FUNDAMENTALS OF INDUSTRIAL ELECTRICITY

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION Module Goals ____________________________________________________ 1 SECTION 1 - ELECTRICAL FORCES & THE FLOW OF ELECTRICITY Introduction ____________________________________________________ Ions, Atoms & Free Electrons ______________________________________ Current ________________________________________________________ Voltage ________________________________________________________ Circuits ________________________________________________________ Review 1________________________________________________________ SECTION 2 - ELECTRICAL LOADS, POWER, & WORK Introduction ____________________________________________________ Resistance ______________________________________________________ Ohm's Law ______________________________________________________ Electrical Energy Performs Electrical Work ____________________________ Electromagnetism ________________________________________________ Review 2________________________________________________________ SECTION 3 - INDUSTRIAL USES OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY Introduction ____________________________________________________ Direct Current____________________________________________________ Alternating Current________________________________________________ Voltage & Current ________________________________________________ Three-Phase Alternating Current ____________________________________ Review 3________________________________________________________ 29 30 30 32 34 36 13 14 15 22 24 26 3 4 6 7 9 10

SUMMARY________________________________________________________ 38 GLOSSARY ______________________________________________________ 41 ANSWERS ________________________________________________________ 44

PLEASE NOTE
Operations personnel use technology to accomplish specific goals. A key objective of the Pipeline Operations Training Program is to promote an understanding of the technology that pipeline operations personnel use on the job every day. This training program enhances job-related skills by providing relevant and current information with immediate application for pipeline employees. Information contained in the modules is theoretical. A foundation of basic information facilitates an understanding of technology and its applications in the context of a pipeline system. Every effort has been made to reflect pure scientific principles in the training program. Nevertheless, in some cases, pure theory conflicts with the practical realities of daily operations. Usefulness to the pipeline employee is our most important priority during the development of the materials on the Pipeline Operations Training Program.

FUNDAMENTALS OF INDUSTRIAL ELECTRICITY

Pipeline Equipment
1998 ENBRIDGE TECHNOLOGY INC. Reproduction Prohibited

ENBRIDGE TECHNOLOGY INC. Suite 502, PO Box 398 10303 Jasper Avenue Edmonton, Alberta Canada T5J 2J9 Telephone Fax +1 - 780-412-6469 +1 - 780-412-6460

Reference: 2.16 Industrial Electricity December, 1998

STUDY SKILLS
The following study skill tips are suggested to make the learning of your modules more effective. 1. Try to keep each study period short but concentrated (from ten minutes to forty-five minutes.) If you have set up your study time so that you study five days a week for a total of two hours each day, break your study time into sets with two to five minutes between each session. Remember that generally one week of self-study replaces 10 hours of in-class attendance. For example, if you have a three week self-study block, then you have to account for 30 hours of study time if you want to keep pace with most learning programs. 2. When you are studying, look for connections between chapters and tasks. The more connections you can make, the better you will be able to recall information. 3. There are self-tests at the end of each module section. Habitually completing these tests will increase your ability to recall information. 4. When reading a section or module, briefly look it over before you begin detailed reading. Read the introduction, conclusion, and the questions at the end of each section. Next, as a separate task, study all the headings, charts, visuals, and captions. After this excellent preview technique you will be familiar with the skeleton of your reading assignment. The preview reading is then followed by detailed reading. Your detailed reading reinforces what youve already studied and also fleshes out the subject. While you are doing your detailed reading, stop after each sub-section and ask yourself, What have I just read? 5. Another useful study technique is to write out your own questions based on your study notes and/or the modules titles and subtitles.

6. When you are in a classroom taking notes, please consider this technique. If you use a standard spiral notebook, write only on the right-hand page. Reserve the left-hand page for your personal observations, ideas, or areas you want to clarify. Importantly, record questions your instructor asks; chances are youll see them on a final test. 7. Review. Review. Review. Taking opportunities to review material will dramatically increase your recall. 8. Using index cards helps you to quickly pinpoint areas you need to review or concentrate on before an exam. Start by consciously keeping index cards after each reading session. When you come across a new word, write it on one side of the index card. On the reverse side, write the definition. It works for every module. For example, chemistry symbol/what it stands for; terminal station/ definition; and acronym/what it means. Once youve compiled your index cards and you are preparing for a test, shuffle your index cards with the term word face up. Go through each card to see if you know what is on the reverse side. Why spend unnecessary time on meanings or concepts you know? The cards you dont know, identify areas that you need to review. 9. Additionally, these modules have incorporated specific learning tools to assist comprehension and subject review. Terms are boldfaced and added to the glossary. To cross-reference term meanings, page numbers are attached to glossary definitions to identify where the term and explanation first appear in the text. Glossary definitions that do not have attached page numbers are still important to understanding, but are fully explained in another module.

FUNDAMENTALS

OF INDUSTRIAL

ELECTRICITY

The largest single expense in operating a pipeline is the cost of the power required to pump the oil. In most cases, the power used is electricity. An understanding of what electricity is and how it works is valuable to a pipeline operator because effective operating decisions can result in savings of millions of dollars per year. This module describes the fundamentals of electricity.

INTRODUCTION

This module presents information on the following goals: It describes electricity on an atomic level. It explains current, voltage, and electrical circuits. It explains resistance, electromagnetism, and power. It describes industrial uses of electrical power.

MODULE GOALS

NONE

PREREQUISITES

FUNDAMENTALS

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ELECTRICITY

SECTION 1

ELECTRICAL FORCES & THE FLOW OF ELECTRICITY

In the pipeline industry, electricity is the most widely used energy source, driving everything from large industrial pump motors to heating and lighting equipment. To understand the fundamentals of electrical energy, it is important to be aware of its source and basic properties. This section discusses basic atomic theory and provides an introduction to electrons and the forces that move them. In addition, this section defines voltage and introduces electrical circuits, distinguishing between series and parallel configurations.

