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like forms that compose its roof resulted in an engineering nightmare. It took approximately 380,000 man-hours and 2,000 computer hours to complete the design. During the last two decades of the 20th century, creative development in the design of thin shells significantly waned. The few concrete shells that were constructed consist primarily of simple cylinders and hemispheres on industrial buildings, such as bulkstorage facilities. Milo Ketchum, a major designer of thin shells, suggested several factors for the decline in an unpublished essay titled What Happened to Shells? His reasons included the fact that the cost of concrete shells is usually more difficult to calculate than the cost of precast, prestressed concrete slabs or steel roof systems, two building forms that received extensive publicity in these years. Thin shells, in contrast, no longer had a charismatic promoter, such as Tedesko or Candela, touting the benefits of their use. As a result most engineers and architects were not fully aware of the aesthetic and structural possibilities of concrete shells. Ketchum predicted, however, that sometime in the future the relative cost of structural steel would rise to a point where once again designers would be drawn to the aesthetic, structural, and economic benefits of concrete shells. LISA D.SCHRENK
See als o

Precast Concrete
Further Reading

New York: McGraw-Hill, 1965; 2nd edition, New York and London: McGraw-Hill, 1982 Condit, Carl W., 2 vols., New York: Oxford University Press, 1960 Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968; 2nd edition, Condit, Carl W., 1982 Cowan, Henry J., New York: Wiley, 1978; London: Wiley, 1979 Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London: MIT Press, 1992 Elliott, Cecil D., Stuttgart, Germany: Krmer, 1962; as New York: Reinhold, and Joedicke, Jrgen, London: Tiranti, 1963 Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, and London: Allen Mainstone, Rowland J., Lane, 1975; 2nd edition, Oxford and Boston: Architectural Press, 1998 New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1991 Melaragno, Michele G., Milo Ketchum archive <www.ketchum.org/milo/> (includes a great deal of information on concrete shells)
Thin Shell Concrete S tructures , American Building Art, American Building: M aterials and Techniques from the Firs t Colon ial Settlements to the Pres ent, Science and Building: Structural and Envir onmental Des ign in the Ni neteenth and Twentiet h Centuries , Technics and Architecture: The Development of M aterials and S ys tems for Buildin gs , Schalenbau: Kons truktion und Ges taltung, Shell Architecture, Developments in Structural Fo rm, An Introduction to Shell S tructu res : The Art and Science of Vaultin g,

Billington, David P.,

CONGRS INTERNATIONAUX DARCHITECTURE MODERNE (CIAM 1928)

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The Congrs Internationaux dArchitecture Moderne, founded in Switzerland in 1928, was related to earlier European avantgarde efforts, such as the German Werkbunds 1927 Some of its initial Weissenhofsiedlung in Stuttgart, and to journals such as the Swiss impetus also came from Le Corbusiers attempts to overturn the 1927 rejection of his entry in the League of Nations competition in favor of a Beaux-Arts design. The first CIAM meeting, sponsored by the French-Swiss noblewoman Hlne de Mandrot, resulted in the issuing of the La Sarraz Declaration, signed by 24 European architects, which demanded that architecture should be taken away from the classically oriented Beaux-Arts schools of architecture and linked to the general economic system. It invoked Taylorist ideas about the need to design for minimum working effort through the rationalization and standardization of building components and emphasized that architects should seek to influence public opinion in favor of the new architectural approaches. By its second congress, held in Frankfurt in 1929, CIAM began to be the most important international organization of the Modern movement in architecture, with delegates on its governing council, the CIRPAC (Comit International pour la Realisation des Problmes dArchitecture Contemporaine) from Belgium (Victor Bourgeois), Denmark (Ed Heiberg), Germany (Ernst May), England (C.J.Robertson, later replaced by Wells Coates), Finland (Alvar Aalto), France (Le Corbusier), Hungary (Farkas Molnr), Italy (Alberto Sartoris), the Netherlands (Mart Stam), Norway (Lars Backer), Poland (Szymon Syrkus), Sweden (Sven Markelius), Switzerland (Hans Schmidt), Spain (Fernando Garcia Mercadal, later replaced by Josep Lluis Sert), the United States (Richard Neutra), and the Soviet Union (Moisei Ginzburg), along with its Swiss president, Karl Moser, and secretarygeneral, Sigfried Giedion, a Zurich art historian and critic. Its membership shifted many times over the rest of its history, although Le Corbusier and especially Giedion remained central throughout, until the decision in 1959 by a group of former CIAM youth members led by Alison and Peter Smithson and Aldo van Eyck to cease using the name. The published results of the second and third congresses included plans from the associated exhibitions that traveled across Europe, the first on housing for the lowestincome wage earners and the second on the rational site organization of housing districts. The approach taken reflected the ideas of the architectural avant-garde at the time: the importance of efficiently designed, sanitary, and well-lit minimum apartment housing and the related need to site the buildings for repetitive low-cost construction and maximum solar exposure for every unit. By 1931 a self-selected core group within the congress, which included Le Corbusier, Giedion, and the new president, the Dutch town planner Cornelis van Eesteren, determined that the next congress, to be held in Moscow in 1932, should be devoted to the theme of the Functional City. In contrast to what he called the cardboard architecture of classical urbanism, van Eesteren and other CIAM members advocated an approach to city planning based on the most rational siting of functional elements, such as workplaces and transportation centers. This idea was linked to the belief that city planning should be based on the creation of separate zones for each of the CIAM four functions of dwelling, work, recreation, and transportation, an idea already stated in part in the La Sarraz Declaration. Changes in Soviet architectural policies led to repeated postponements of the fourth congress, and it was eventually held on a cruise ship traveling from Marseilles to Athens and back in July-August 1933. CIAM members from Austria, Belgium, Britain, Canada, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Finland, France,
ABC: Beitrge zum Bauen.

