Roger Scruton

Spinoza
Oxford New York OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS -iii-

Oxford Univer it! Pre " #re$t %&$rendon Street" Oxford ox' (DP Oxford New York )t*en )uck&$nd +$ngkok +ogot$ +ueno )ire %$&cutt$ %$,e Town %*enn$i D$r e S$&$$- De&*i F&orence .ong /ong I t$n0u& /$r$c*i /u$&$ 1u-,ur 2$drid 2e&0ourne 2exico %it! 2u-0$i N$iro0i P$ri S3o P$o&o Sing$,ore T$i,ei Tok!o Toronto 4$r $w $nd $ oci$ted co-,$nie in +er&in I0$d$n Oxford i $ regi tered tr$de -$rk of Oxford Univer it! Pre 5 Roger Scruton 678( Fir t ,u0&i *ed 678( $ $n Oxford Univer it! Pre ,$,er0$ck Rei ued 677(

)&& rig*t re erved9 No P$rt of t*i ,u0&ic$tion -$! 0e re,roduced" tored in $ retriev$& ! te-" or tr$n -itted" in $n! for- or 0! $n! -e$n " wit*out t*e ,rior ,er-i ion in writing of Oxford Univer it! Pre 9 4it*in t*e U/" exce,tion $re $&&owed in re ,ect of $n! f$ir de$&ing for t*e ,ur,o e of re e$rc* or ,riv$te tud!" or critici - or review" $ ,er-itted under t*e %o,!rig*t" De ign $nd P$tent )ct" 6788" or in t*e c$ e of re,rogr$,*ic re,roduction in $ccord$nce wit* t*e ter- of t*e &icence i ued 0! t*e %o,!rig*t 1icen ing )genc!9 En:uirie concerning re,roduction out ide t*e e ter- $nd in ot*er countrie *ou&d 0e ent to t*e Rig*t De,$rt-ent" Oxford Univer it! Pre " $t t*e $ddre $0ove T*i 0ook i o&d u0;ect to t*e condition t*$t it *$&& not" 0! w$! of tr$de or ot*erwi e" 0e &ent" re- o&d" *ired out or ot*erwi e circu&$ted wit*out t*e ,u0&i *er< ,rior con ent in $n! for- of 0inding or cover ot*er t*$n t*$t in w*ic* it i ,u0&i *ed $nd wit*out $ i-i&$r condition inc&uding t*i condition 0eing i-,o ed on t*e u0 e:uent ,urc*$ er +riti * 1i0r$r! %$t$&oguing in Pu0&ic$tion D$t$ D$t$ $v$i&$0&e 1i0r$r! of %ongre Scruton" Roger9 S,ino=$9 >P$ t 2$ ter ? +i0&iogr$,*!@ ,9 Inc&ude index 69 S,ino=$" +enedictu de" 6(A'-6(BB9 '9 P*i&o o,*er C Net*er&$nd C +iogr$,*!9 I9 Tit&e9 II9 Serie 9 +A77B9SAD 678( 677<9D7' 8(-6'E'7 IS+N F-67-'8B(AF-7 >,0k9? 6F 7 8 B Printed in #re$t +rit$in 0! %ox G 4!-$n 1td" Re$ding" +erk *ire %$t$&oging in Pu0&ic$tion D$t$

-iv-

%ontent
)00revi$tion Pref$ce 1ife $nd c*$r$cter +$ckground #od 2$n FreedoT*e 0od! ,o&itic S,ino=$< &eg$c! #&o $r! Furt*er re$ding Index -v-

6 ' A D E ( B

Abbreviations
I *$ve u ed t*e fo&&owing $00revi$tion in referring to S,ino=$< ,rinci,$& work @ % E I %orre ,ondence Et*ic Tre$ti e on t*e E-end$tion of t*e Inte&&ect >Tr$ct$tu de Inte&&ectu E-end$tione? 2et$,*! ic$& T*oug*t >),,endix to Princi,&e of %$rte i$n P*i&o o,*!? Po&itic$& Tre$ti e >Tr$ct$tu Po&iticu ? S*ort Tre$ti e on #od" 2$n $nd *i 4e&&-0eing T*eo&ogico-Po&itic$& Tre$ti e >Tr$ct$tu T*eo&ogico-Po&iticu ?

2 P S T

4*ere nece $r! I *$ve u ed -! own tr$n &$tion H ot*erwi e" I *$ve con u&ted t*e edition referred to $t t*e end of t*i 0ook" under Furt*er Re$ding9 ) #&o $r! of S,ino=$< ,rinci,$& ter- " $&erting t*e re$der to v$ri$tion in t*e t$nd$rd tr$n &$tion of t*e-" $& o occur $t t*e end of t*i work9 -vi-

Preface
S,ino=$< gre$tne $nd origin$&it! $re *idden 0e*ind $ re-ote" i-,$ ive" $nd often i-,enetr$0&e t!&e9 Few *$ve under tood *i $rgu-ent in t*eir entiret!H fewer ti&& *$ve recogni=ed t*eir continuing -or$& ignific$nce9 I *$ve ,re ented no -ore t*$n $n out&ine" $nd $- $cute&! $w$re of t*e in;u tice done" not on&! to S,ino=$" 0ut $& o to t*e ,$tient c*o&$r w*o *$ve wre t&ed wit* *i -e$ning9 2! ,ri-$r! o0;ect *$ 0een to de cri0e" in i-,&e &$ngu$ge" t*e contour of $ co-,&ex ! te- of t*oug*t9 Even o" I *$ve 0een un$0&e to -$ke S,ino=$< t*eor! of u0 t$nce fu&&! $cce i0&e" $nd %*$,ter A -u t t*erefore 0e re$d twice if it i to 0e under tood9 I *$ve 0enefited fro- -$n! tudent $nd friend " $nd in ,$rticu&$r fro- D$vid 2urr$!" w*o e erudition $ved -e fro- ever$& error of inter,ret$tion9 I *$ve $& o 0enefited fro- Io$nn$ Nort*" w*o e un,u0&i *ed work ugge ted w$! of tr$n &$ting S,ino=$< -o t $wkw$rd conce,tion into ter- t*$t $re inte&&igi0&e $nd intere ting to t*e -odern re$der9 I $- gr$tefu& to *er" not on&! for t*e c*$nce to re$d $nd di cu *er work" 0ut $& o for *er det$i&ed critici - of -! own9 S*e *$ no ,$rt in t*e f$i&ing of t*i 0ook" 0ut $ con ider$0&e ,$rt in it virtue " if it *$ $n!9 1ondon" Se,te-0er 678E -vii-