INTRODUCTION

After completing this section, you will be able to complete the following objectives. Identify the definition of an electron. Recognize orbital shells, the valence shell, and valence electrons. Relate the characteristics of ions and free electrons. Identify the flow of electricity. Identify the term voltage (potential difference). Distinguish between series and parallel electrical circuits.

OBJECTIVES

PIPELINE OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM

IONS, ATOMS, & FREE ELECTRONS

All atoms, the building blocks of the material world, are made up of a nucleus (core) containing protons and neutrons. The force holding the protons and neutrons together in an atom is known as the atomic bond. Atoms also contain electrons (see Figure 1) that circle the nucleus in orbital patterns at various distances, much the same as planets in the solar system circling the sun at various distances. The force keeping planets from flying away from the sun is their gravitational attraction to the sun. The force keeping electrons from flying away from the nucleus is their electrical attraction to the protons in the nucleus. Every proton has a positive electrical charge. Every electron has a negative electrical charge. In electrical bonding, opposite charges attract one another. One proton attracts one electron. Therefore, an atom that has 25 protons tends to hold 25 electrons in orbit.

Nucleus

Electron

Figure 1 Atomic Structure

An atom consists of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons, while electrons orbit the nucleus.

3D - Electrons orbit the nucleus much the way planets orbit the sun

An atom with equal numbers of protons Nucleus and electrons has an overall electrical charge that is neutral, (i.e. neither positive Electron nor negative). Although atoms typically have the same number of electrons as 2D - Carbon atom with 2 electrons in first shell, protons, this rule has its exceptions. 8 in second, and two more in the outer shell Electrons tend to orbit the nucleus of an atom in layers or "shells." Electrons in the shell closest to the nucleus are held very tightly to the atom by their electrical bond with the protons. Each shell can only hold a few electrons, and the further an electron is from the nucleus, the less tightly it is held. The shell furthest from the nucleus of the atom is called the valence shell. An electron in the valence shell is known as a valence electron and its

FUNDAMENTALS

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ELECTRICITY

attraction to the protons in the nucleus is often fairly weak. In fact, the valence electron's attraction to the nucleus is so weak that it may actually separate from the atom, as shown in Figure 2. When this occurs, the atom contains more protons than electrons, thus giving it a net positive charge. The electron that separates may have joined another atom, thus giving that atom a net negative charge. Electrons that are able to move from atom to atom are called free electrons and are the basis of electricity. Atoms that have a net positive or negative charge are called ions. Ions exert forces on free electrons by either attracting or repelling them. An ion with a net positive charge attracts electrons, while an ion with a negative charge repels electrons.

Electron leaves valence shell of one atom to enter valence shell of another atom

Valence Shell

Figure 2 Valence Shell

Electrons in the outer orbital shell of an atom are known as valence electrons. Valence electrons can leave the valence shell to join another atom, thus forming ions.

PIPELINE OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM

CURRENT

Electrons tend to move easily within some materials, but not so readily in others. Some materials, such as copper, have a loosely associated electron in the valence shell of their atoms. These free electrons are not bound very tightly to the nucleus of the atom and are free to move from one atom to another throughout the matter. Matter with a high density of free electrons, such as copper, allows the flow of electricity more easily than matter with relatively few free electrons, such as porcelain (see Figure 3). Materials in which electrons are free to move easily are said to be good electrical conductors. Conversely, materials in which electrons are not free to move easily, such as porcelain, are said to be good insulators. With no outside influence, free electrons will move randomly throughout conductive materials.
Copper Bar many free electrons e e e e e e e e e

Porcelain Cup few free electrons

e e ee e e e e e

Figure 3 Free Electron Density Varies

Copper has many free electrons, while porcelain has few free electrons.

Electrons can be induced to flow in one continuous direction through a conductor, such as a piece of copper wire. Conductors such as copper wire are used, for example, in extension cords, power lines, and electric motors. A copper wire will act as a conduit for the flow of electrons, in much the same way a stretch of pipe will act as a conduit for the flow of fluid, as shown in Figure 4. A continuous flow of charge in a conductor is known as an electrical current. Although current flow is a result of electron motion, the conventional current flow represents the movement of positive charges. Current I, is expressed in amperes (amps) which is a measure of the flow rate of charge. A flow rate of one amp is equivalent to 6.24 1018 electrons per second.

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ELECTRICITY

The charge on an electron is negative and equal in magnitude to 1.602 10-19 C. 1 Amp = 1 c/s = (No. of electrons)(1.60219 10-19 C/electron)/s No. of electrons/sec = 6.24 1018 Therefore the flow rate of one amp is equivalent to 6.24 1018 electrons per second.

a) Pipeline with oil flowing through it b) Copper wire with electrons flowing through it

OIL

e e

Figure 4 The Flow of Electrons

A pipeline acts as a conduit for the flow of oil, whereas a copper wire acts as a conduit for the flow of electrons.

In order for electrons to flow continuously in the same direction through a conductor, there has to be something that causes them to do so. The driving force behind a flow of electrons is known as voltage. Since voltage is the force which causes electrons to move, it is also sometimes referred to as electromotive force (emf). Another term used for voltage is potential difference, which refers to a difference in charge between two points that can potentially cause electrons to flow. All three of these terms are equal because they define voltage as a net difference in charge between two points. One point has an excess of electrons while the other has a shortage of electrons. The amount of difference in charge between two points is measured in volts (V). If the two points are connected by a conductor (see Figure 5), electrons will tend to flow from the negatively charged point through the conductor toward the positively charged point until the charges are equal. When the charges are equal, a potential difference no longer exists.

