2.2.2 Porosity Thos portions of a rock or soil not occupied by solid mineral matter can be occupied by grounswater.

These spaces are known as voids, interstices, pores, or pore space. Because interstices serve as water conduits, they are of fundamental importance to the study of groundwater. Typically, they are characterized by tjeir size, shape, irregularity, and distribution. Original interstices were created by geologic processes governing th origin of the geologic formation and are found in sedimentary and igneous rocks. Secondary interstices developed after the rock was formed e!amples include joints, fractures, solution openings, and openings formed by plants and animals. "ith respect to size, interstices may be classed as capillary, supercapillary, and subcapillary. #apillary interstices are sufficiently small that surface tension forces will hold water within them supercapillary interstices are those larger than capillary ones and subcapillary interstices are so small that water is held primarly by adhesive forces. $epending on the connection of interstices with other, they may be classed as communicating or isolated.

The porosity of a rock or soil is measure of the contained interstices or voids e!pressed as the atio of the volume of interstices to the total volume. %f & is the porosity, then

"here

is the volume of interstices 'voids(,

is the volume of solids, and ) is the total volume 'bulk

volume(. *orosity may also be e!pssed by

"here

is the density of mineral particles 'grain density( and

is the bulk density.

The term effective porosity refers to the amount of interconnected pore space available for fluid flow and is e!pressed as a atio of interconnected interstices to total volume. +or unconsolidated porus media and for many consolidated rocks, the two porosities are identical. *orosity may also be e!pressed as a percentage by multiplying the right,hand side of e-uatins ..../ or ..... by /00. The term primary and secondary porosity are associated with original and secondary interstices, respectively.

Figure 2.2.1. 1!amples of rock interstices and the relations of rock te!ture to porosity 'a( well,sorted sedimentary deposit having high porosity. 'b( poorly sorted sedimentary deposit having low porosity. 'c( well,sorted sedimentary deposit consisting of pebbles that are themselves porous, so that the deposit as a whole has very high porosity. 'd( well,sorted sedimentary deposit whose porosity has been diminished by the deposition of mineral matter in the interstices. 'e( rock rendered porous by solution. 'f( rock rendered porous by fracturing.

+igure ..../ shows several types of interstices and their relatin of porosity. %n term of groundwater supply, granular sedimentary deposits are of major importance. *orosities in these deposits depend on the shape and arrangement of individual particles, distribution by size, and degree of cementation an compacton. %n consolidated formations, removal of mineral matter by solution and degree of fracture are also important. *orosities range from near zero to more than 203, depending on the above factors and the type of material.represntative porosity values for various geologic materials are listed n table ..../. it should be recognized thet porosities for a particular soil or rock can vary considerably from these values. %n sedimentary rocks subject to compaction, measurements show that porosity decreases with depth of burial. Thus, a typical relation has the form

Table ..../ 4epresentative values of porosity 'after morris and 5ohnson(

"here

is the porosity at depth z,

is the porosity at the surface, a is a constant, and e is the base of

6aperian logarithms.

2.61 Alluvial deposits *robably 703 of all developed a-uifers consist of unconsolidated rocks, chiefly gravel and sand. These a-uifers may be divided into four categories, bases on manner of occurrence water courses, abandoned or buried valleys, plains, and intermontane valleys. "ater courses consist of the alluvial that form and underlies stream channels, as well as forming the adjacent floodplains. "ells located in highly permeable strata bordering streams produce large -uantities of water, as infiltration from the streams augments groundwater supplies. 8bandoned or buried valleys are valleys no longer occupied by the streams that formed them. 8lthought such valleys may resemble water courses in permeability and -uantity of groundwater storage, their

Table 2.6.1 9eologic origin of a-uifers based on type of porosity and rock type

4echarge and perennial yield are usually less. 1!tensive plains underlain by unconsolidated sediment e!ist in the united states. %n some plaes gravel and sandbeds form important a-uifers under these plains in other places they are relatively thin then and have limited productivity. These plains flank highland or other places features thet served as the soure of the sedimentarydeposits. The a-uifers are recharge chiefly in areas accessible to down ward percolation of water from precipitation and from occasional streams. %ntermontane valleys are underlain by tremendous volumes of unconsolidated rock materials derived by erosion of bordering mountains. :any of these more or less individual basins, separated by mountain ranges, occur in the western united states. The sand and gravel beds of these a-uifers produce large -uantities of water, most of which is replenished by seepage from streams from into alluvial fans at mouth of mountain canyons.

2.6.2 Limestone ;imestone varies in density, porosity, and permeability depending on degree of consolidation and development of permeable zones after deposition. Those most as a-uifers contain sizable propotions of the original rock that have been dissolved and removed. Openings in limestone may range from microscopic original pores to large solution caverns forming subterranean channels sufficienly large to carry the entire flow of a stream. The term lost river has been applied to a steram that disappears completely underground in a limestone terrain. ;arge springs are fre-uently found in limestone areas.

Figure 2.6.1 $iagram showing factors influencing cavity distribution in carbonate rock 'after lattman and parizek( #aves 'see figure ..<./(. such regions normally contain large -uantities of groundwater. :ajor limestones a-uifers occur in the southeastern united stated and in the :editerranean area. 8 national karst map is being developed by =.S 9eology Survey. 2.6.3 Volcanic Roc )olcanic rock can form highly permeable a-ifers basalt flows in particular often displays such characteristics. The types of openings contributing to the permeability of basalt a-uifers include, in order of importance interstitial spaces in clinkery lava at the tops of flows. #avities between adjacent lava beds, shrinkage cracks, lava tubes, gas vesicles, fissures resulting from faulting and cracking after rocks have cooled, and holes left by the burning of trees overwhelmed by lava. :any of the largest springs in the united states are associated wit basalt deposits. 4hyolites ar less permeable than basalt, whereas ahallow intrusive rocks can be pracitally impermeable. 2.6.! "andstone Sandstone and conglomerate are cemented forms of sand and gravel. 8s such, their porosity and yield have been reduced by the cement. The best sandstone a-uifers yield water through theirs joints. #onglomerates have limited distributions and are unimportant as a-uifers. 2.6.# $gneous and %etamorp&ic Roc s %n solid forms, igneous and metamorphic rocks are relatively impermeable and hence, serve as poor a-uifers. "here such rocks occur near the surface under weathered conditions, however, they have been developed by small wells for domestic water supply. 2.6.6 'lay #lay and coarser materials mi!ed with clay are generally porous, but their pores are so small they may be regarded as relatively impermeable. #layey soils can provide small domestic water supplies from shallow, large,diameter wells.