1 Life and character

+enedict >+$ruc*? de S,ino=$ >6(A'-BB? &ived in t*e Net*er&$nd $t $ ti-e w*en cientific di cover!" re&igiou divi ion" $nd ,rofound ,o&itic$& c*$nge *$d revo&utioni=ed t*e n$ture $nd $,,&ic$tion of ,*i&o o,*!9 4*i&e *e ;oined e$ger&! in t*e conte-,or$r! inte&&ectu$& 0$tt&e " ,*i&o o,*! w$ " for S,ino=$" not $ we$,on 0ut $ w$! of &ife" $ $cred order w*o e erv$nt were tr$n ,orted to $ u,re-e $nd cert$in 0&e edne 9 +ut ever! order re:uire $ $crifice" $nd t*$t de-$nded 0! ,*i&o o,*!Ct*e $do,tion of trut* $ one< -$ ter $nd one< go$&Ci neit*er e$ i&! undert$ken" nor re$di&! under tood 0! t*o e w*o refu e it9 To t*e -$ of -$nkind" t*erefore" t*e ,*i&o o,*er -$! $,,e$r $ $ ,iritu$& $0oteur" $ u0verter of t*ing &$wfu&&! e t$0&i *ed" $nd $n $,o&ogi t for t*e devi&9 So S,ino=$ $,,e$red to *i conte-,or$rie " $nd for -$n! !e$r $fter *i de$t* *e w$ reg$rded $ t*e gre$te t *eretic of t*e eventeent* centur!9 S,ino=$< $nce tor were S,$ni * Iew " w*o *$d ett&ed during t*e ixteent* centur! on t*e 0order of S,$in $nd Portug$&" t*ere to -$int$in $ f&ouri *ing tr$de9 For ever$& centurie uc* ,eo,&e *$d &ived re&$tive&! ecure&! in t*e S,$ni * ,enin u&$" ,rotected 0! t*e 2u &i- ,rince " $nd -ing&ing o,en&! wit* t*eir I &$-ic neig*0our 9 T*eir t*eo&ogi$n $nd c*o&$r *$d ;oined in t*e gre$t reviv$& of )ri tote&i$n ,*i&o o,*!" $nd one of t*e-C2o e 0en 2$i-on >2$i-onide " 66AE-6'FD?C*$d exerted $ f$r re$c*ing inf&uence" not on&! over Iud$i -" 0ut $& o over I &$- $nd %*ri ti$nit!9 It w$ 2$i-onide " indeed" w*o did -o t to et -ediev$& t*eo&og! u,on it )ri tote&i$n -6,$t*C$ ,$t* w*ic* &ed" $t &$ t" to t*e tr$nge t$rk t*ei -" w*ic* -$n! denounced $ $t*ei -" of S,ino=$9

4*en t*e kingdo- of #r$n$d$ w$ con:uered 0! Ferdin$nd $nd I $0e&&$" $nd t*e )r$0 were fin$&&! ex,e&&ed fro- t*e ,enin u&$" $n e,oc* of venge$nce 0eg$n9 %*ri t< ene-ie were now $ iduou &! ,uni *ed for cri-e of w*ic* t*e! *$d 0een *it*erto un$w$re9 To $ve t*e- e&ve fro- t*e In:ui ition Iew were o0&iged eit*er to convert or to e-igr$te" $nd t*e -u&titude of converted Iew Cvu&g$r&! known $ -$rr$no C&ed $ -i er$0&e exi tence" under t*e vigi&$nt e!e of $n In:ui ition t*$t cou&d never :uite 0e&ieve in t*e incerit! of $ conver ion induced 0! it e&f9 >T*e ter- -$rr$no i o-eti-e t*oug*t to derive fro- t*e o0 cure entence in 6 %orint*i$n 6(@ ''@ <If $n! -$n &ovet* not t*e 1ord" &et *i- 0e $n$t*e-$ -$r$n$t*$<9 It cou&d $& o 0e $ corru,tion of -ori coC<-oor<9 .owever" it ever!d$! -e$ning in S,$ni * i <,ig<9? T*e S,$ni * -on$rc*!< into&er$0&e co-0in$tion of ,iritu$& t!r$nn! $nd ecu&$r $rrog$nce ,rovoked $t &$ t t*e revo&t w*ic* initi$ted it dec&ine9 Fro- t*e de ,er$te ri ing of $ *$ndfu& of u0;ect in t*e Net*er&$nd t*ere ,r$ng $ new co--onwe$&t*" $nd one w*ic* ,ro-i ed to 0e $ free $nd to&er$nt $ t*e )r$0i$n ,rincedo- of S,$in9 In t*e ,ring of 6E7A $ -$&& 0od! of -$rr$no $i&ed ecret&! fro- Portug$&" $ttr$cted 0! t*e decree of to&er$tion w*ic* *$d 0een -$de in 6EB7 0! t*e Union of Utrec*t" w*en t*e even nort*ern ,rovince " co-0ining $g$in t t*eir S,$ni * overeign" *$d oug*t t*e ,rotection of t*e gre$t 4i&&i$I of Or$nge >4i&&i$- t*e Si&ent?9 %$&&ing $t E-den t*e -$rr$no were $dvi ed 0! t*e #er-$n Iew of E$ t Frie &$nd to -$ke for )- terd$-" w*ere t*e! ,ro-,t&! reverted to t*e $nce tr$& f$it* w*ic* t*e In:ui ition" de ,ite t*e -o t ingeniou -et*od " *$d f$i&ed to er$dic$te9 T*e c$u e of t*e revo&t in t*e Net*er&$nd were -$n!" -'0ut ,rinci,$& $-ong t*e- w$ t*e $dv$nce -$de 0! t*e Refor-$tion" $nd t*e de ire to e t$0&i * ufficient freedo-9 of wor *i, to ,er-it t*e Refor-ed c*urc*e to exi t" $nd t*eir congreg$tion to &ive $nd ,ro ,er9 T*e w$r wit* S,$in continued