VOLTAGE

PIPELINE OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM

Copper wire

I e e

e
a battery is a voltage source

e I

+
Voltage Source Circuit diagram

Figure 5 Voltage Drives the Flow of Electrons

The negative and positive post of a battery are points of different electrical charge. When these points are connected by a conductive material such as a copper wire, electron motion will result in the flow of electric current.

Voltage is a measure of just how strong the force is on electrons to move from a negatively charged point to a positively charged point. Voltage is not a measure of how many electrons are available to move from a negatively charged point to a positively charged point. An analogy can be drawn between the transfer of fluid in a pipeline and the transfer of electrons in a conductive wire (see Figure 6). Electrons flow through an electrical cable like fluid flows through a pipe. The force causing fluid to flow through the pipe is a difference in head from one end of the pipe to the other. The force causing electrons to flow through the wire is a difference in electrical charge (voltage) from one end of the wire to the other. Head is a measure of how much force there is causing the fluid to flow, not how much fluid is available to flow. Voltage is a measure of how much force there is causing electrons to flow, not how many electrons are available to flow.

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High Head

Low Electrical Charge

e e

Low Head High Electrical Charge

Figure 6 Head Causes Fluid to Flow; Voltage Causes Electrons to Flow

The difference in head from the top to the bottom of the hill causes the fluid to flow, whereas the difference in electric charge (voltage) causes electrons to flow.

Any time a point of negative charge is connected to a point of positive charge by a conductor, such that electrons are allowed to flow through the conductor across the potential difference, an electrical circuit has been formed. An electrical circuit is a conductive path through which electrons flow from a point of high electrical charge to a point of low electrical charge. An electrical circuit can be simple, allowing only one path for electrons to flow, or more complex, allowing more than one path for electrons to flow (see + Figure 7). Any portion of an elecSimple Single Flow trical circuit where electrons have Path - Series Circuit only one path to follow is a series circuit. Any portion of an electrical I circuit where electrons have two or more possible paths is a parallel circuit. Parallel
Circuit

CIRCUITS

Figure 7 Series and Parallel Circuits

A circuit with only one path is a series circuit, and a circuit with more than one path is a parallel circuit.

Parallel Circuit

PIPELINE OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM

REVIEW 1

1. Atoms are made up of protons, electrons, and neutrons. The nucleus of an atom consists of ________.

a) b) c) d)

protons and electrons electrons and neutrons protons and neutrons electrons only

2. The electrical bond is the bond between ________.

a) b) c) d)

protons and neutrons electrons and neutrons protons and electrons none of the above

3. __________ orbit furthest from the nucleus.

a) b) c) d)

Protons Valence electrons Ions none of the above

4. Atoms that have a net positive or net negative charge are known as ____________.

a) b) c) d)

ions free electrons quarks valence shells

5. Ions that have a net positive charge are able to repel electrons.

a) True b) False

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6. Materials that have a high density of free electrons and allow the easy flow of electricity are known as ___________.

a) b) c) d)

insulators conductors resistors inductors

7. Materials that have a low density of free electrons and do not allow the easy flow of electricity are known as _________.

a) b) c) d)

insulators conductors resistors inductors

8. The continuous flow of charge in a conductor is known as an electrical ______________.

a) b) c) d)

voltage charge current circuit

9. Current is the flow rate of charge and is measured in units called _______________.

a) b) c) d)

volts ohms amperes none of the above

10. Voltage is __________.

a) a flow of electrical current b) a measure of how many electrons are available to flow from one point to another c) a net difference in charge between two points d) the force that drives the flow of electrons e) both c and d

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PIPELINE OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM

11. A conductive path through which electrons flow from a point of high electrical charge to a point of low electrical charge is known as ____________.

a) b) c) d)

current a circuit potential a resistor

12. A circuit that provides more than one path for the flow of electrons is known as a(n) ___________ circuit.

a) b) c) d)

series variable parallel effective

13. A circuit that provides a single path for the flow of electrons is known as a(n) ___________ circuit.

a) b) c) d)

series variable parallel effective

Answers are at the end of this module.

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SECTION 2

ELECTRICAL LOADS, POWER & WORK

Section 1 describes and discusses voltage, current, and circuits. Section 3 builds upon the basic principles of electricity to discuss how electrical energy is used to do useful work. This section introduces electrical resistance and Ohm's law, as well as electromagnetism. The basic process of electrical energy being converted to heat energy or mechanical energy to do useful work is also described.

INTRODUCTION

After this section, you will be able to complete the following objectives. Recognize how to use Ohm's law to relate voltage, current, and resistance. Identify electromagnetism. Illustrate the conversion of electrical energy to heat energy or mechanical energy. Recognize power and work.

OBJECTIVES

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PIPELINE OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM

RESISTANCE

Just as fluid flowing in a pipeline experiences resistance to flow due to friction, electrons flowing in a wire also experience resistance to flow. In some substances, such as copper and gold, the resistance to electrical flow is very low since electrons in the valence shells of these substances can be easily released from their nucleus. However, in other materials such as rubber, a lot of resistance must be overcome in order for an electrical current to flow. This higher resistance is because it is difficult for the electrons in the valence shells of these atoms to break free from the nucleus. The opposition to the flow of electrons, or electrical friction, is known as resistance. Resistance gives rise to heat energy just as friction in a fluid pipeline creates heat energy (see Figure 8). Although resistance to electrical current is more obvious in some materials, it does exist to some extent in all materials even "good" conductors like copper and gold.

OIL

a) Heat from friction in fluid pipeline

b) Heat from resistance in conductor

Figure 8 Frictional Losses

a) A pipeline with flowing fluid experiences friction causing energy loss to heat, and b) a wire with electrical current experiences resistance causing energy loss to heat.

