Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

SECTION A. Earlv Historv

2 - RADIOACTIVITY

AND ITS

PROPERTIES

Henri tivity. he similar with tivity. of emitting a found to gas While

Becquerel working the which

is with uranium

credited uranium emitted had Madame

with salts

the

discovery

of natural plates which in

radioacin 1896, seemed

and photographic radiation earlier this showed the given also is

that that

a penetrating produced Curie a year called

Roentgen tube.

experiments radioacproperty and that that the lost. of about chemical and turn, the a

discharge

phenomenon that this

Further

investigation is

by her a specific

and others property exist. so that of

radiation quantitative are

element found constantly nucleus is

certain radiations These atom. million reactions. emit

relationships continually and emitted therefore released than the by the

They

energy come from

radiations, Also, times radiation the more at to use of alpha two charged fields. radiation, Since a field the be direction positively Further a helium It Moreover,

energy, energy these to form but

the

energy intense the

radioactive released

materials in standard are product

atoms

producing rates

radiations new atoms. end

unstable in will

characteristic other of substances, magnetic

These,

transform may stable. By distinct designations: The they magnetic magnetic first are the types

the

be more

fields, (see beta Figure (B> ,

it

was shown 2.1). and

that

there were (7) be

are given

three the

radiation (a>, particles. is similar not to were were in j3

These gamma fields, cannot but

radiation. that in

types

can be deflected Gamma a light. deflected particles, the whereas revealed (>e

in magnetic radiation particle

indicating deflected of

charged

a form

electro-

particles than

in the

a different two were

direction oppositely it is is 4)

in

the

magnetic From to

charged. was shown negatively

which

a particle the that the

was deflected, /? particle

charged, investigation nucleus

charged. actually

a particle

- two positive

charges,

mass number

and charge,

the mass

/3 of

particle 0.000549

is u).

actually

an

electron

(e-

one

negative

Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

ALPHA

GAMMA

RADIOACTIVE SOURCE

Figure

2.1

Radiation deflection in a magnetic field. The field is perpendicular to and directed into the plane of the paper. (R.E.Lapp / H.L.Andrews, NUCLEAR RADIATION Reprinted by permission of PHYSICS, 2/e 1954, 1~73. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ).

Following naturally member, and the occurring of series

Becquerel's radioactive series, called chains life a gaseous lead these are These

discovery, series or the have (time

further existed. chains, thorium,

studies The
232n,

revealed parent, 9 238~ and actinium each to isotope; occurring but named was later

that and

three
236~

or first

are uranium

series, parent decay and has - see each

respectively. a very long each up as the

certain for half which

common the is

properties: initial nuclei (Rn)

half has

2-D); ends called

member (Pb)

a radon

a stable neptunium radionuclide

isotope. beginning

An artificially with 241Pu 237Np,

series, after produced the by

series, in 238U. 1 in of isomeric with

longest-lived neutron

the

series,

bombardment With the a

of

discovery number and

1934, additional

that

radioactivity decay modes, In decay,

can be induced have emerged a number been particles have (such

in

a as

stable electron particles, These useful

atom, capture

transitions). radioactive

addition, have These also

of new been

associated are in the the neutrino

uncovered.

and the of

anti-neutrino. /3 decay.

explanation

The neutrino

and anti-neutrino

Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

2-3 are carry positron, are emitted. the almost away massless energy was in particles decays. Also, as well the of the (< 10m3 the of the electron to decay high energy particles the in mass) electron, positrons has decay which the

anti-particle

discovered, In addition,

as radioactive advent number of of

which

accelerators and their

increased mechanisms. Other and chains, 137Re, have

complexity

known

naturally etc., also which been

occurring are not

radionuclides, members of long

such

as series,

4OK > or

147Sm decay

found.

B.

Radioactive

Transformations

When an alpha

an particle,

atom

undergoes the atomic

a transition, number

or decays,

by the the

emission mass

of

Z decreases

by 2 and

number

A decreases

by 4,

so that

This 2.2.a). vertical shown ground decay by right. which a particle. which that an at In a

can this

be

shown diagram,

by

a diagram the position product of

called energy ground (or

a decay states state higher the of

scheme are the

(see

Figure by a atom than In is is the the

different figure,

indicated parent level) product).

scale. higher of state scheme arrow An 238U

In the

the vertical

energy daughter

decay the

(called positively charged a decay is the difference for the the a

layout, to the

emission negatively the

charged radiation is
233u+234m

radiation

shown the in the

left; of

example is In the the

by an arrow to + 4He, and with energy parent, He is

parent, diagram the net

234Th shown, energy

daughter is emitted the the

a discrete level daughter of

energy AX Z and some to and

equals of A-4y z-2

between masses of

( accounting

the

particle the

as emission

well of the

as the

the

recoil not

energy bring

of the

the

daughter). nuclide

In

cases, the ground

a will

decaying of

state

of

daughter,

so that

emission

a y ray

may

follow.

Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

2-4

X
Z

Y Y
A Y z+1

a) Alpha

Decay

b) B+

Y Decay

z-1

cl B++

Y Decay

d) EC Decay

e) IT Decay

Figure

2.2

Decay

schemes for various

modes of decay:

aI $ $ y, EC and IT.

Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

2-5

When the transformation is by negative j3 emission, the atomic number Z increases by 1, but the mass number A remains the same. The antia 7 ray is emitted neutrino i7 carries off excess energy. Often, following a B- decay (see Figure 2.2.b). Negative j3 emission is likely to occur if the n/p ratio is too high. The decay is given by AX + A zJl+ f3- + Y Z in which represents the electron, 2.2b) does shown in Figure the mass number. (/3+ or It Oe) 1 is indicated emission is p'e. -' The not emission affect either straight Figure of a gamma line 2.2~. in The

ray (as number or the figure.

the atomic

by a vertical shown in

Positron reaction is

AX +A +p++u z z- x in which case of emission. daughter that carries away excess energy. As in the the neutrino may be emitted after positron fidecay, a -y ray For positron emission to occur, the parent mass must exceed the mass than two electron masses (2 moc2). An bY more competes with positron decay is electron mode, which often v is

alternate capture (EC), pictured in Figure 2.2d. It should be noted that some capture. Of diagrams picture /3 + decay in the same manner as electron for positron emission stated above is not met, course, if the condition then only electron capture may occur. For this reaction,
$rloe-tA +u.

z- 1

The electron which is captured is most often a K shell electron, although X rays which are emitted following L and M capture are also possible. electron capture will be those from element Y. Positron decay and/or electron capture are likely to occur if the n/p ratio is too low.

Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

2-6 Sometimes rather ray, As stated mass number, than before, so a nucleus emit this in a particle. emission an excited This does not is state called affect will the emit atomic energy number as a y or the

an isomeric

transition.

The 2.2e,

asterisk the

indicates excited In this the The transition state decay excited

that is

the

nucleus indicated

is by

in

an excited AmX, where

state. the

In

Figure for

m stands

metastable. emitted Bfrom

scheme, level mode

two paths to the

are ground

available. state

A photon of AX, of

may be by

followed

emission. the

alternate

involves ratio

emission gives the

a higher

energy

B- in of the

to AY. The branching z+1 which of the the decay of proceed for emission orbital

fraction

total

transitions mode Instead to

by each an excited of the

given nucleus 7,

mode. is the is called internal transfers with a nucleus then ejected

An conversion. this discrete

alternate

energy energy Another

one of (see 3.2). of

electrons,

which

mode spontaneous

decay fission.

observed This

in

high

mass often

number competes

substances with CY

(D230) decay.

is

process

The reaction AX+A'y z Z'

is + A-A' -kW + k 1, Z-Z' 0 nuclide are fission, spontaneous with lives.2 -y rays even Since and B Ax splits The so k is into two fragments Y and W, will total

In and not

the

above, k,

the of in released

original neutrons each in

a number, be released of n

emitted.

same number an average varies with

of neutrons value. the the The mass shorter

number atomic taneous prompt

fission

and the spon-

number. fission and

Nuclides half delayed

Z and A seem to have fission particles, arrow in releases this marked an excited itself SF.3

neutrons, complex

fragments, mode is

some times If decay by a

indicated nuclide neutron

by simply has emission.4

a vertical energy Since the

enough

state, is

it rare,

may also and the

process

.I

Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

2-7 neutron sources, such as those for time very short, practical found. a, B 01: 7, are not readily Included with the diagram of the decay scheme is other useful information about the nature of the process. Sometimes, the complex nature of the process does not allow all of the information to be displayed. in Figure 2.3, is the decay scheme for 24Na, adapted from Shown out some of the data which is supplied for simple Reference 5, to point emission decay schemes. figure, In the half life of 15 h. For fraction of transitions the intensity), as well /3 is shown. That is, fi-, is 1 and the maximum energy 24Na is indicated as a /3emitter with a

the two p- groups which are emitted, the in which that p- is emitted (often called as the maximum energy (in MeV) of the emitted emitted in 99.9% of the transitions of this p is 1.39 MeV. The emission of the

4.123

.;01 4.144 MeV

Y2 1.369

MeV ;;Mg

o.o (STABLE)

Figure

2.3

Decay scheme for 24Na.

Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

2-8 /I the The 2.754 small 7 is radiation. MeV number emitted. Transformation References transition prepared the 3,5-7, and specifically /3 in transition decay References source Chart of of chart, 2.4. the other or decay with use energy, scheme 8-10. of information Nuclides only about (Appendix about at this unstable G). This (or chart radioactive) lists The shown i.e., in a row are known The well general in the data, schemes additional properties. in internal rather in can be found in diagram concerning 3, which form in the has been gives Other produces stable excited 24Mg 24Mg nucleus For of the immediately but in ground returns majority followed transitions an excited or the decays by one of involving state, 1.369 ground either MeV, state if by two MeV, are only 4.123 /I2 7 is rays, MeV above

state, to of

emitted. of y one of For 1.369 the MeV

emission emitted. one

(99.9%), 1.369 p-2

(O.l%),

along nuclear for

information Reference dosimetry than the form

calculations, maximum rather energy. than

average

sources

of useful

tabular

diagrams,

can be found Another nuclides over features excerpt, H the = 2,000 of Figure hydrogen, known is

useful the nuclides, the

which of

300 are point,

stable. are

interest

Each horizontal and the

row represents individual Note that filled

an element, spaces has with

He = helium, isotopes of that number

element. Z

hydrogen

three row.

isotopes. neutron is the

The number total

atomic N

increases horizontally.

vertically

each of

= A-Z

increases (n) at

The number nucleus left side of the in of that each element

each

column

number heavily atomic

of neutrons bordered weight space (in of black that artificially nuclides, the is mass the is

for the

each far

column. row gives as found the the in

The chemical nature stable radioactive nuclides For the symbol (a

atomic lH and

mass units) *H). at in nature. the Shaded the top

combination A are

spaces of the

in space

row are a

isotopes. isotope which stable and This

rectangle found produced. such as 1 H, number. percent

indicates radiogives

White first

spaces line line is of

represent the square the in the

abundance.