,$ -odic$&&! unti& t*e ,e$ce of 2un ter in 6(D8" $nd during t*i ti-e t*e tr$nge new co--onwe$&t* defined it 0order $nd 0eg$n to ,ro ,er wit*in t*e-9 /nown retro ,ective&! $ t*e Dutc* Re,u0&ic" it w$ in re$&it! $ &oo e $ oci$tion of -ediev$& citie " re,re ented 0! $n <E t$te #ener$&< w*o e $n wer$0i&it! w$ never ,reci e&! or &eg$&&! defined9 No-in$&&! $0ove t*e E t$te #ener$&" 0ut $& o $,,ointed 0! t*e-" tood t*e St$dt*o&der9 P$rt&! fro- gr$titude" ,$rt&! for t*e $ke of convenience $nd continuit!" t*i office w$ conferred on t*e .ou e of Or$nge9 T*e Sout*ern Province *$d t$!ed &o!$& to t*e S,$ni * crown" $nd ret$ined t*e Ro-$n %$t*o&ic re&igionH during t*e !e$r fo&&owing t*e $ $ in$tion of 4i&&i$-" t*erefore" w*en *i de cend$nt exerci ed ucce ive&! t*e ,ower of t*e St$dt*o&der" t*e S,$ni * t*re$t to t*e Nort*ern Province w$ ,o,u&$r&! conceived in re&igiou ter- 9 %$t*o&ici - 0ec$-e t*e ene-!" $nd w*$tever re&igiou to&er$tion *$d 0een intended 0! 4i&&i$-" it oon 0ec$-e c&e$r t*$t it wou&d not 0e extended to t*e %$t*o&ic " w*o found t*e- e&ve in $ ,o ition co-,$r$0&e to t*$t of t*e -$rr$no in S,$in9 Furt*er-ore" $ t*e %$&vini t %*urc* -$noeuvred it e&f into u,re-e re&igiou $ut*orit! in t*e Nort*" it 0roug*t it own ,ecu&i$r en e of ,iritu$& d$nger9 T*e doctrine of ,rede tin$tion r$,id&! 0ec$-e ort*odox!" $ndC$ wit* ever! 0e&ief u,on w*ic* $ oci$& $nd ,o&itic$& ! te- i foundedCit *$d to 0e ,rotected frot*e $ $u&t of un0e&iever 9 T*e fo&&ower of )r-iniu " ,rofe or of t*eo&og! $t 1e!den" refu ed to $cce,t t*o e ,ro,o ition of t*e %$&vini t doctrine w*ic* ee-ed to f&! in t*e f$ce of -Are$ on" $nd i ued in 6(6F $ <Re-on tr$nce<" etting fort* t*eir di ident o,inion " $nd re:ue ting t*e E t$te #ener$& to u,*o&d t*e freedo- of wor *i, $nd o,inion w*ic* *$d 0een gu$r$nteed $t Utrec*t9 T*e St$dt*o&der" Prince 2$urice of Or$nge" dec&$red $g$in t t*e Re-on tr$nt " $nd t*o e w*o ,oke out in f$vour of re&igiou freedo- 0eg$n to fee& t*e ,inc* of e t$0&i *ed ,ower9 In t*e en uing conf&ict" t*e gre$te t Dutc* t*inker of t*e ti-eCt*e ;uri t .ugo #rotiu Cw$ entenced $t 2$urice< in tig$tion to &ife i-,ri on-ent" fro- w*ic* *e u0 e:uent&! e c$,ed into exi&e9

)nd in 6(67 t*e S!nod of Dort defined t*e Dutc* %*urc* $ $ <co--unit! of t*e e&ect<" t*ere0! e t$0&i *ing ort*odox %$&vini $ t*e offici$& re&igion of t*e Re,u0&ic" $nd $ut*ori=ing t*e ,urging of univer itie $nd ot*er ,&$ce of inf&uence9 Nevert*e&e " t*e new %*urc* w$ un$0&e to u,,re t*e t*oug*t w*ic* di tur0ed it9 P$rt&! on $ccount of t*e &oo e tructure of t*e Re,u0&icCin w*ic* t*e undefined ,ower of E t$te #ener$& $nd St$dt*o&der cou&d not 0e co-0ined into $ ing&e--inded t!r$nn!C$nd ,$rt&! on $ccount of t*e &eg$c! of Utrec*t" wit* it dec&$red ide$& of $ ,ure&! ecu&$r govern-ent" t*e ,irit of to&er$tion continued to 0re$t*e" $nd t*o e Re-on tr$nt w*o were content to e t$0&i * t*e- e&ve $,$rt were $&&owed to &ive in re&$tive tr$n:ui&&it!9 )t t*e $-e ti-e" t*ere f&ouri *ed $round t*e- $n e:u$&&! re-$rk$0&e" $nd for u -ore intere ting" defi$nce of t*e %$&vini t ,irit@ t*e $rt $nd cu&ture of t*e Net*er&$nd " in w*ic* -$n< re&$tion to t*e wor&d of o0;ect " $nd to *i own ,*! ic$& &ife" 0ec$-e t*e u0;ect of $ ,rofound ,iritu$& interrog$tion9 Into t*i extr$ordin$r! new order c$-e t*e -$rr$no " we&co-ed $t fir t $ fe&&ow victi- of S,$ni * crue&t!9 Per-i ion to 0ui&d $ !n$gogue w$ gr$nted in 6E78" $nd in 6(6E t*e E t$te #ener$& ,$ ed $ regu&$r ordin$nce for -Dt*e $d-i ion $nd govern-ent of t*e Iew 9 T*ere$fter t*e Iewi * co--unit! 0eg$n to ,ro ,er" 0eing reg$rded $ &e t*re$tening to t*e ort*odox re&igion t*$n t*e di enting ect w*ic* c$&&ed t*e- e&ve %*ri ti$n" $nd !et w*ic* $d-itted >w*$t w$ $cknow&edged on 0ot* ide to 0e true? t*$t t*e! were not e&ected to $&v$tion9 ) i n$tur$& in exi&e co--unitie " t*e Iew of )- terd$- were ;e$&ou of t*eir identit!" -$int$ining $ evere edict of vigi&$nce $g$in t t*o e w*o wou&d ,ervert $ f$it* ,roved 0! o -uc* uffering9 New $rriv$& were ex,ected to -$ke fervent de-on tr$tion of t*eir ort*odox!9 It w$ not ufficient for t*e

-$rr$no to c$ t off t*e *$0it of $n enforced %*ri ti$nit!9 It w$ nece $r! $& o t*$t t*e! 0e fre *&! in tructed in t*e 2o $ic &$w $nd t*e Iewi * o0 erv$nce " 0! t*e ) *ken$=i r$00i of )- terd$-" w*o were dee,&! u ,iciou of t*e Se,*$rdic tr$dition of S,$in9 T*e r$00inic$& fe$r of *ere ! t*ere0! c$-e to -irror t*e fe$r ex,re ed 0! t*e %$&vini t %*urc* tow$rd t*o e w*o :ue tioned it fee0&er doctrine H it w$ furt*er ex$cer0$ted 0! t*e Po,i * *$0it $nd de-e$nour of t*e newco-er " $nd 0! t*e occ$ ion$& c$nd$&ou eru,tion of un0e&ief9 T*e Iewi * co--unit! w$ ,$rticu&$r&! *$ken 0! t*e $ntic of one Urie& d$ %o t$ w*o" ,ro-,ted -ore 0! -ent$& in t$0i&it! t*$n 0! ,rinci,&e" re0e&&ed $g$in t t*e for-$&i tic te$c*ing of t*e !n$gogue" w$ twice exco--unic$ted" $nd twice reconci&ed $fter $ *u-i&i$ting ,en$nce" $nd w*o fin$&&! *ot *i- e&f" di gu ted wit* $ wor&d t*$t *$d ,er-itted o -uc* indeci ion in $ cre$ture 0orn for *ig*er t*ing 9 T*e -e-or! of t*i c$nd$& contri0uted to t*e re&igiou ,$nic $ $ re u&t of w*ic* t*e co--unit! w$ to ex,e&" $ unwort*! of it ,rotection" t*e gre$te t geniu w*o *$d grown wit*in it c$re9 S,ino=$< f$t*er 2ic*$e& *$d ,ro0$0&! co-e to -E)- terd$- $ $ c*i&d" 0efore t*e fu&& e t$0&i *-ent $nd recognition of t*e Iewi * co&on!9 ) $ ucce fu& -erc*$nt" wit* good connection " *e ro e r$,id&! to $ ,o ition of inf&uence" 0eco-ing 4$rden of t*e !n$gogue $nd of t*e )- terd$- Iewi * c*oo&9 .i &ife w$ -$rred" *owever" 0! ,riv$te orrow@ *e 0uried t*ree wive " $nd of *i ix c*i&dren" on&! twoC+$ruc* $nd *i *$&fi ter Re0ek$*- urvived into $du&t*ood9 +$ruc* de S,ino=$ w$ 0orn on 'D Nove-0er 6(A'" $nd $ttended" $ $ c*i&d" t*e Iewi * c*oo& $nd t*e !n$gogue" w*ere *e tudied .e0rew $nd t*e work of Iewi * $nd )r$0i$n t*eo&ogi$n 9 )-ong *i e$r&! te$c*er were t*e ort*odox enior r$00i of )- terd$-" R$00i S$u& 2orteir$" $nd t*e &i0er$& R$00i 2$n$ e* 0en I r$e&" $ -$n of wide &e$rning $nd ecu&$r intere t " friend of Vo iu " #rotiu " $nd Re-0r$ndt" w*o w$ to t$ke $ &e$ding ,$rt in