Sometimes a partially-closed valve in a pipeline is used to impede flow of the fluid in the pipeline. Similarly, sometimes a more resistant piece of material is placed in a wire to hinder the flow of electrons. In an electrical circuit, this is commonly referred to as a resistor. As noted, the opposition to electrical current is called resistance (R), and is measured in units called Ohms (). An Ohm is a measure of how much the current is being hindered. The introduction of a resistor in an electrical circuit is often called a load in the circuit.

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ELECTRICITY

Electrical loads are present in such items as light bulbs, electric heaters, computers, and electric motors. The various types of electric loads are discussed in the module - INDUSTRIAL ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS.
Valve Partially Closed

OIL

Resistor

Figure 9 Resistance to Flow

In a pipeline, a partially closed valve impedes flow. In a circuit, a resistor impedes current.

Georg Ohm, a German physicist who lived during the early eighteenth century, was the first to record his observation that there is a mathematical relationship between voltage (V), current (I), and resistance (R) in an electrical circuit. Ohm found that when a conductor containing a resistor was connected across a voltage source forming a series circuit, the current (I) in the circuit was equal to the voltage (V) divided by the resistance (R). This mathematical relationship is known as Ohms law. Mathematically: where: I = V/ R I = Current (amps, A) V = Voltage (volts, V) R = Resistance (ohms, )

OHM'S LAW

RESISTORS IN SERIES CIRCUITS

i.e.

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PIPELINE OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM

In most cases, the resistance in the conductive wire is so low as to be insignificant; R is simply the opposition to current caused by the resisting load, such as a heating coil.

EXAMPLE 1 To find the current in a circuit with a 12 V power supply and a single
3 resistor, Ohm's law can be used (see Figure 10).
+

I=?

Figure 10 Unknown Current

A 12 V battery with copper wire and 3 resistor form a series circuit. The unknown current can be found using Ohms law.

V = 12 v

R=3

The known values in a circuit are not always the voltage and resistance. Sometime, for instance, the voltage and the current are known, but the resistance is not. In this case, Ohm's law can again be used once the formula is rearranged to solve for resistance. Mathematically: R =V / I I = V R I = 12 V 3 I = 4A

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I = 10 A V = 12 v

R=?

Figure 11 Unknown Resistance

A 12 V power supply, a copper wire and a resistor form a series circuit with a current of 10 A. The unknown resistance can be found using Ohms law.

A 12 V power supply is connected with a copper wire to form a series EXAMPLE 2 circuit through which a 10 A current flows (see Figure 11). What is the total resistance presented by the resistor in the circuit? I = V R R= V I R = 12 v 10 A R =1.2 When a circuit contains more than one resistor arranged in series (one resistor after another), Ohm's law still holds true. Now, however, the total resistance for the circuit must be calculated from the combination of resistors. The current must be the same through each resistor since there is only one path for electrons to flow. Thus, IT = I1 = I2 = I3 = . . . = In Although the current through all resistors is identical, the voltage across each resistor is different. This is because some of the voltage is "used up," getting the current through each of the resistors. Since both the resistance and the current are known, the voltage across each resistor can be found using Ohm's law as follows: V1 = I1 R1

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PIPELINE OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM

The total voltage across the entire series circuit is the sum of the individual voltages across each resistor. Mathematically: VT = V1 + V2 + V3 + . . . + Vn The total resistance of the resistors arranged in series can be found again by using Ohm's law: RT = VT IT or, or simply, RT = V 1 + V 2 + V 3 + . . . + V n I1 I2 I3 In RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + . . . + Rn

The total resistance presented by multiple resistors arranged in series is the sum of each individual resistor. In other words, to find the total resistance of the series circuit, simply add the individual resistors together.

EXAMPLE 3 Determine the current if a 12 V power supply is connected with a

copper wire to form a series circuit that contains a 2 resistor and a 4 resistor in series (see Figure 12). Before Ohm's law is used to find the current in the circuit, the total resistance of the circuit must be found. Since the resistors in this example are arranged in series, their magnitudes can simply be added.
+

I=? V = 12 v

R1 = 2

R2 = 4

Figure 12 Resistors in Series

A 12 V battery with copper wire and 2 resistor and 4 resistor form a series circuit. Before finding the current in the circuit using Ohms law, the total resistance must be calculated.

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RT = R1 + R2 = 2 + 4 = 6 I I I = V RT

= 12 V 6 = 2A

When a voltage is bridged by a circuit containing resistors arranged in a parallel manner (see Figure 13), Ohm's law also holds true. However, total resistance for a parallel section of circuit is calculated differently than total resistance for a series circuit. The voltage will be the same across each of the parallel paths. With more than one possible path for the electrons to flow through, the current will tend to take the path of least resistance. Therefore, the current through a smaller resistor will be greater than the current through a larger resistor if they are arranged together in parallel.
+

RESISTORS IN PARALLEL CIRCUITS

V = 12 v R1 = 12 R2 = 6 R3 = 4 I 1 =? I 2 =? I 3=?

I T=I 1 +I 2 +I 3

Figure 13 Resistors in Parallel

A 12 V battery is connected by three resistors arranged in parallel. Current is found through each branch of the circuit, then added to find the total current in the circuit. Total resistance for the circuit is then found using Ohm's law.