The second 1 H which of

gives

isotopic element

present

Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

2-9

He
4.0026

1.00797

nl
ll.Om p-O.782 1.008665

Figure

2.4

N Excerpt from Chart of Nuclides. (Knolls Atomic Power Laboratory. Schenectady, New York. Operated by the General Electric Co. for Naval Reactors, The U. S. Department of Energy).

hydrogen is the

as atomic the and present a by

it mass

is of

found the

in nature. neutral nuclides, The atom

The number lH. as 3H, gives (in

at

the

bottom

of

the

space

For symbol lines indicates followed occurring lines give For possible. life,

unstable mass number.

such second line

the the MeV).

first half For MeV long-lived,

line life. 'H,

gives Additional the listing is naturally

the

decay /3any emitter 7

modes of

and

energies energy the case line

maximum In second modes. a isomeric of

0.0186
of very the

which

not

emission. the for the called and energy for the decay

radionuclides, the certain These decay mode, square the a target to the and data

gives

abundance.

Subsequent

radionuclides, are

long-lived states. Isomers

excited Each state are

nuclear has shown its

state

is

own half chart

emissions. radionuclide. a radioactive the

on the

by a divided To nucleus It is trace when

given of

product is allow original

decay, in

or

to 2.5 the

find

a product

bombarded, easy location

scheme on the

Figure of

may be used. Nuclides. will For

designed let N,

Chart

example, number

nucleus a emission.

have

an atomic The product

number nucleus

Z and neutron be found

decay

by

Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

2-10
z+2 He in

z+1

Pout
n out + 3H out a 2H out 3He out N-l

p
in oflK;Iw
NUCLEUS

2H
in n in Js EC out

$
a in 3H in N+2

z-1

P out

z-2

out N-2

N+l

Figure

2.5

Location chart for nuclear products. (Knolls Atomic power Operated by the Laboratory, Schnectady, New York. GeneralElectric Co. for Naval Reactors,the U&Department of Energy.)

on an Z=90

the a

chart emitter, and N=144. For the

at

the the a

location and N=146, Chart radioactive nucleus to

Z-2

and N-2.

In

the

case location

of will

238U which be found corresponds can then and so on.

is at to be

Z=92 From tracing original

so the chain, find

daughter G, this the second

product first

in Appendix

234Th. considered

daughter

the

daughter,

c.

Decav

Law

When radioactive assume of atoms one

one

deals

with follow

large the

numbers same general

of

atoms, decay

it

is

found For the

that

all

substances has which in

pattern. of counting

example, number of atoms If to the rela2.7),

a radioactive decay time in a

source given is of

and some means time called the interval. the

The number of the

decaying one the time tionship. straight plots activity t,

a given the at

interval ratio t=O,

activity at

sample. time (t)

percentage time

activity graph paper

some later (Figure 2.6)

on linear indicates is plotted This

versus

the If line

curve the is

obtained same obtained. ratio

an exponential on semilog that

or logarithmic paper radioactive (Figure decay

a an

indicates

is

Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

80

60

TIME UNITS Figure 2.6 Radioactive Decay, linear plot.

100
\ \

;; a z 5 10 i= 2

TIME UNITS Figure 2.7 Radioactive decay, semllog plot.

Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

_-- .-_-

~__

----

2-12 exponential decrease number fraction gration of of rate in (logarithmic) the atoms the is decay do atoms not process, rate during disintegrate present to the decay number that equal is, there units during during of of each a unit atoms is a constant Although of time. time, The fractional the the same same

time. unit of present:

disinte-

proportional

AN -=At where stant N of is AN -= At where is in get the the the X, called the

N -N ' o
Vto number

aN

2.1

of

atoms the

present

at

any

time

t.

By including

a con-

proportionality, -J,N 3 the of rate

expression

becomes 2.2

transformation

constant and the minus

(also sign

the

decay

constant), a decrease

constant decay general

proportionality as time increases. relationship

indicates is

When the for

expression radioactive

integrated,

we

exponential

decay: 2.3

N = NoewXt where radioactive If N is the atoms we take In This y= the the N at is a similar + bx. Thus, number initially the logarithm No-Xt. the if slope-intercept semilog the will time be paper on the form of a straight the scale, of atoms of each left side at of time this t from equation,

a sample we get 2.4 line, values the (the of

of N 0

present.

N = In to

i.e., N on of of

one uses versus line

and plots linear

logarithmic resulting t = 0) will

scale straight be No.

slope value

-), and the

intercept

An an example,

consider

the

data: Time (s) 0 60 120 180 240 300 360

Number of Atoms 80,000 29,432 10,824 3,984 1,464 536 200

Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

2-13 Plot constant To cover number the time To of this choose of This (1.353 0.3026 now obtain lnN=lnN, In In N - In N/No - Xt; No = -Xt; atoms ratio x atoms log the at is 10-l) 2.3026 the of a curve for plot on the semilog radioactive paper: logarithmic The plot of find in the the time line and on linear paper, and determine the decay

element. Take lOOO-10,000 scale will three-cycle semilog paper (this and plot value will the of

on semilog 100-1000, on linear the two the readings the the scale. slope times; difference for later 0.1353. = = -2.

ranges atoms

and lO,OOO-100,000) and the corresponding line. ratio ratio,

on the find for by

be a straight (-X): Take log the of values the the this

of

the

number

natural for

and divide For of the example, number time. = In 10 =

chosen. ratio at the is 1 . 353

t = 0 and time The In The to

t = 120 the number log + In

s. Take of of 10-l for

atoms ratio ln

earlier In _ is 0.1353 ln

natural 1.353

this = the

time

difference

two values

120 s. We

= -Xt; s); s-l = x.