,ro-oting t*e re-$d-i ion of t*e Iew to Eng&$nd9 >2$n$ e* t*ere0! 0ec$-e t*e t$rget of $ ,o&e-ic fro- t*e Purit$n Pr!nne w*o" de ,ite *i *e$rtfe&t di gu t tow$rd 0ot* t!r$nt $nd Iew " f$i&ed to ee w*! t*e Iew $re $ccu ed of -urdering %*ri ti$n c*i&dren on&! w*en t!r$nt need -one!9? It w$ no dou0t t*roug* 2$n$ e*< inf&uence t*$t S,ino=$ 0eg$n to identif! o trong&! wit* t*e ecu&$r $nd en:uiring cu&ture of t*e Net*er&$nd 9 S,ino=$< f$t*er *o,ed t*$t *e -ig*t 0eco-e $ r$00i" $nd t*erefore -$de $v$i&$0&e to *i- $ -$n! educ$tion$& o,,ortunitie $ ee-ed co-,$ti0&e wit* ort*odox!9 )t t*e $ge of twent!" S,ino=$ 0eg$n to t$ke &e on fro- t*e te$c*er Fr$nce V$n den Enden" w*o introduced *i- to t*e c*o&$ tic ,*i&o o,*! t*$t w$ to ,rovide o -uc* of t*e ter-ino&og! of S,ino=$ Et*ic 9 V$n den Enden $& o fi&&ed *i- wit* ent*u i$ - for -odern cience" $nd no dou0t ,oke to *i- of t*e new ,*i&o o,*! of De c$rte 9 %ont$ct wit* ecu&$r $nd %*ri ti$n w$! of t*inking incre$ ed -(S,ino=$< di $ti f$ction wit* t*e 0i0&ic$& inter,ret$tion *e received fro- t*e r$00i " w*o in turn frowned on *i intere t in n$tur$& cience" $nd on *i tud! of t*e ,erniciou 1$tin &$ngu$ge" in w*ic* o -uc* *ere ! $nd 0&$ ,*e-! *$d 0een o eng$ging&! ex,re ed9 S,ino=$< growing inde,endence of -ind &ed *i- to !-,$t*i=e wit* t*e unort*odox %*ri ti$n of t*e Net*er&$nd " $nd in ,$rticu&$r wit* t*e %o&&egi$nt >$n $nti-c&eric$& ect of Re-on tr$nt ? $nd t*e 2ennonite " w*o *$d co-e into 0eing $ centur! e$r&ier" 0ut w*o identified c&o e&! wit* t*e Re-on tr$nt -ove-ent9 T*eir i-,&e &ife- t!&e $nd to&er$nt ,r$ctice ,rovided $ -or$& $rc*et!,e t*$t S,ino=$ w$ to defend in *i writing 9 .i $ oci$tion wit* t*e e ect did S,ino=$ no good in t*e e!e of t*e !n$gogue" $nd -$tter were ex$cer0$ted w*en *i i ter Re0ek$* tried to 0&ock S,ino=$< *$re of t*e in*erit$nce due on *i f$t*er< de$t* in 6(ED9 S,ino=$" we $re to&d" took *i i ter to court" e t$0&i *ed *i c&$i-" $nd t*en c$&-&! renounced it" $&ong wit* *i re-$ining &o!$&t! to $ co--unit! w*o e v$&ue *e did not

*$re9 .e $do,ted t*e n$-e +enedict" went to &ive wit* V$n den Enden" $nd 0eg$n to te$c* in *i c*oo&" 0eco-ing -ore $nd -ore i--er ed in t*e inte&&ectu$& concern of t*e ecu&$r $nd %*ri ti$n t*inker wit* w*o- *e now $ oci$ted9 V$n den Enden< c*oo& w$ $&re$d! notoriou in )- terd$- $ $ centre of free en:uir!" $nd 0! 6(E( S,ino=$< &ife w$ o gre$t $ c$nd$& to t*e Iewi * co--unit!" t*$t it cou&d no &onger 0e endured9 I9 29 1uc$ " $ friend of S,ino=$< w*o wrote *i 0iogr$,*!" te&& u t*$t two !oung $c:u$int$nce< fro- t*e !n$gogue c$-e $t t*i ti-e to interrog$te t*e ,*i&o o,*er concerning *i re&igiou o,inion 9 .e i $id to *$ve -$int$ined" not on&! t*$t #od *$ $ 0od!" 0ut t*$t not*ing in t*e cri,ture cou&d 0e -B$dduced t*$t wou&d tend to t*e contr$r! o,inion9 T*e two -en &eft in $nger" $nd" $ccording to $not*er tor!" e-0e&&i *ed 0! +$!&e" S,ino=$ w$ u0 e:uent&! $tt$cked on t*e te, of t*e !n$gogue9 .e i $id to *$ve ke,t 0! *i- t*ere$fter t*e c&o$k w*ic* *$d 0een torn 0! *i $ $i&$nt< d$gger9 T*e Iewi * co--unit! w$ under con ider$0&e tr$in" due ,$rt&! to $ udden $nd un,o,u&$r inf&ux of Po&i * Iew " w*o *$d e c$,ed fro- t*e 2u covite $nd %o $ck inv$ ion of Po&$nd9 Nevert*e&e " it cou&d f$ir&! 0e $id t*$t t*e r$00i over-re$cted to S,ino=$< eccentric &ife- t!&e" $nd t*$t t*e c$u e of Iud$i - -ig*t *$ve 0een 0etter erved 0! ignoring o-eone w*o *$d no n$tur$& di ,o ition to dr$w $ttention to *i di ent fro- it9 4i e&! or not" *owever" t*e r$00i u--oned S,ino=$ 0efore t*e-" $ccu ed *iof *ere !" $nd urged *i- in v$in to re,ent9 )fter $ t*irt!-d$! ,eriod of exco--unic$tion S,ino=$ w$ ;udged to 0e incorrigi0&eH on 'B Iu&! 6(E( *e w$ fin$&&! c$ t out of t*e !n$gogue" $nd w$ $n$t*e-$ti=ed <wit* t*e $n$t*e-$ w*erewit* Io *u$ $n$t*e-$ti=ed Ieric*o<" to wit@ cur ed 0e *e 0! d$!" $nd cur ed 0e *e 0! nig*tH cur ed 0e *e w*en *e &iet* down" $nd cur ed 0e *e w*en *e ri et*