Since the voltage resistance in each branch is known, the amount of current flowing through each branch of the parallel circuit can be calculated using Ohm's law rearranged to solve for current. Mathematically: I1 = V R1

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The total current through the main part of the circuit splits between the individual parts of the parallel circuit, recombines and returns to the positive terminal of the source. Mathematically: where: IT = I1 + I2 + I3 + . . . + In IT = total current through the parallel circuit I1, I2, I3, In = current through individual branches of the parallel circuit Now that we know the total current in the circuit, we can again use Ohm's law to calculate the total resistance of the parallel circuit. Mathematically: RT = V IT

EXAMPLE 4 In this example, a 12 V battery is connected by a conductor with three

resistors in parallel (see Figure 13). Step 1: The current through each branch of the circuit can be calculated using Ohm's law. Step 2: The total current (IT) is then the sum of the individual currents (I1 , I2 , I3). Step 3: The total resistance is then found using Ohm's law, dividing the voltage (V) by the total current (IT). Notice that the total resistance of the circuit is less than even the smallest resistor in the parallel arrangement. This is because there are more paths for the current to take, and it will take paths so as to minimize the energy required. There is another more direct equation for finding the total resistance of a set of parallel resistors. In the above example, the last step was to find the total resistance using the equation: RT = V IT but we know that: IT = I1 + I2 + I3 + . . . + In Therefore: but we also know: Therefore: V I1 = V R1

V V

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The equation can be rewritten as

This relationship can be expanded to any number of individual parallel resistors. Using the above equation, the total resistance of the parallel circuit (see Figure 13) can be calculated directly. A series/ parallel circuit occurs when resistors are placed in an electrical circuit in a combination of both series and parallel arrangements. The best way to determine the overall resistance of the circuit is to first resolve the parallel resistors into a single resistance and then add that resistance with the series resistors. Given the arrangement of resistors connected to the 120 V power source (see Figure 14), what will the current in the circuit be? First, the parallel set of resistors must be added together to find the total resistance in the parallel section of the circuit. This total can then be added with the other two resistors to give a total resistance for the entire circuit. Using Ohm's law, the current can then be calculated.
2

RESISTORS IN SERIES & PARALLEL COMBINATIONS

EXAMPLE 5

=4 8 16 16

RT = R1 + R2 + R3 RT = 5 + 4 + 1 = 10 I I = V = 120 V RT 10
R1 = 5 I=? 120 V 8 16 16 R2 = ?

= 12 A

Figure 14 Resistors in Series/ Parallel Combination

In this circuit, the total resistance of the parallel R3 = 1 portion is first calculated, then added with the series resistors. Finally current in the circuit is found.

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ELECTRICAL ENERGY PERFORMS ELECTRICAL WORK

When an electrical current passes through a resistant material, some of the electrical energy is converted to heat energy and lost to the surrounding environment. At the same time, some of the electrical energy may be converted to light energy which is subsequently also lost to the surrounding environment. This is what happens when an electrical current is passed through the filament of an incandescent light bulb (see Figure 15). When electrical energy is expended in this manner to provide heat and/or light, it is said to be performing electrical work. The light bulb acts as an electrical load on the circuit.

Light and heat are given off

Figure 15 Electrical Work

The light bulb performs electrical work by converting electrical energy into heat and light energy.

WORK

Mechanical work is defined as a force acting on an object through a distance. The amount of mechanical work done can be found by multiplying the magnitude of the force by the distance over which the force acted. Electrical work is also done by a force acting on objects through a distance. With electrical work, however, the force is a voltage (electromotive force) and the objects being moved are electrons. Work is measured in Joules.

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Power (P) is the rate at which work is done. In a mechanical system, power is calculated by dividing the amount of work done by the amount of time required to do the work (P = work / time). In an electrical system, power is calculated by multiplying the electromotive force (voltage) by the current. Mathematically: where: P =V x I P = Power (watts, W) V = Voltage (volts, V) I = Current (amps, A)

POWER

Power is represented in units called watts (W) in recognition of James Watt, the inventor of the steam engine. One watt is equivalent to one volt driving one amp of current. Energy is the potential to do work. Energy is found in many different forms (electrical, chemical, heat, light, mechanical, etc.) and can be converted from one form to another. While many people have the impression that large electrical companies sell power, this is not actually true. What they really sell is energy, which is work in a stored form. Like work, energy is measured in Joules (J). However, energy is also measured in units of kilowatt-hours (kWh). The reason for this is that the amount of electrical energy expended by a load such as a light bulb can be calculated by multiplying the power of the light bulb by the amount of time the bulb has been using energy.

ENERGY

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EXAMPLE 6 Consider a system in which a 120 V power source forms a simple

circuit with a light bulb (see Figure 16). The bulb filament resistance is 120 . Using Ohm's law, the current can be calculated to be 1A. By multiplying the voltage by the current, the power rating of the bulb is calculated to be 120 W. If the bulb stays lit five hours a day for 20 days, the amount of electrical energy used by the bulb can be found by multiplying the power rating and the total time the bulb was lit. Knowing that the local electricity company charges 10 cents per kWh, the energy cost is calculated to be $1.20. I = V R = 120 V = 1A 120

P = VI = (120 V)(1A) = 120 W J = P time = (120 W) (5 hours/day)(20 days) J = 12 kWh Cost = J Charge Rate = (12 kWh)($10.10/kWh) Cost = $1.20

120 V

R = 120

Figure 16 A Light Bulb Uses Electrical Energy

I=?

Knowing the voltage of the power supply and the resistance in the bulb, the current as well as the power rating of the bulb can be found. Knowing how long the bulb is on and how much energy costs, the total kilowatt-hours used, as well as the cost, can be determined.

ELECTROMAGNETISM

Electromagnetism is a phenomenon important to the conversion of electrical energy to mechanical energy, and vice versa. A fundamental property of electricity is that any time an electrical current flows through a conductor, a magnetic field forms around the conductor. The conductor is now an electromagnet. It has magnetic properties which will disappear when the current ceases (see Figure 17). If the current is made to flow in the opposite direction, magnetic properties will again be present, but now the electromagnet will have opposite polarity.