-2 = -X(120 1.67 x 1O-2

To and the

plot time

on

linear

paper: (x axis). X unit more of

Plot

number

of

atoms

as ordinate

(y axis)

as abscissa decay decay constant in a

The atom rapidly will

expresses of time.

the The in present.

probability larger the value rate of

that of X,

a the

single more sample is

a radioelement One is usually the

decays. interested atoms the decay a given of The activity a sample

rather expressed

than as: a dt

number

= At = XN.

2.5

Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

2-14

In

other

words, N, X of

the the the

activity number element. of

At of atoms

the

sample at

can be found any time,

by decay

multiplying constant

present

by the

Accordingly:

N = NoeeXt; AN = XNoemXt; At = AoemXt, where equation mass m of A, is 1.2 the and activity 2.5 above, is N,
2.7 2.6

(decay the given

rate)

of

the for

sample the

at

t = 0. of

Combining a known

expression by:

activity

a radionuclide At = XN = p

D.

Half

Life

and Mean Life

The half initial the life required

decay of for the

constant activity Consider

X is of

closely The half a given

related life nuclide activity From our

to TG is to A,.

the decay

concept to

of

the time of its

a radionuclide.

defined

as the one-half

value. activity will

an initial to A,/2.

At some time relationship,

t = T%, then,

be equal

general

A, = AoemXt; -XT% O

IA
2O

=Ae

1 -=e
2

-XT%

In

1 - In

2 = -XT,, 2; 0.693, x

XT% = In TG = kiLti x

2.8

Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

2-15 substituting the activity for X in equation 2.7 in terms of the half life, XmNa= A 0.693 m Na AT% (dis/s) of a 10-3 kg (1 g) gives an alternate expression for

At=

2.9 sample of

Example: Find the sCo (T% = 5.27 y). In SI units,

activity

a mole of

6oCo

= 0.06 kg, and

-3 23 molecules A = 0.693 (10 kg) 6.022~10 mole = 4 . 19x1013dis/s t 0.06 > 5.27 y 3.1536~10~~ mole Y The actual length of time any one atom survives may be anything from 0 to time, Suppose we were able to sum up all the infinite theoretically. lifetimes for the entire sample of atoms. Now, divide by the total number of atoms, and we arrive at the average lifetime of an atom. The average, or mean life, T is given by: T1 z-=-ii x T% In 2

1.443 T,,

2.10

Given the activity At of a sample, the total will occur in the sample may be obtained from: Trans. = AtT = 1.443 Ttit consistent. would be:

number of transitions

which

2.11 For the 6oCo example

must be in which the time units above, the total number of transitions

Trans.

= 1.433(4.19x1013~)(5.27 = 1.005x1022.

y)(3.1536x107

' Y'

Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

2-16 Each aspects which radioactive characterize atom the has its own unique decay of pattern a given of decay. Three are:

radioactive

nuclide

1)
2)

half energy type

life of of

of the

emission, emission, and

3) The upon have how half

emission

identification well lives differs one which greatly. of emission, a number the the

of are

a particular these the the their techniques of radioactive identity of nearly On but of

radionuclide three same, hand, lives factors. but

will the

normally energy of

depend their have

can determine

Many

radionuclides

emissions similar

other half

many

radionuclides greatly. of used techniques Sometimes, in an area, half

energy Oftentimes,

differ

or combination an unknown material the radionuclide. being radionuclide this

will it life be for

be required when is alone. feasible. the energy possible For

for

identification types of the

one knows

to pinpoint long-lived Also, of the for faster

by the approach to

radionuclides, identification, or to search

however, it for

may not analyze

may be easier the type of

emissions

emission.

E.

Activity

Units

The becquerel formation historical 226Ra, dis/s.4 but The

SI (Bq). rate

unit

for

the is

activity the This originally as by a activity unit

of

a radioactive of a radionuclide the the decay

substance whose curie rate of (Ci), of

is

the

A becquerel is later 1 dis/s. unit defined are

transthe 1 g of

replaces as

activity

taken

transformation

rate

3.7~10~~

two units

related Ci.

1 Bq = 2.703~10-~~

(1 Ci = 3.7~10~~

Bq)

The unit.

becquerel To aid SI

is in

a rather designating prefixes

small

unit, the

whereas large in

the

curie of

is values

a rather that from

large may be

range Table 2.1

experienced, 11).

are

shown

(adapted

Reference

Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

2-17

Table

2.1

- SI Prefixes

Prefix deka hecto kilo mega &a tera peta

exa

Symbol da h k M G T P E

Factor 101 102 10s 106 109 1012 1016 1018

Prefix deci centi milli micro nano pica femto atto

Symbol d
C

Factor 10-1 10-z 10-e 10-a 10-e 10-12 10-15 lo-18

m P n P f
a

Common are the pCi,

smaller nCi

units In

of

the

curie of

encountered SI units, these

in health become

physics

work

and $i.

terms

1 pCi 1 nCi 1 PCi

= lo-l2

Ci = 3.7~10~~

Bq = 37 mBq Bq = 37 Bq Bq = 37 kBq

= 10eQ Ci = 3.7~10~ = 10m6 Ci = 3.7~10~

Some laboratory The grations) differ the and emit is the two

sources

in of time. the For

use will activity

be more refers the radiations atom this y/s. If

conveniently to the number

expressed

in

MBq.

definition per unit from 6Oco. rays are #8/s must

transformations of transformations as for

(disintewill in

Oftentimes, number each 2.0~10~ from into of 6oCo In

greatly case y of

emitted, which case, the decays, then data, activity

example, particle (jCo a

a beta of decay

emitted. and calculated be taken a pwithout the all 6oCo p

1 MBq of the

would sample of

1.0x106 to be accurately radionuclide If counting If one

experimental account. some of the

scheme

emitter, takes the

counted. transformation usually counter counting 1.0x106 106

merely

counting the the

rate

be may also and converts this to a scheme, example, 2% of the rate 7 = regard one consider gammas. would will a In be

rays

rate, overestimate which a 1 counts MBq

considering activity the fi of

decay For and

source.