u,H cur ed 0e *e w*en *e goet* out $nd cur ed 0e *e w*en *e co-et* inH t*e 1ord wi&& not ,$rdon *i-H t*e wr$t* $nd fur! of t*e 1ord wi&& 0e kind&ed $g$in t t*i -$n" $nd 0ring down u,on *i- $&& t*e cur e w*ic* $re written in t*e +ook of t*e 1$wH $nd t*e 1ord wi&& de tro! *i n$-e fro- under t*e *e$ven H $nd" to *i undoing" t*e 1ord wi&& cut *i- off fro- $&& t*e tri0e of I r$e&" wit* $&& t*e cur e of t*e fir-$-ent w*ic* $re written in t*e +ook of t*e 1$wH 0ut !e t*$t c&e$ve unto t*e 1ord #od &ive $&& of !ou t*i d$!J 4e ord$in t*$t no one -$! co--unic$te wit* *i-8ver0$&&! or in writing" nor *ow *i- $n! f$vour" nor t$! under t*e $-e roof wit* *i-" nor 0e wit*in four cu0it of *i-" nor re$d $n!t*ing co-,o ed or written 0! *i-9 To w*ic* S,ino=$ i $id to *$ve re,&ied@ <Ver! we&&H t*i doe not force -e to do $n!t*ing t*$t I wou&d not *$ve done of -! own $ccord" *$d I not 0een $fr$id of $ c$nd$&9< S,ino=$ did not re;oice in t*i conf&ict" *owever9 On t*e contr$r!" $fter *i exco--unic$tion *e $ddre ed to t*e e&der of t*e !n$gogue $n ),o&og! >written in S,$ni *?" in w*ic* *e defended *i view $ ort*odox" $nd conde-ned t*e r$00i for $ccu ing *i- of <*orri0&e ,r$ctice $nd ot*er enor-itie < -ere&! 0ec$u e *e *$d neg&ected cere-oni$& o0 erv$nce 9 Unfortun$te&! no co,ie of t*i $,o&og! urvive" t*oug* it content were ,ro0$0&! &$ter inc&uded in t*e T*eo&ogico-Po&itic$& Tre$ti e9 T*e civi& $ut*oritie " re ,onding to t*e $,,e$& of t*e r$00i " $nd $& o of t*e %$&vini t c&erg!" w*o *$d 0een vic$riou &! offended 0! t*e exi tence of $ free-t*inker in t*e !n$gogue" 0$ni *ed S,ino=$ for $ ti-e fro- )- terd$-9 )fter $ *ort ,e&& in t*e vi&&$ge of Ouwerkerk" *e returned to t*e cit!" $nd unti& 6((F u,,orted *i- e&f 0! giving ,riv$te &e on in %$rte i$n ,*i&o o,*! $nd 0! grinding &en e 9 During t*i ,eriod S,ino=$ co-,o ed t*e S*ort Tre$ti e on #od" 2$n $nd *i 4e&&-0eing" of w*ic* two Dutc*

tr$n &$tion urvive" di covered $0out 686F9 T*i 0ook cont$in t*e -$in e&e-ent of S,ino=$< &$ter ,*i&o o,*!" $&0eit r$t*er crude&! ex,re ed9 In 6((F S,ino=$ went to t*e :uiet countr! vi&&$ge of Ri;n 0urg" ne$r 1e!den" w*ere t*e %o&&egi$nt *$d e t$0&i *ed t*eir *e$d:u$rter 9 .i re,ut$tion $ $ &e$rned -$n *$d ,re$d" $nd *e 0eg$n to receive vi it $nd corre ,ondence fro- en:uiring ,eo,&e $nxiou to di cu wit* *i- t*e ,*i&o o,*ic$& $nd cientific :ue tion t*$t -7were tirring t*e -ind $nd *e$rt of Euro,e9 One of t*e e w$ .enr! O&den0urg >K 6(6E-BB?" $ &e$rned t*eo&ogi$n $nd di,&o-$t" w*o w$ to 0eco-e t*e fir t ecret$r! of t*e new&!-for-ed Ro!$& Societ! in 1ondon" $nd w*o e corre ,ondence wit* S,ino=$ i one of t*e -o t v$&u$0&e ource for t*e tudent of S,ino=$< ,*i&o o,*!9 )t Ri;n 0urg S,ino=$ co-,o ed" in 1$tin" t*e fir t ,$rt of $n ex,o ition of De c$rte < -et$,*! ic " entit&ed Princi,&e of %$rte i$n P*i&o o,*!" $nd 0eg$n work on *i -$ ter,iece" t*e Et*ic >$& o written in 1$tin?9 In 6((A *e &eft Ri;n 0urg for Voor0urg" ,$ ing t*roug* )- terd$-" w*ere *i friend ,er u$ded *i- to co-,&ete t*e ex,o ition of De c$rte " $nd to ,u0&i * it" toget*er wit* $n $,,endix of *i own <-et$,*! ic$& t*oug*t <9 S,ino=$ co-,&eted t*e t$ k in two week " uc* r$,idit! te tif!ing not to t*e $ut*or< *$ te" 0ut to *i $0 o&ute f$-i&i$rit! wit* t*e ! te- w*o e -$in ide$ *e oug*t to ex,ound9 S,ino=$< friend 1odewi;k 2e!er >6(AF-86? $dded $ ,ref$ce in w*ic*" $t t*e $ut*or< re:ue t" *e infor-ed t*e re$der t*$t S,ino=$ did not $gree wit* $&& t*e %$rte i$n $rgu-ent 9 T*e 0ook w$ t*e on&! one to 0e ,u0&i *ed 0! S,ino=$ under *i own n$-e@ it i now un;u t&! neg&ected" $&t*oug* $t t*e ti-e it en;o!ed $ *ig* re,ute $-ong t*e &e$rned" -o t of w*o- were tudent of t*e %$rte i$n ! te-" $nd -$n! of w*o- were t$ken $0$ck to ee t*e ! te- geo-etric$&&! ex,ounded" $nd it defect &$id 0$re9 )t Voor0urg S,ino=$ continued to work on t*e Et*ic $nd to corre ,ond wit* cienti t " ,*i&o o,*er $nd t*eo&ogi$n 9 .e