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Hungary, Germany, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Spain, Switzerland, and Yugoslavia analyzed the same-scale plans of 33 modern cities prepared by CIAM groups from most of these countries, along with additional plans from Dalat, Vietnam; Bandung, Netherlands Indies (now Indonesia); and Baltimore, Detroit, and Los Angeles. The disputed results of this congress were eventually published in Greece in late 1933 . and formed the basis of what Le Corbusier would later style After 1933 CIAM was greatly affected both by the Soviet shift toward what came to be known as socialist realism, which often resulted in an overscaled neoclassicism, and by the Nazi proscription of the Modern movement in Germany. CIAM activities were ended in the Soviet Union, and German CIAM members such as Walter Gropius and Mies van der Rohe eventually relocated to Harvard University (1937) and the Illinois Institute of Technology (1938) in the United States, respectively. After several years of delegate meetings, the fifth CIAM congress was held in Paris in 1937 on the theme of Housing and Recreation. Associated with this congress was Le Corbusiers Pavilion des Temps Nouveaux at the 1937 Paris Exposition, which included large murals illustrating the CIAM four functions and a display of the CIAM 4 doctrine of urbanism, Following this, Giedion, who gave the Charles Eliot Norton lectures which he termed at Harvard in 193839, advocated that the next CIAM congress be held in the United States, but no CIAM congresses occurred again until 1947. In the interim Giedion and Sert set up a New York CIAM chapter in 1944, and Le Corbusier went from attempting to influence the occupation Vichy government to successfully allying himself with the finally published in Paris in 1943, became immensely Allied victors. CIAM and influential in the postwar years, particularly in Latin America and eventually in the decolonizing nations of the former European empires. This was due both to Le Corbusiers own efforts, such as his working with Brazilian architects in Rio de Janeiro in 1936 and with Argentine architects on several occasions, and to the efforts of Sert, who developed urban master plans with Paul Lester Wiener in Brazil, Peru, Colombia, Venezuela, and Cuba. Sert became president of CIAM in 1947, but the first two postwar congresses, CIAM 6, held in Bridgwater, England (1947), and CIAM 7, held in Bergamo, Italy (1949), were unable to develop any clear new approaches. CIAM 8, The Heart of the City, held near London in 1951, was more successful in this regard and was one of the earliest efforts to discuss the issue of urban public space in the transformed postwar circumstances of modern architecture. Its combining of the Italian and Polish CIAM groups concerns about historic centers with Le Corbusier, Sert, and Wieners fascination with the design of new monumental cores suggested a different basis for modern architecture beyond the design of social housing, one that looked both backward to the classical tradition and forward to a later generations interest in reconstituting urbanity in late 20th-century cities. In 1952 the CIAM Council decided to begin efforts to hand over CIAM to the youth members, and the first step in this direction was to increase their participation at CIAM 9, which was held in Aix-en-Provence, France, in 1953. In the confused developments that followed, a youth group charged with organizing the tenth congress and eventually known as Team X (Ten) emerged, with Alison and Peter Smithson of England, Aldo van Eyck and Jacob Bakema of the Netherlands, and Georges Candilis as important voices. CIAM 10, held in Dubrovnik, Yugoslavia (now Croatia), in 1956 was the last regular CIAM congress, and there the decision was made to dissolve all existing CIAM groups.
La Charte dAthnes ( The Athens Charter) La Charte dAthnes . La Charte dAthnes ,

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A selected group of 30 members, including members of Team X, were to plan the next congress. This was eventually held at Otterlo, the Netherlands, in 1959 and was published as . At this congress it was decided to discontinue the use of the name CIAM. CIAMs influence on architecture and architectural education has been extensive, ranging from the plans of the new capitals of Chandigarh, India (Le Corbusier, Jeanneret, Fry, and Drew, 1950), and Brasilia, Brazil (Costa and Niemeyer, 1955), to efforts such as the Harvard Urban Design program, established by Sert in 1960. Although the name CIAM was no longer used, in many ways Team X, which lasted until 1981, was a continuation of some aspects of CIAM, including the latters emphasis on the importance of a small avant-garde of like-minded architects meeting to develop urbanistic doctrines and the use of architectural magazines and visiting design teaching positions to disseminate ideas. Much of the criticism of CIAM since its demise has concerned its specific formal strategies of urban reorganization, which were deliberately intended to break with all previous pat-terns of urban development to help bring into being a more rational and collectivist society. By the 1950s CIAM members were themselves questioning specific aspects of these functional city strategies, although they did not challenge the basic premises of CIAM activities. Since 1960 CIAM has been extensively criticized and is usually understood as an extension of the work of Le Corbusier; in part this is true, but it oversimplifies the organizations complex history. ERIC MUMFORD
CIAM 59 in Otterlo See als o