(1 count/dis) the observed (2.0x106) this activity

source, + converts 0.02

counting counts/s

counts/s counts/s. If one

1.04x to

to MBq without

Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

2-18 the decay scheme, However, count counted 2x true the lo6 the p, all cts/s, activity. electron say , which capture 7Be, This for in decay, such a a 1 counter a serious counter. MBq source could underestimate 7Be emits will be only could about give the if a of activity would this come out as 1.04 in MBq, a slight which such result

overestimate. did a not counter be the In occur 0.1 about interpreted In Since with a an 7

one counted serious the which 7

same source would

a counter, Suppose the

overestimate rays

occur. Then,

(1 count/dis). to activity

would double

converted

would

be 2 MBq,

source case of

when per 1x105

counting, transformation. cts/s as 0.1

means this

erroneously

MBq. an a would the a counting radioactive since subject one emitter, is not be rate. chain, to the the normally counted, situation used, and thus if may products potential of be is the usually 7 rays the activity the more may source than also different. associated can be being one Q emit Q the counter

counting proportional Q emitter from contains per

determined counted emitted particles. source activity. When of counting

Nevertheless, there

transformation, This would

daughter

overestimating

the

radionuclide equipment can allow is care

that be

one is made. obtain

counting A suitable

is known,

a proper of

choice this

calibration activity in any health

equipment When work, the

will

then

one to unknown, in the

a reasonable frequently of

estimate. physics data.

radionuclide exercise

as occurs interpretation

one must

counting

F.

Snecific

Activity

The substance. before found from SI

specific It units. has

activity usually The specific shorter

is been the

defined

as the

activity as Ci/g

per of the

unit

mass

of

expressed half life of

radioelement the greater is

the

emitter,

to be its equation 2.5, SP.A.

activity. as

The specific

activity

can be calculated

now expressed = XN.

2.12

Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

2-19 where X is the transformation constant and N is now the number of atoms in one kg of the radioelement. 6oCo has a half life of 5.27 y. Calculate the specific activity: SP . A. = XN=0.693i&N T% and A = .060 moles Aa' 23 = 4.19x1016s~ ;)*06

0 a 693 (1) 6.022~10 5.27 y (3.1536~10~

[SP.A.-4.19x10 To convert

l6 hiI (2.703~10 kg -lL1 31 value

-3 k

= 1.13~10~

Ci/g] use

a tabulated

of SP.A. in Ci/g

to SI units,

SP.A (Bq/kg)

= 3.7~10~~ SP.A (Ci/g)

G.

Decay Chains In

general, most radioactive substances do not decay to form a stable nuclide, that is to say, the daughter nucleus is also radioactive and decays with its own characteristic half life. The problem of determining the amount of the daughter present at any time depends, therefore, upon both half lives. The daughter will be produced at a certain rate from the parent, but will decay with its own rate. at a given time there are NY parent atoms, with decay Suppose that atoms. After a certain interval of constant and no daughter %' atoms, AN2, is time, At, the increase in the number of daughter given by of parent - decay rate of daughter) At. 2.13

AN2 = (decay rate

The decay rate of the parent daughter, since whenever a parent The decay rate of the parent

the formation rate of the is actually atom decays, it becomes a daughter atom. is XINl, where Nl is the number of

Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

2-20 parent daughter daughter atoms is atoms AN -= 2 At From is the present X2N2. per unit XINlgeneral at The time X2N2. relationship, the number of parent any time. Similarly, for the the decay rate of rate of the of

expression becomes

change

2.14

atoms

at

any

time

Nl Substituting one arrives

= NyemXlt. this into the above expression and integrating the

2.15 equation,

at
N2=,2-X1

0 NIXl

(e-Xlt-e-X2t).

2.16

where

N2 is When

the the

number parent then

of

daughter half life

atoms is and

present long the after a

at

any

time. with e-X2t long that of the

compared term sufficiently

daughter, negligible Then equation

y$,

becomes time.

compared 2.16

with reduces to

eWXlt

2.17

However,

since

Nl we find

= NieeXlt.

N2 = x 1Nl x2 -Xl' A This activity stating condition state is is decays this is thus called at that the the reached transient same rate formation in which the ratio In parent daughter N2/Nl this activity. atoms remains case,

2.18 constant. the Another equals the daughter way of decay

equilibrium. as the rate of

Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

2-21 rate fractional constant of the ratio. When with and reduces the 238U parent activity is extremely Y) f the then original long-lived, as is the case -1, N2 daughter decrease in atoms. the In each unit and of time then, there is the same a

parent

daughter

activities,

yielding

(TG=4.5x10g
-x2,

Xl<<X2,e-Xlt expression for

x2-x1

so

that

to

N2 = A;2N'

(1 - e-X2t).