0ec$-e $c:u$inted wit* %*ri ti$n .u!gen " t*e founder of -odern o,tic " wit* Io*$n .udde" +urgo-$ ter of )- terd$-" $nd" ,ro0$0&! t*roug* .udde" wit* I$n de 4itt" t*e en&ig*tened t$te -$n w*o *e&d t*e office of #r$nd Pen ion$r! of t*e Net*er&$nd 9 )ccording to -$n! $n$&! t " -ore executive ,ower w$ ve ted in t*e -6F#r$nd Pen ion$r! t*$n w$ exerci ed eit*er 0! t*e St$dt*o&der or 0! t*e E t$te #ener$&9 I$n de 4itt w$ $n energetic defender of t*o e ,rinci,&e of to&er$nce $nd free ,eec* u,on w*ic* t*e Dutc* Re,u0&ic *$d 0een founded" $nd $& o" t*roug* t*e co--$nd over foreign re&$tion 0e towed u,on *i- 0! *i office" $ u0t&e $nd effective $dvoc$te of t*e Net*er&$nd < intere t 9 In 6(E'-D t*e Net*er&$nd *$d 0een $t w$r wit* Eng&$nd" ,$rt&! $ $ re u&t of ten ion gener$ted 0! t*e )ct of N$vig$tion" w*ere0! Dutc* *i,,ing w$ *$r$ ed $nd 0&ock$ded" $nd t*e tr$de $nd fi *ing u,on w*ic* t*e Re,u0&ic de,ended for it &ive&i*ood eriou &! i-,$ired9 I$n de 4itt *$d -edi$ted in t*i :u$rre&9 .e *$d ucceeded" *owever" on&! in g$ining t*e $cce,t$nce of t*e E t$te to %ro-we&&< de-$nd t*$t t*e !oung Prince of Or$nge >gr$nd on of 4i&&i$- I? *ou&d not &e$d t*e -i&it$r! force of t*e Net*er&$nd 9 T*i ett&e-ent ex$cer0$ted t*e generic conf&ict 0etween t*e St$dt*o&der $nd t*e E t$te " $nd I$n de 4ittC$&re$d! reg$rded 0! t*e St$dt*o&der $ too fr$nk $n $dvoc$te of re&igiou &i0ert!Cw$ *encefort* u ,ected 0! t*e Or$ngi t ,$rt!9 ) o often in t*e Net*er&$nd " t*e growing ,o&itic$& ten ion found ex,re ion in controver ie over t*e n$ture of t*e t$te" $nd t*e de ir$0i&it! or ot*erwi e of free wor *i, $nd free o,inion9 S,ino=$< friend *i, wit* de 4itt c$u ed *i- to t$ke ide in t*e di ,ute" $nd t*e re u&ting T*eo&ogico-Po&itic$& Tre$ti e" ,u0&i *ed $non!-ou &! in 6(BF" cont$ined $ ,owerfu& defence of ecu&$r $nd con titution$& govern-ent9 In t*e word of Sir Frederick Po&&ock" <t*e tone $nd for- of t*e tre$ti e $re conci&i$tor!" 0ut wit* t*e kind of *ig*-*$nded conci&i$tion t*$t ex$ ,er$te <9 T*e identit! of t*e $ut*or did not re-$in for &ong conce$&ed" $nd t*i work" w*ic*

$dvoc$ted to&er$nce" under t$nding $nd t*e w$! of ,e$ce" drew down u,on -66S,ino=$ t*e 0e&&igerent $,o tro,*e of $&& t*o e w*o tood >$ t*e! t*oug*t? to &o e fro- uc* d$ngerou ,o&icie 9 De 4itt< ene-ie de cri0ed t*e Tre$ti e $ <forged in .e&& 0! $ reneg$de Iew $nd t*e Devi&" $nd i ued wit* t*e know&edge of I$n de 4itt<9 T*e work w$ conde-ned 0! t*e S!nod of t*e Refor-ed %*urc* in 6(BA" $nd for-$&&! 0$nned in 6(BD9 In 6(BF S,ino=$ -oved to t*e .$gue" w*ere *e &ived u,on $ -$&& $&&ow$nce of EFF f&orin >LDF? $ !e$r" co-,o ed of $ -$&& ,en ion gr$nted $nnu$&&! 0! I$n de 4itt" $nd $n $nnuit! fro- t*e 0rot*er of *i de$d friend" Si-on de Vrie 9 >De Vrie *$d wi *ed to -$ke S,ino=$ *i *eir" 0ut *$d 0een di u$ded fro- t*i cour e 0! S,ino=$< *onour$0&e ,&e$ding on 0e*$&f of De Vrie < f$-i&!9? For t*e next five !e$r *e continued to work on *i Et*ic " wrote $n unfini *ed gr$--$r of t*e .e0rew &$ngu$ge" $nd 0eg$n t*e Po&itic$& Tre$ti e9 .e $& o wrote two cientific e $! C<On t*e R$in0ow<" $nd <On t*e %$&cu&$tion of %*$nce <C$nd 0eg$n $ Dutc* tr$n &$tion >t*e unfini *ed fr$g-ent of w*ic* *e de tro!ed? of t*e +i0&e9 .i -ode t inco-e $nd dedic$tion ke,t *i- confined to *i &odging " w*ere *e wou&d o-eti-e < re-$in wit*out venturing fort* for t*ree -ont* $t $ ti-e9 In 6((E t*e Net*er&$nd *$d $g$in 0een $t w$r wit* Eng&$nd" $nd I$n de 4itt *$d -$n$ged to to, t*e 0&ood *ed 0! forging" in 6((8" t*e tri,&e $&&i$nce 0etween t*e Net*er&$nd " Eng&$nd $nd Sweden9 In 6(B6" *owever" %*$r&e II of Eng&$nd ;oined force $g$in t t*e Dutc* wit* 1oui XIV of Fr$nceH w$r w$ dec&$red in 6(B'" $nd 6'F" FFF Frenc* troo, -$rc*ed into t*e Net*er&$nd 9 T*e ,o,u&$ce" in $ t$te of ,$nic" $nd we&& c*oo&ed in f$ction" 0&$-ed t*e di $ ter on de 4itt" $nd &ookedC$ $&w$! in $ ti-e of cri i Cto t*e .ou e of Or$nge $ t*eir n$tur$& ource of &e$der *i,9 T*e Or$ngi t did not*ing to :ue&& t*e -6'-

ru-our of t*e #r$nd Pen ion$r!< tre$c*er!" $nd on 'F )ugu t 6(B' de 4itt $nd *i 0rot*er were ei=ed $t t*e .$gue $nd 0rut$&&! 0e$ten to de$t* 0! $ furiou crowd9 It i $id t*$t S,ino=$" on *e$ring of t*i outr$ge" ,re,$red to $&&! fort* to t*e cene of t*e cri-e" wit* $ notice -$rked U&ti-i +$r0$ri9 It i ;u t ,o i0&e t*$t t*e ,o,u&$ce wou&d *$ve under tood uc* $n in cri,tionH in $n! c$ e" S,ino=$< unc*$r$cteri tic out0ur t w$ overco-e 0! V$n der S,!ck" t*e ,$inter in w*o e *ou e *e re ided9 1$ter S,ino=$ w$ to 0eco-e t*e o0;ect of t*e $-e -ind&e fur! t*$t *$d co t t*e &ife of *i ,$tron9 In 6(BB *e undertook $ -i ion of ,e$ce to t*e Frenc* $r-! 0$ ed $t Utrec*t" *$ving 0een invited" on 0e*$&f of t*e gre$t %ondM" 0! %o&one& Stou,e9 S,ino=$< -i ion ee- to *$ve *$d t*e $nction of t*e Dutc* $ut*oritie 9 Nevert*e&e " returning fro- Utrec*t" $fter week of ,oint&e w$iting" S,ino=$ w$ greeted wit* inten e u ,icion9 To t*e c*$rge of *eretic $nd $t*ei t w$ now $dded t*$t of ,!" $nd *i &$nd&ord fe$red t*$t *i *ou e -ig*t 0e 0e ieged 0! t*e infuri$ted -o09 S,ino=$ co-forted *i- wit* t*e e word @ Fe$r not*ing on -! $ccountH I c$n e$ i&! ;u tif! -! e&fH t*ere $re ,eo,&e enoug*" $nd of t*e c*ief -en in t*e countr! too" w*o we&& know t*e -otive of -! ;ourne!9 +ut w*$tever co-e of it" o oon $ t*e crowd -$ke t*e &e$ t noi e $t !our door" I wi&& go out $nd -$ke tr$ig*t for t*e-" t*oug* t*e! *ou&d erve -e $ t*e! *$ve done t*e un*$,,! de 4itt 9 I $- $ good re,u0&ic$n" $nd *$ve never *$d $n! $i- 0ut t*e *onour $nd we&f$re of t*e t$te9 4*i&e wit* t*e Frenc* force S,ino=$ w$ $ ked to dedic$te $ 0ook to 1oui XIV" in return for $ ro!$& ,en ion9 .e ,o&ite&! refu ed9 In t*e $-e !e$r c$-e $not*er" $nd -ore *onour$0&e" offer@ t*i ti-e of $ ,rofe or *i, $t t*e -6A-

