou fetch m# bags, pleaseD Betch themMMMM 7(ercise +! 0ombine the following sentences using the appropriate relative pronoun: 15 The astronauts are expected to land on the moon ver# soon. The# are reported to be ver# a 1FF #ears. 25 1all# 1miles has resigned. %er cosmetics compan# has been in the news recentl#. 65 That person is the manager. I complained to him. ;5 These are the cats. I gave mil to these cats. <5 The agenc# is ban rupt. &e bought our tic ets from it. =5 The Tower of Condon is now a tourist attraction. Aan# people lost their lives in the Tower of Condon. cheerful. '5 The Thames is now clean enough to swim in. It was polluted for over

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7(ercise 2! 0omplete the following sentences using reciprocal pronouns: 15 %ow long have $ett# and Aar# nown MMM.D '5 The# often give MMM.presents. 25 Those two are alwa#s cop#ing MMM.Qs homewor . 65 )ur children alwa#s pla# b# stealing MMMMto#s. ;5 9aren an "ave are deepl# in love withMMMMM 7(ersice3! .nswer the following 3uestions using reflexive pronouns: 15&ho told /ane was getting marriedD '5 &ho cut #our hair for #ouD 25 "oes Ar. /ones have a secretar# to t#pe his lettersD 65 "o #ou want me to post that letter for #ouD ;5 0an #ou clean the windows for himD 7(ercise 4! 0omplete the sentences with an indefinite pronoun: 15 "oes MMM.mind if I smo eD '5 &ould #ou li e MMMMto drin D 25 "o live MMMMnear /ohnD 65 There isMMMM.at the door. 0an #ou go and see who it isD ;5 &e slept in the par because we did not have MMMM.to sta#. &e didn't now MM..we could sta# with and we didn't haveMMMM mone# for a hotel. <5 Aar# is ver# secretive. 1he never tellsMMMM, MMMMM =5 I don't mind what #ou tell him. Tell him MMMM..#ou li e. >5 It does not matter what time #ou phone, #ou can phone atMMMMM 6<

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