2.19 approaches by 2.20

After the

a daughter

sufficient product N2 = &~1/~2).

time, is then

e'X2t given

zero,

and

the

amount

of

This

state If

is the The

known

as secular has rises In

equilibrium. a to this shorter a case, have present. 2.16, half maximum life and than decays is for the with reached. cases in atoms, which no daughter, its own

parent daughter half life. relationships are to initially

X1>X2.

characteristic The daughter add a term above atoms

no equilibrium been If presented there gives are

daughter

we may

N2e -X2t

equation

which

N2

E-

VP
x2-x1

(emXlt -emA 2 )+
0 N2 one of is is the

Ni

e-X2t

2.21

in

which

number interested

of in

daughter the

atoms

present of the

at sample, of

t = 0. rather

In

most than

instances, the number

activity

atoms.

The

activity

can be obtained

by use

equation

2.5,

At = JVX = N2X2 (AtI2 = N2X2 0 = X2A1

cy+1>

for

this

case,

(e-Xlt-e-X2t)+A2e-X2t

Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

2-22 When be 1910. extended. A general in a radioactive The original equation Reference 12. chain is present, the were of method developed the n& outlined by H. member above Bateman of a series can in

relationships for the quantity

can be found

H.

Decav

Curve

of

a Mixture

The decay be the such

2)

problem of values

of the

identifying by the contributions are plotted

the from

half fact

life that paper, straight the

of

a radionuclide experimental of radionuclides. curve portion, obtained

from curve

a may

curve a activity a a

can be complicated

composite

a mixture

When from by

on semilog 1) an initial is then is

the

mixture curved This

will portion, type of

contain: which decay in

followed straight of at

followed being counted. curve the

by by the

3) a final presence

portion.

curve the

explained

least

two radioactive The activities due The but in the only as initial of to

products straight all the the activity products decay out, This the final

sample of

portion components, of the

the

represents final straight component

the of rate the

sum of portion mixture. initially;

the is

whereas longest-lived greatly activity will curvature

shorter-lived they beginning. Since

contribute the total for

to

the not in

decay decrease the plot. the back to

as rapidly

as

accounts straight this line

the portion

represents

activity zero gives time.

of

the The at this the at then the the

long-lived initial t = 0, of are

component, activity, of the the of long-lived

can be extrapolated component, In addition, When values of give the is this a series line.

the

long-lived component.

the line

intercept of values original

value the along curve,

extrapolated

decay

curve curve remainders the a plot

subtracted will of the

from

corresponding the If the values 0 for activity mixture will this

on the short-lived only line

represent times. remainder at of life straight t the for =

components, As before, represent

corresponding

contains new straight

two components, line. will

a straight

activity initial

value activity The half of the

short-lived each lines.

component. component can then be determined graphically

from

each

Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

2-23 If provided three the Example: Figure sample. P 1; ZOO 5;788 4,078 3,148 2,516 1,666 1,125 770 531 Plot one final sects from cps. choosing and dividing these would straight the the This t graph: occurs two points the two = the surmise data
t 0

or more

components data the are data the. in

are the half

present, table, lives

this accurate. plot for all

method a curve the

can be extended on semilog activities in (see the

original Using and

sufficiently

2.8)

determine

1 2 3 4 6 8 10 12 on 3-cycle that portion 0 at axis find 4 h. there of at the the 4000 time semilog are at curve cps. life

GE 370 258 181 127 89 62 44 31

t 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28

paper. least back to

From zero life activity

the time. is

shape This determined has

of

the

curve the inter-

two components.

Extrapolate line

The half the

directly to 2000 by

at which

dropped

The half curve, log This

can be determined finding the ratio the ratio by the value of of

mathematically these difference A. Take the two points, in

on the natural points. t = 12 h,

of

this gives

time

between t = 0,

points:

cps = 4000;

cps = 500.

1#
0

= ln$ Z-GIn 8 12

= -In

8 = -12

A;

3 In 2 =- In 2 h-l 12 4

But In T%=-T-= Take the points 2 E(4) h = 4 h.

on the points

extrapolated on the

curve

and subtract curve. Plot

their these

values

from

corresponding

experimental

differences

Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

2-24

C CURVE

OBTAINED

8Y SUBTRACTING

B FROM JR

APOLATED CURVE -LIFE ACTIVITY OBTAINED

OF THE 2-HOL

EIY SUBTRACTING

D FROM

10

12 14 16 Time (Hours) using example

18

20

22

24

26

28

Figure

2.8

Decay curve

data in text.

Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

2-25

versus on curve Similarly,

5,778

the

corresponding curve cps. the the cps, The point value is

times. is

Consider 10,000 the cps,

the

points the value cps, on the

for

t = 0;

the

value

the is

experimental
4,000

on the is plotted

extrapolated for t = 0. curve cps. way, = The one

difference, t = 1 h, on plotted to draw is final cps. 2 h. extrapolated the is second again half not the for the

6,000 value

for cps, and

2,378

experimental = in 3,400 this

extrapolated t = 1 h. curve. a straight straight The half line, portion life

curve Proceeding

difference, can determine In Once initial determined When corresponding plotted, component 30 minutes. a is again this

enough case

points the

curve the 2,000 is this on line

it back of

is to this

a curved

line. an as

extrapolating of the

t = 0 gives activity

activity from points points straight 4,000

graph on

curve curved line The

are and initial

subtracted the

from

the are

differences activity from the of graph

obtained. life

this is

cps,

and its

as determined

REFERENCES
1.

Glasstone, Co., Inc., Denham, Plutonium ICRP ICRP, Knoll, Sons,

S., SOURCE BOOK ON ATOMIC Princeton, NJ (1967). Health Physics D.H., Elements, Health Phys.

ENERGY,

3rd

ed,

D. Van Nostrand

2.

Considerations 16, 475-487

in (1969).

Processing

Trans-

3.