Athens Charter; Braslia, Brazil; Chandigarh, India; Corbusier, Le (Jeanneret, Charles-douard) (France); Sert, Josep Llus (United States); Smithson, Peter and Alison (England); van Eyck, Aldo (Netherlands); Weissenhofsiedlung, Deutscher Werkbund (Stuttgart, 1927)
Further Reading CIAM, Constatations du IVe Congrs, 4446 (November 1933); as by Auke van der Woud, Statements of the Athens Congress, 1933, in Delft, Netherlands: Delft University Press, 1983 edited by Ulrich Conrads, Berlin: Ullstein, and CIAM, La Sarraz Declaration, in translated by Michael Bullock, Gtersloh, Germany: Bertelsmann, 1964; as Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1970 CIAM-France, Paris: Plon, 1943; as by Le Corbusier, translated by Anthony Eardley, New York: Grossman, 1973 Giedion, Sigfried, New York: Wittenborn, 1951 Frankfurt: International Congress for Modern Architecture 1930, Brussels, Belgium, Englert und Schlosser, 1931 International Conference for Modern Architecture 1937, Paris, France, Boulogne-surSeine: Editions de lArchitecture dAujourdhui, 1937 edited by J.Tyrwhitt, Jos Luis Sert, International Congress for Modern Architecture, and E.N. Rogers, New York: Pellegrini and Cudahy, and London: Lund Humphries, 1952 Frankfurt: Englert International Congress for New Building, Zurich, Switzerland, und Schlosser, 1930 Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 2000 Mumford, Eric,
TECHNIKA CHRONIKA Les Annales Techniques , Het nieuwe bouwen Internationaal/Inter national: CIAM , Volks huis ves ting, S tedebouw; Het nieuwe bouwen Internationaal: C IAM , Hous ing, Town Planni ng, Programme und M anifes te zur Architektu r des 20. J ahrhunderts , Programs and M anifes toes on 20th-century Archi tecture, La Charte dAthnes , The Athens Charter, A Decade of New Architecture, Rationelle Bebauungs weis en, Logis et lois irs , CIAM 8: The Heart of the City, Die Wohnung fr das Exis tenzminimum, The CIAM Dis cours e on Urbanis m, 19281960,

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Newman, Oscar, Sert, Jos Luis,

Can Our Cities Survive? An ABC of Urban Prob lems , Their A nalys es , Their Sol utions , Bas ed on the Propos als For mulated by the CIAM ,

New York: Universe Books, London: Tiranti, and Stuttgart, Germany: Kramer, 1961 Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, and London: Milford and Oxford University Press, 1942
CIAM 59 in Otterlo,

CONNELL, WARD AND LUCAS

Architecture firm, England The London-based architectural firm Connell, Ward, and Lucas was founded in 1933 by two architects from New ZealandAmyas Connell (190180) and Basil Ward (1902 76)and one from EnglandColin Lucas (190684). Connell and Ward arrived in England in the 1920s and studied at the Bartlett School of Architecture, University of London; in 1926 both won prizes to study architecture in Rome. Lucas studied at the University of Cambridge and in 1928 formed a building company whose main goal was to experiment with concrete construction. Although the partnership lasted only six years and was disbanded in 1939, it was nonetheless one of the leading modernist firms active in Britain during the 1930s, and the architects were important, vocal proponents of modern architecture. Before forming the partnership, the three were already known in architectural circles for innovative projects. Connell designed High and Over (192831), a home for the art historian and archaeologist Bernard Ashmole, who later became the director of the British Museum in London. Located on a 12-acre site in Buckinghamshire, High and Over is often considered the first significant modern house built in England. Local residents protested that its white-walled exterior, ribbon windows, and Y plan were incongruous in the rural setting. In 1930 Lucas designed the first reinforced-concrete house in England, Bourne End in Buckinghamshire. Bourne Ends extensive glazing, unornamented surfaces, and flat roof show a strong identification with the modernist language of the International Style. With Connell in 1932, Ward designed New Farm in Surrey, a home with an open, spacious plan whose structural system was modeled on Le Corbusiers Dom-ino Houses. In 1933 Connell, Ward, and Lucas not only officially established their partnership but each became a founding member of the MARS (Modern Architectural Research) Group, the British branch of CIAM (Congrs Internationaux dArchitecture Moderne). The firms involvement with MARS is indicative of the architects support for the Modern movement in general, as well as their interest in architectural developments on an international scale, innovations in technology and construction, and solutions for mass housing. Despite opposition from the British building industry, the architects consistently developed new building techniques to make the walls of their reinforcedconcrete structures progressively thinner, and they rightly looked at their own work as experimental. The firms commitment to the new architecture, as International Style and modernist works were often described, was immortalized in a 1934 BBC radio debate titled For and Against Modern Architecture, when Connell agreed to be challenged on the air by