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a)
+

b)
No Contact No Contact

V I=0 No Current

No Magnetic Field Magnetic Field

Figure 17 Electromagnetism
A conductor with a current flowing forms a magnetic field. A conductive wire with no current has no magnetic field.

This type of temporary magnet that can be turned on and off is very useful. Since a magnet is capable of doing mechanical work (i.e. exerting a force on another object and moving it), it is also possible for an electromagnet to do mechanical work. So, through electromagnetism, electrical energy can be used to perform mechanical work. This is the principle used in an electric motor. Conversely, as a conductor moves through a magnetic field, the magnet has the effect of inducing electrons to flow within the conductor. This is known as induction. The magnet exerts an electromotive force on the electrons within the conductor. If the a) conductor stops moving, the induced electrical current also stops (see e Figure 18). So, through induction, N S mechanical energy (bodies in motion) can be used to produce electrical energy (a flow of electrons).

Figure 18 Induction
A conductor passing through a magnetic field generates current. If the conductor stops motion relative to the magnet, the current stops.

b)
e

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PIPELINE OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM

REVIEW 2

1. The opposition to the flow of electrons is known as ____________.

a) b) c) d)

energy power resistance or load none of the above

2. Resistance exists to some extent in all materials, even "good" conductors like copper and gold.

a) True b) False
3. Ohm's law states that the current is equal to voltage divided by __________.

a) b) c) d)

resistance amperes capacitance inductance

4. If a battery has a voltage of 3 V and the resistor, connected by copper wires, has a resistance of 6 , what will be the current in the circuit?

a) b) c) d)

3A 6A 0.5 A 2A

5. If a resistor has a resistance of 10 , and the current is 10 A, what is the voltage of the battery?

a) b) c) d)

10 V 1V 0.1 V 100 V

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FUNDAMENTALS

OF INDUSTRIAL

ELECTRICITY

SECTION 3

INDUSTRIAL USES OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY

In light of the fundamentals of electrical current, loads, and work, this section introduces the concept of electricity as it is used in industrial applications. This section describes the difference between direct and alternating current, as well as the root-mean-squared (rms) method of calculating effective voltage and current. The concept of three phase power is also introduced.

INTRODUCTION

After this section, you will be able to complete the following objectives. Identify the term direct current (DC). Identify the term alternating current (AC). Identify root-mean-square (rms) voltage and current values. Identify the term three-phase power.

OBJECTIVES

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DIRECT CURRENT

Direct current (DC) is a flow of charge through a conductor that continues in one direction. A voltage source that has one continuous positive pole and one continuous negative pole will generate this type of current. Flashlight batteries are a common type of DC voltage source (see Figure 19). Electronic equipment such as hand-held calculators and wrist watches are almost always powered by DC electricity.
+

R I

Figure 19 Flashlight Battery with Bulb Attached

The voltage source has one positive pole and one negative pole. The current always flows from the positive pole (where there is a lack of electrons) to the negative pole (where there is an excess of electrons). The voltage is always constant, and so the current is always constant. (The current travels in the opposite direction of electron flow.)

ALTERNATING CURRENT

Alternating current (AC) is a flow of charge in a conductor that reverses direction on a regular interval. Since a voltage source drives the flow of electrons in a conductor, the voltage source for alternating current must have two points or poles that alternate between being positively charged and negatively charged. The electricity generated at power stations and distributed to homes, businesses, and industry is predominantly AC. In North America, AC electricity alternates at 60 Hz, which means that there are 60 complete cycles in each second, and the poles of the voltage source change 120 times per second. One cycle means electrons flow one direction, then reverse and flow in the other direction (see Figure 20). In Europe, the AC electrical systems operate on a 50 Hz cycle.

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AC Power Source

One alternating cycle of current

Figure 20 Electron Flow in Alternating Current

One cycle of electron flow in a conductor.

A standard AC source (voltage) causes current to alternate by continuously reversing the potential difference, thus creating a sinusoidal voltage pattern (see Figure 21). As a result, the current also alternates in a sinusoidal manner.

1 Cycle V
t

R I

I
t

Figure 21 AC Voltage and Current

An AC voltage source fluctuates sinusoidally as shown. The voltage increases, so one pole is positive and the other is negative: the voltage then decreases and the poles reverse. The current flows back and forth, always going from the pole that is positive to the pole that is negative. In North America, the distributed power oscillates at 60 Hz, which means there are 60 cycles in each second.

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PIPELINE OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM

VOLTAGE & CURRENT

There are three ways in which AC voltage and current can be measured: instantaneous measurement - With an instantaneous measurement, the value is taken at a given instant in time. The problem with this type of measurement is that the value is constantly changing from a maximum positive value to zero, to a maximum negative value and back to zero, and so on. Because the instantaneous voltage changes so often, it is very difficult to measure. peak-to-peak measurement - The peak-to-peak voltage is the distance between the maximum negative voltage and the maximum positive voltage (see Figure 22). If the voltage oscillates between -2 V and +2 V, for example, the peak-to-peak voltage is 4 V. The same principle applies to the current; if the current oscillates between -3 A and +3 A, then the peak-to-peak current is 6 A.
2 Voltage 2

Figure 22 Peak-to-Peak Voltage and Current

AC voltage and current oscillate from a negative value to a positive value. The peak-to-peak measurement takes into account the degree of change between the highest and lowest values.
3 Current

Peak to peak Voltage is 4 Volts

3 Peak to peak Current is 6 Amps

root-mean-square (rms) voltage and current measurement, (also called effective voltage and current) - These values are found by squaring the values over an entire cycle, taking the average (or mean) of these values, and then taking the square root, thus rootmean-square (rms). For an AC sinusoidal voltage source, the rms voltage is the maximum voltage divided by the square root of 2. Using rms voltage and current is useful because it allows for the application of Ohm's law:

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Similarly:

Most voltmeters and ammeters measure voltage and current in rms values, although some have the option of reading peak-to-peak values. For example, an electrical outlet in a home has 120 V, which is an rms value. Likewise, a 20 A breaker refers to 20 A rms. In a circuit containing resistors and an AC voltage source, if voltage and current are rms, all calculations can be done as though the voltage sources were DC. In the example (see Figure 23), effective voltage and effective current are calculated and then effective resistance is determined.