Publication Pergamon

38, Press,

RADIONUCLIDE Oxford, England DETECTION

TRANSFORMATIONS, (1983). AND MEASUREMENT,

Annals

of

the

4.

Glenn F., RADIATION New York, NY (1979). C.M. and Shirley, and Sons, Inc.,

John

Wiley

and

5.

Lederer, John Wiley

V.S., Editors, TABLE New York, NY (1978).

OF ISOTOPES,

7th

ed,

6.

Shleien, B. RADIOLOGICAL MD (1984). Brodsky, TECTION,

Editors, THE HEALTH PHYSICS AND and Terpilak, M.S., Nuclear Lectern Assoc., Inc., Olney, HEALTH HANDBOOK,

7.

A.B., Vol. 1,

Editor, HANDBOOK OF RADIATION MEASUREMENT CRC Press, West Palm Beach, .FL (1978). A HANDBOOK OF RADIOACTIVITY MD (1978).

AND PRO-

8.

NCRP Report No. 58, CEDURES, NCRP, Bethesda,

MEASUREMENTS

PRO-

Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

2-26

9.

Kocher, D.C., DOSIMETRY AND 11026 (1981). Erdtmann, G. Verlag Chemie, NCRP Report MENTS, NCRP, Skrable, First 155-157

A HANDBOOK OF DECAY DATA FOR APPLICATION TO RADIATION RADIOLOGICAL ASSESSMENTS, U.S. DOE Report DOE/TIC-

10.

and Soyka, W., THE GAMMA RAYS OF THE RADIONUCLIDES, Weinheim, NY (1979). No. 82, Bethesda, SI UNITS MD (1985). IN RADIATION PROTECTION AND MEASURE-

11.

12.

K.W., et al, Order Phenomena (1974).

A General Equation for the and Suggested Applications,

Kinetics Health

of Linear Phys. 27,

BIBLIOGRAPHY Kathren, tection, Brodsky, Hendee, Publishers, Cember, Oxford, Lapp, Hall, R.L., Historical Development of Radiation HANDBOOK OF RADIATION MEASUREMENT AND CRC Press, West Palm Beach, FL (1978). W.R., MEDICAL Chicago, IL H., INTRODUCTION England (1983). R.E. Inc., RADIATION (1979). TO PHYSICS, HEALTH PHYSICS, 2nd ed, Measurement PROTECTION, Year Book and ProEd. by A.

Medical

2nd

ed.,

Pergamon

Press,

and Andrews, H.L., NUCLEAR RADIATION Englewood Cliffs, NJ (1972). Guide 229-252 to the (1969).

PHYSICS,

4th

ed,

Prentice of Radon

Evans, Daughters,

R.D., Engineers' Health Phys. l7,

Elementary

Behavior

Friedlander, G., et al, NUCLEAR AND RADIOCHEMISTRY, Sons, New York, NY (1964). Glasstone, Nostrand Johns, Charles S., Co., Inc., Chapter 5, Princeton, Cunningham, Springfield, PHYSICS, SOURCEBOOK NJ (1967). J.R., THE IL (1983). Massachusetts ON ATOMIC

2nd ed,

John

Wiley

and

ENERGY,

3rd

ed,

D. Van

H.E. and C. Thomas,

PHYSICS

OF

RADIOLOGY,

4th

ed,

Rees, D.J., HEALTH Cambridge, MA (1967).

Institute

of Technology

Press,

Caro, D.E., et al, INTRODUCTION Publishing Co., Chicago, IL (1962). Kathren, R.L., AND SURVEILLANCE,

TO

ATOMIC

AND NUCLEAR

PHYSICS,

Aldine

RADIOACTIVITY IN THE ENVIRONMENT: SOURCES, DISTRIBUTION, Harwood Academic Publishers, New York, NY (1984).

Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

2-27
/' Shapiro, Cambridge, Gollnick, Press, Hurst, Sons, J., RADIATION MA (1981). PROTECTION, 2nd ed, Harvard University Press,

D.A., BASIC RADIATION Temple City, CA (1983). G.S. and Turner, New York, NY (1969). J.E.,

PROTECTION

TECHNOLOGY,

Pacific

Radiation

ELEMENTARY

RADIATION

PHYSICS,

Wiley

and

OUESTIONS

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6

When and by whom was radioactivity Name the With With what what three nucleus atomic Q distinct are particle is types Q particles are

discovered? of naturally identical? t9 particles how identical? many nuclear particles are occurring radiation.

When an emitted? How are

particle

emitted,

the

A and

Z numbers is emitted? is emitted? is emitted, particle

of

a radioactive

atom

affected

when:

ba:

an a particle a p particle

2.7

When a p particle a what particle? nuclear

was

converted

to

release

the

b.

what is version?

the

new

nuclear of a 7

particle ray

that affect

results the atomic

from

the number

conand

2.8
2.9

How does the the mass number? What is radioactive To what portional? What does schemes? Describe a> b) the the

emission

relationship between source at any particular is the disintegration

the number of time t to the rate of

atoms present time t? atoms

in pro-

2.10 2.11 2.12

value

radioactive

the

symbol

(lambda)

represent

in

radioactive

decay

plot

of

radioactive graph paper.

decay paper and,

rate

versus

time:

on linear (common) on semilogarithmic

--.Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

.~~-.----.

..