Univer it! of .eide&0erg9 T*e invit$tion c$-e fro- t*e E&ector P$&$tine" Prince /$r& 1udwig" $nd w$ tr$n -itted to S,ino=$ in t*e fo&&owing ter- @ <You wi&& *$ve t*e -o t $-,&e freedo- in ,*i&o o,*ic$& te$c*ing" w*ic* t*e ,rince i confident !ou wi&& not -i u e" to di tur0 t*e re&igion ,u0&ic&! e t$0&i *ed<9 In $n wer" S,ino=$ re-$rked t*$t uc* $ c&$u e" i-,o ing undefined &i-it on *i inte&&ectu$& freedo-" w$ not one wit* w*ic* *e cou&d co-,&!9 <Re&igiou :u$rre& "< *e $dded" <do not $ri e o -uc* fro- $rdent =e$& for re&igion" $ fro- -en< v$riou di ,o ition $nd &ove of contr$diction" w*ic* c$u e t*e- *$0itu$&&! to di tort $nd conde-n ever!t*ing" *owever rig*t&! it -$! *$ve 0een $id9 I *$ve ex,erienced t*e e effect in -! ,riv$te $nd ec&uded t$tionH *ow -uc* -ore *ou&d I *$ve to fe$r t*e- $fter -! e&ev$tion to t*i ,o t of *onour< >% X1VIIII?9 S,ino=$ t*erefore dec&ined t*e offer" $nd re-$ined in frug$& retire-ent $t t*e .$gue9 Fro- t*ere *e continued to corre ,ond wit* *i di tingui *ed conte-,or$rie " inc&uding t*e !oung cienti t von T c*irn*$u " $ +o*e-i$n count w*o tr$ve&&ed wide&! in ,ur uit of in truction9 T c*irn*$u < &etter cont$in t*e -o t i-,ort$nt of t*e o0;ection t*$t were offered to S,ino=$< Et*ic " $ 0ook w*ic* w$ t*en circu&$ting in -$nu cri,t" $nd dr$wing &ive&! intere t fro- t*e &e$rned wor&d9 T*roug* T c*irn*$u S,ino=$ -$de t*e $c:u$int$nce of 1ei0ni=" w*o w$ $&re$d! f$-i&i$r wit* o-e of *i writing 9 T*e &etter 0etween t*e two ,*i&o o,*er were cordi$&" $&t*oug* S,ino=$ $t fir t di tru ted 1ei0ni=" w*o in turn referred to *i- ,riv$te&! $ <$ Iew ex,e&&ed fro- t*e !n$gogue for *i -on trou o,inion 9 Since t*e fund$-ent$& $ u-,tion 0e*ind t*eir two ! te- $re ,rofound&! i-i&$r" it i ,er*$, not ur,ri ing t*$t t*e two ,*i&o o,*er Cw*o e conc&u ion $re w*o&&! o,,o ed- *ou&d *$ve tre$ted e$c* ot*er wit* $ cert$in c$ution9 -6DSever$& of S,ino=$< friend *o,ed t*$t *e wou&d ,u0&i * t*e Et*ic 9 In $ &etter to O&den0urg" S,ino=$ ex,&$ined *i re$ on for wit**o&ding t*e 0ook fro- t*e ,re @

I *$d et out to )- terd$- for t*e ,ur,o e of ,u0&i *ing t*e 0ook I *$d -entioned to !ou9 4*i&e I w$ negoti$ting" $ ru-our g$ined currenc! t*$t I *$d in t*e ,re $ 0ook concerning #od" w*erein I ende$voured to *ow t*$t t*ere i no #od9 .ence cert$in t*eo&ogi$n " ,er*$, t*e $ut*or of t*e ru-our" took occ$ ion to co-,&$in of -e 0efore t*e ,rince $nd -$gi tr$te H -oreover" t*e tu,id %$rte i$n " 0eing u ,ected of f$vouring -e" ende$voured to re-ove t*e $ ,er ion 0! $0u ing ever!w*ere -! o,inion $nd writing " $ cour e w*ic* t*e! ti&& ,ur ue9 4*en I 0ec$-e $w$re of t*i t*roug* tru twort*! -en" w*o $& o $ ured -e t*$t t*e t*eo&ogi$n were ever!w*ere &!ing in w$it for -e" I deter-ined to ,ut off ,u0&i *ing ti&& I $w *ow t*ing were going 9 9 9 >%1XVIII? In t*e event t*ing got wor e" $nd S,ino=$ g$ve u, t*e ide$ of ,u0&i *ing t*e Et*ic " 0e&ieving t*$t it wou&d cre$te uc* $ c&oud of *o ti&it! $ to o0 cure" in t*e -ind even of re$ on$0&e ,eo,&e" t*e re$& -e$ning of it $rgu-ent 9 2e$nw*i&e" t*e 0ook w$ re$d $ttentive&!" $nd $t &e$ t one c&u0 exi ted for t*e ex,re ,ur,o e of working t*roug* it ,roof 9 S,ino=$< *e$&t* 0eg$n to f$i& in 6(B(9 For o-e ti-e *e *$d 0een uffering fro- con u-,tion" $ condition t*$t *$d dou0t&e 0een ex$cer0$ted 0! *i work $ $ &en -grinder9 .e re-$ined $ctive" *owever" $nd unco-,&$ining9 On&! $t t*e end did *e ign$& to t*e wor&d *i i--inent de,$rture fro- it9 On S$turd$!" 'F Fe0ru$r! 6(BB S,ino=$ ent for *i friend $nd ,*! ici$n" Dr #9 .9 Sc*u&&er9 .e ,ent t*e $fternoon" $ w$ *i cu to-" wit* *i *o t< f$-i&!" $nd -6Et*en went e$r&! to 0ed9 Sc*u&&er $rrived on t*e Sund$! to find t*e ,*i&o o,*er in 0etter ,irit H t*e V$n der S,!ck &eft *i- in t*e $fternoon to $ttend t*e 1ut*er$n c*urc*" $nd &e$rned on t*eir return t*$t S,ino=$ *$d died $t t*ree o<c&ock9 .e w$ 0uried in t*e ce-eter! of t*e New %*urc* on t*e S,u!" $,,$rent&! in $ *ired gr$ve9 It i $id t*$t ix co$c*e $ttended t*e funer$&" $nd t*$t