EXAMPLE 7

IMAX= 14 A

V MAX= 170 V

R=?

Figure 23 AC Circuit with Load

To find effective resistance, effective voltage and current are first calculated.

Vrms = Vmax = 170 V = 120.2 V 2 2 I 1 4 A I rms = max = = 9.9 A 2 2 The effective resistence is :then R = Vrms = 120.2 V = 12.1 I 9.9 A rms

Note: This value is the same value given by just using the maximum current and voltage. R = Vrms = Vmax / I I rms max /
2 2

= Vmax = 170 V = 12.1 I 14 A max

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PIPELINE OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM

THREE-PHASE ALTERNATING CURRENT

A significant problem in the use of large amounts of alternating current electricity is inconsistency of energy delivery. As the voltage and current increase and decrease, (alternating direction 120 times per second) the power of the system also oscillates, since power is voltage multiplied by current. If a 60 Hz AC current is powering a light bulb, electric heater or small electric motor, consistency of power delivery is not important. However, power fluctuations with large motors and equipment can be quite severe and cause vibrations and fluctuating loads. This leads to fatigue and eventually to shaft failure. For these large motors it is necessary to have power delivery that is constant. DC motors are not a practical solution because they are more expensive and require frequent maintenance. To solve this problem of fluctuating power, three-phase AC power was developed. Three-phase power occurs where several voltage sources alternate so that when one decreases, another increases and a steady rate of energy is delivered as the result (see Figure 24). The combined effect is a smooth, even source of energy that allows large motors to deliver power without vibrations or fluctuations.

V1

V2

V3

V1

V2

V3

Figure 24 Three Phase AC Power

In a three-phase system, the instantaneous power delivered is constant.

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FUNDAMENTALS

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ELECTRICITY

In essence, three single phase generators are used to generate three phase power; in actuality, they are all built into the same rotor and stator. Three wires then transmit the power. Three voltmeters (V1 , V2 and V3) measure the voltage of each of the three phases. The voltages of these phases are shown in the graph. Figure 24 shows three-phase AC power. Note that each phase shifts by a third of a cycle from the others. Three-phase AC power is used by virtually all large electric motors in industrial applications because it delivers power at a constant rate. The voltage of three phase power used in the pipeline industry (for example, 4160 V used by pipeline pump motors) is the rms value of each of the three voltages shown in Figure 24. The power, for example, of a 2500 hp motor, is the total power output of the motor, or the sum of the power delivered by the three phases.

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PIPELINE OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM

REVIEW 3

1. If a voltage source has one pole which is always negative, and one pole which is always positive, the current from it will be ______.

a) alternating b) direct
2. If a voltage source has two poles, each of which oscillate between positive and negative, so that while one is positive, the other is negative, the current from it will be _______.

a) alternating b) direct
3. In a 60 Hz AC electrical circuit, the current changes direction _______ times per second.

a) b) c) d)

30 60 120 none of the above

4. If a voltage oscillates between -5 V and +5 V, the instantaneous value of the voltage is _________.

a) b) c) d)

10 V 5V 3.536 V impossible to say

5. If a voltage oscillates between -5 V and +5 V, the peak-topeak value of the voltage is ________.

a) b) c) d)

10 V 5V 3.536 V impossible to say

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ELECTRICITY

6. If a voltage oscillates between -5 V and +5 V, the maximum value of the voltage is ___________.

a) b) c) d)

10 V 5V 3.536 V impossible to say

7. If a voltage oscillates between -5 V and +5 V, the rootmean-square (rms) value of the voltage is _______.

a) b) c) d)

10 V 5V 3.536 V impossible to say

8. The Ohms law expression is valid for AC current if the circuit is only resistance and the voltages and currents are measured as_______ values.

a) b) c) d)

rms peak-to-peak average maximum

9. Three-phase electricity delivers power in fluctuations, while single phase delivers power smoothly.

a) true b) false

Answers are at the end of this module.

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PIPELINE OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM

SUMMARY

SECTION 1 - ELECTRICAL FORCES & THE FLOW OF ELECTRICITY

The essence of electricity is the movement of electrons. Electrons are held in orbit around the nucleus of atoms by their attraction to protons. Those electrons in orbit furthest from the nucleus are called valence electrons. Electrons in the valence shell of an atom are often able to break free and join another atom. Free electrons are electrons that are able to move from one atom to another. Atoms with a shortage of electrons or with too many electrons have a net charge and are called ions. Some substances have an abundance of free electrons, while other substances have very few. Substances with many free electrons allow the easy movement of electrons and are called conductors, while substances with few free electrons do not allow easy movement of electrons and are called insulators. A net difference in electrical charge from one point to another is voltage. A voltage source that has both positive and negative points of charge connected by a conductive material will cause electrons to flow through the conductor. This is known as a circuit. The flow of charge results in an electrical current. Electrical circuits that provide only one path for electrons to flow is a series circuit. A circuit that provides more than one possible path along which electrons might flow is a parallel circuit.