2-28

2.13

How many

cycles

should

semilogarithmic

paper

have

to plot

4
b) c> 2.14 What

700 to 1300 atoms? 20 to 95 atoms? 300 to 120,000 atoms? is the base of

4
b) 2.15 What

common natural are the

logarithms? logarithms? common b) d) logarithms 100 1O-3 of

a> 1
c) e> 2.16 What a> c> 2.17

lo2 10-4+ the

are :-1v .

natural b) e3

logarithms

of

What value is multiplied What decay If will a its

results by the

when the number of radioactive decay constant (A)? required for

atoms

present

(N)

2.18

value is to one-half radioactive half life

defined by the time its original value? substance loses half be 6 hours later?

a given

isotope

to

2.19

its

activity

in

3 hours,

what

2.20

In

the

conversion

formula

a>
b) c> 2.21 2.22

what does the symbol TQ represent? what does the symbol X represent? of what number is 0.693 the natural the unit per unit of source of time? appear of activity

logarithm? based upon the number of disin-

What is tegrations Why their

may j? emitters true value? the activity

to

have

a higher of

becquerel a radioactive

value

than

2.23

What does define?

one kilogram

substance

Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

2-29

2.24

What

terms

identify material material? radioactive that, upon decay, results in another

a>
b)
2.25

radioactive radioactive the resulting

material? does remain the ratio of the number of constant ? What is the name daughter given to

Under what condition(s), atoms to the parent atoms such a state? Under what conditions daughter and parent? Under what condition is data is

2.26

secular

equilibrium

reached

between

the

2.27 2.28

no equilibrium

reached? what does a curved decay

Assuming that good plot on semilogarithmic What known term data? is is on given

has been obtained, paper indicate? the projection of

2.29 2.30

to

a mathematical logarithm and dividing of

curve the that

beyond ratio ratio of by

What value two points the intervening

obtained by taking natural a radioactive decay curve time?

PROBLEMS

2.1

Complete a.

the

following + He

decay

schemes b) l4 C+N + /3- + i 6

'fiRa+Rn

C.

1;~g-+107?

d)

Au+';%g

+ ,8- + L and 2x 2x106, approximate

2.2

If the number of radioactive atoms disintegrate in 104 radioactive constant? Answer: - 2x10m3 minutes

atoms at minutes,

time what

t is

is the

2.3

If the active minute? Answer:

radioactive constant atoms, approximately

is how

O.l/day many

and there atoms will

are 3~10~ disintegrate

radioin 1

208/min

Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

2-30

2.4

From the formula At = A, emXt, find the activity of a sample at 4:00 P.M. when its activity was 1000 disintegrations per minute 1O:OO A.M. The decay constant X of the sample is 0.2/day. Answer: 951/min of 0.1813 radon d-l what in percentage 1 day? In of a freshly 2, 3, 4, 5, separated sample 10 and 20 days? of is 3.8235 days. What is the decay constant?

at

2.5

The half-life Answer:

2.6

In problem 2.5, will disintegrate Answer:

radon

Time(d) 1 2 3 4 5 10 20

% of radon decayed 16.6 30.4 41.9 51.6 59.6 83.7 97.3

2.7

The activity Bq (dis/s).

of 10m7 kg of 230Th is found to be 7.2~10~ What is the half life of 230Th?

90

Answer: 2.8 The the activity sample

8.0~10~

years sample the half is 25 Bq. What was the life is 25 minutes? activity of

of a radioactive 1 hour earlier if 132 Bq 14C, activity 1.65X1014 has of a half '%C? Bq/kg life

Answer:
2.9

Carbon-14, specific Answer:

of

5730

years.

What

is

the

Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

2-31 2.10 Krypton-88, 88Kr has a half life of 2.8 hours and its daughter rubidium-88, 88Rb has a half life of 18 minutes. If the krypton-88 has decayed to 5xlOlO atoms over a period of several weeks, how many daughter atoms are present? Hint: use the short form formula since krypton-88 has a much longer half life compared with the half life of rubidium-88. Answer: 2.11 6~10~ atoms

232m Thorium-232, has a half life of 1.41~10~~ years and % 228Ra has a half life of 5.76 years. If 10 daughter radium-22i, are found in a lump of natural ore, how many atoms atoms of thorium-232 of radium-228 should be present? Hint: thorium-232 has an extremely long half life when compared with the half life of radium-228.

Answer: 2.12

4.085~10~

atoms.

series have half lives of 6 The first two members of a radioactive while the third member is stable. minutes and 12 minutes respectively, Starting with lo8 atoms of the first member and none of the second and third, plot the number of atoms of the three members as a function of time. Determine from the graph (or otherwise), the time at which the second member reaches its maximum. Answer: 12 minutes from with a a graphite block bombarded by a 50 MeV proton germanium detector. The following data was Counts Per Minute 8400 7104 6008 5102 4300 3600 2591 1820 1310 932 661 330 Determine

2.13

A smear obtained beam was counted recorded Time (Minutes) 5 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 70 80 100

Elapsed

Plot the data as (a) linear plot and as a (b) semilog plot. the half life. Can you guess what could be the radionuclide?

I_
Operational Health Physics Training (Moe)

-...... - __.---_ ----_--

-----

2-32

2.14

The half life of of 238U is needed in the old system of Answer: 2973 kg

238U is for an units)?

4.4683~10~ activity

of

years. How many kilograms 3.7~10~~ Bq (this is 1 Ci

2.15

The data in the of two radionuclides

following

table

represents

the

decay

curve

of

a mixture

a>
b)
t

Plot

the

data the

on semilog half cpm 60,000 34,000 20,000 12,000 7,500 4,750 3,140 2,062 lives

paper of the two radionuclides cnm 1406 953 664 457 323 222 152 111 graphically.

Determine (min) 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

t (min) 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 min

Answer:

- 9.5

min

and - 4.5