SECTION 2 - ELECTRICAL LOADS, POWER, & WORK

The opposition to electrical flow is known as resistance. All materials, even "good" conductors have some resistance. Resistance in electrical circuits converts electrical energy to heat energy. Just as a valve in a pipeline inhibits the flow of fluid, a resistor in an electrical circuit inhibits the flow of electrons (current). Ohms law states that the current flowing in a circuit is directly proportional to the voltage and inversely proportional to the resistance. Ohms law can be expressed mathematically as: I = V/ R

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FUNDAMENTALS

OF INDUSTRIAL

ELECTRICITY

The total resistance of a series circuit is the sum of the resistance of each part of the circuit. It is expressed mathematically as: RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + . . . + Rn The total resistance of a parallel circuit is less than the resistance of the branch with the least resistance. It is expressed mathematically as:

Most circuits are not purely series or parallel, but a combination of the two. These are called series/parallel circuits. Most circuits can be simplified into a combination of series and parallel circuits. Electrical energy can be used to do work. Power is the rate at which work is performed. The power in a circuit can be found by multiplying the voltage by the current. Electric power is measured in watts. Through electromagnetism, electrical energy can be transformed into mechanical energy and vice versa. P=VI

SECTION 3 - INDUSTRIAL USES OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY

In a direct current, electrons flow in only one direction. In an alternating current, electrons oscillate back and forth. A standard AC voltage source produces a sinusoidal voltage. Instantaneous voltage (or current) is the voltage (or current) at a specific instant in time. It is not useful in describing AC current. Peak-to-peak voltage (or current) is the distance between the maximum and minimum voltages (or currents). Effective voltages and currents can be used in the Ohms law expression and power equations.

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PIPELINE OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM

If the voltage (or current) is sinusoidal, the effective value is the rootmean-square (rms) value. The rms value is found by squaring every value on the sine wave, taking the average value and finding its square root. It is mathematically equivalent to:

or

Voltmeters and ammeters usually measure rms values of voltage and current. Single-phase AC power fluctuates because the voltage and current fluctuate. These fluctuations can cause damage to large motors, such as those used to drive pipeline pumps. Three-phase AC power, which consists of three separate single phases separated by a third of a cycle (120), delivers power evenly to prevent vibration damage.

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OF INDUSTRIAL

ELECTRICITY

alternating current (AC) a flow of charge in a conductor that reverses direction on a regular interval. (p. 30) amperes (amps) a measure of the flow rate of charge. (p. 6) atomic bond the force that holds protons and neutrons together forming the nucleus of an atom. (p. 4) atoms the building blocks of the material world. They are made up of a nucleus (core) containing protons and neutrons. (p. 4) circuit (or electrical circuit) a conductive path through which electrons flow from a point of high electrical charge to a point of low electrical charge. (p. 9) conductor a material with very low electrical resistance in which electrons are free to move easily. (p. 6) current (or electrical current) the flow of charge in a conductor. (p. 6) direct current (DC) a flow of charge through a conductor that continues in one direction. (p. 30) electrical attraction the force keeping electrons from flying away from the nucleus and attracted to the protons in the nucleus. (p. 4) electrical work electromotive force acting on electrons. (p. 22) electromagnet temporary magnet formed by a conductor when electrons flow through it. (p. 24) electromotive force (emf) also called voltage. (p. 7) energy the potential to do work. (p. 23)

GLOSSARY

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PIPELINE OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM

free electrons electrons that are able to move from one atom to another. (p. 5) induction production of an electromotive force in a conductor as it moves through a magnetic field. (p. 25) instantaneous measurement the value of the current or voltage at a specific instant in time. (p. 32) insulator a material with very high electrical resistance in which electrons are not free to move easily. (p. 6) ions atoms that have a net positive or negative electrical charge. (p. 5) load the portion of a circuit which introduces resistance to the flow of electrons and often allows electrical work to be performed. (p. 14) mechanical work a force acting on an object through a distance. (p. 22) Ohm a measure of how much the current is being hindered. (p. 14) Ohms law a physical law which states that the current in a circuit is directly proportional to the voltage and inversely proportional to the resistance in a circuit. (p. 15) parallel circuit a circuit that provides more than one path for electrons to flow. (p. 9) peak-to peak measurement the distance between the maximum and minimum values of voltage or current. (p. 32) potential difference a difference in charge between two points that can potentially cause electrons to flow. (p. 7) power (p) the rate at which work is done. (p. 23)

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FUNDAMENTALS

OF INDUSTRIAL

ELECTRICITY

resistance the opposition to the flow of electrons or electrical friction. (p. 14) resistor a more resistant piece of material placed in a wire to hinder the flow of electrons. (p. 14) root-mean-square (rms) voltage and current measurement found by squaring the values over an entire cycle, taking the average (or mean) of these values, and then taking the square root, thus rootmean-square (rms). (p. 32) series circuit a circuit in which there is only one possible path for electrons to flow. (p. 9) series/parallel circuit a combination of series and parallel circuits. (p. 21) three-phase AC power occurs where several voltage sources alternate so that when one decreases, another increases and a steady rate of energy is delivered as the result. (p. 34) valence electron an electron in the valence shell. Its attraction to the nucleus is often fairly weak. (p. 4) valence shell the orbital shell of electrons furthest from the nucleus of an atom. (p. 4) voltage a net difference in charge between two points the driving force behind the flow of electrons. (p. 7) watt equivalent to one volt driving one amp of current. (p. 23)

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PIPELINE OPERATIONS TRAINING PROGRAM

ANSWERS

REVIEW 1
1. c 2. c 3. b 4. a 5. b 6. b 7. a 8. c 9. c 10. e 11. b 12. c 13. a

REVIEW 2
1. c 2. a 3. a 4. c 5. d 6. a 7. b 8. b 9. c

REVIEW 3
1. b 2. a 3. c 4. d 5. a 6. b 7. c 8. a 9. b

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