-$n! ,ro-inent citi=en c$-e to ,$! t*eir &$ t re ,ect 9 T*e *e$d tone -$rking S,ino=$< gr$ve ti&& t$nd " $&t*oug* t*e gr$ve it e&f w$ ,ro0$0&! *ired $g$in" $nd t*e ,*i&o o,*er< 0one re-oved fro- it9 S*ort&! $fter S,ino=$< de$t* *i friend %o&eru " u0 e:uent&! 1ut*er$n ,$ tor $t t*e .$gue" co-,o ed $ 0iogr$,*ic$& -e-oir9 Fro- t*i we &e$rn of t*e i-,&icit! $nd n$tur$&ne of S,ino=$< &ife $nd c*$r$cter" $nd of t*e *ig* e tee- in w*ic* *e w$ *e&d 0! *i $c:u$int$nce $nd friend 9 T*e ec&u ion of S,ino=$< &ife w$ nece it$ted 0! inten e &$0our $nd inte&&ectu$& di ci,&ine" $nd *i frug$&it! ex,re ed inde,endence of ,irit r$t*er t*$n -e$nne or e&f-concern9 T*e trengt* of S,ino=$< oci$& fee&ing " $nd *i )ri tote&i$n e-,*$ i on friend *i, $ $ nece $r! *u-$n good" $re $0und$nt&! *own in t*e Et*ic 9 .i two 0iogr$,*er C%o&eru $nd I9 29 1uc$ " 0ot* of w*o- *$d know *i- inti-$te&! $nd &oved *i- we&&Cte tif! to *i ,er on$& c*$r-" no0i&it! of out&ook" $nd $ffection$te di ,o ition9 T*eir te ti-on! i confir-ed 0! S,ino=$< own word " in $ &etter@ So f$r $ in -e &ie " I v$&ue" $0ove $&& ot*er t*ing out of -! contro&" t*e ;oining *$nd of friend *i, wit* -en w*o $re &over of trut*9 I 0e&ieve t*$t not*ing in t*e wor&d" of t*ing out ide our own contro&" 0ring -ore ,e$ce t*$n t*e ,o i0i&it! of $ffection$te intercour e wit* uc* -enH it i ;u t $ i-,o i0&e t*$t t*e &ove we -6(0e$r t*e- c$n 0e di tur0ed >in$ -uc* $ it i founded on t*e de ire e$c* fee& for t*e know&edge of trut*?" $ t*$t trut* once ,erceived *ou&d not 0e $ ented to9 >%XIX? In t*$t utter$nce i cont$ined" *owever" $ *ig*&! -et$,*! ic$& view of friend *i," $nd one to w*ic* we *$&& *$ve c$u e to return9 1uc$ te&& u t*$t S,ino=$ w$ of -ediu- *eig*t $nd geni$& ex,re ion9 Sever$& ,ortr$it exi t" $&t*oug* t*eir $ut*enticit! i not e t$0&i *ed9 S,ino=$ w$ *i- e&f intere ted in t*e ,rev$i&ing

,$ ti-e of t*e Net*er&$nd " $nd wou&d ,$ -$n! *our ketc*ing wit* ink $nd ,$,er9 .e -oked $ ,i,e" $nd dr$nk 0eerC$ i *own 0! *i gr$titude" ex,re ed in $ &etter" for $ gift of *$&f $ tun >% 1XXII?9 In dre *e w$ convention$& $nd tid!" *o&ding t*$t <$n $ffect$tion of neg&igence i t*e -$rk of $n inferior -ind" in w*ic* wi do- i not to 0e found $t $&&" $nd in w*ic* t*e cience c$n on&! 0reed i-,urit! $nd corru,tion<9 Of S,ino=$< $ttitude to t*e ot*er ex &itt&e i known" $&t*oug* it *$ 0een c&$i-ed t*$t S,ino=$ w$ c$,tiv$ted" $ $ !oung -$n of twent!-t*ree" 0! V$n den Enden< d$ug*ter" %&$r$ 2$ri$" w*o re;ected *i- in f$vour of $ ric*er ,u,i&9 So-e di credit t*i tor!" on t*e ground t*$t t*e gir& w$ ,ro0$0&! not -ore t*$n twe&ve !e$r o&d $t t*e ti-e9 On t*e ot*er *$nd" S,ino=$ i t*e on&! gre$t ,*i&o o,*er to *$ve written wit* in ig*t on t*e u0;ect of exu$& ;e$&ou ! >E A" AE?" $nd *i re-$rk ugge t $ dee, f$-i&i$rit! wit* t*e e-otion de cri0ed9 1uc$ te&& u t*$t" w*i&e S,ino=$ did not conde-n -$rri$ge" *e re;ected it for *i- e&f" ,er*$, fe$ring t*e <i&& te-,er of $ wo-$n<" $nd in $n! c$ e recogni=ing in -$tri-on! $ t*re$t to *i c*o&$r&! intere t 9 S,ino=$< Et*ic i $ work of concentr$ted $rgu-ent $nd -6Bi--en e inte&&ectu$& $-0ition9 It i t*erefore not ur,ri ing t*$t S,ino=$ wrote &itt&e e& e" 0e ide t*e work $&re$d! -entioned9 )n e$r&! Tre$ti e on t*e E-end$tion of t*e Inte&&ect w$ &eft unfini *ed" $ w$ t*e Po&itic$& Tre$ti e" u,on w*ic* S,ino=$ w$ working w*en *e died9 )fter *i de$t*" *i &o!$& friend Ie&&e " 2e!er $nd Sc*u&&er g$t*ered toget*er t*e ,*i&o o,*er< corre ,ondence" $nd ,u0&i *ed t*o e ,$rt w*ic* ee-ed to 0e of cientific intere t" toget*er wit* t*e Et*ic " $nd t*e fir t of t*e unfini *ed tre$ti e 9 T*e editor did not d$re to $dd t*eir n$-e to t*e ,u0&ic$tion" w*ic* w$ :uick&! o&d out" $nd $ :uick&! 0$nned9 T*e t!&e of t*e e work i ,$r e" un$dorned" $nd !et o&e-n $nd i-,o ingH t*e occ$ ion$& $,*ori - ;u-, fro- t*e ,$ge wit* $&& t*e gre$ter force" in t*$t t*e! $,,e$r $ t*e ur,ri ing 0ut

nece $r! con e:uence of $rgu-ent ,re ented wit* -$t*e-$tic$& ex$ctitude9 S,ino=$< -ot*er-tongue w$ S,$ni *H *e w$ $ -$ ter of .e0rew $nd *$d $n effective co--$nd of Portugue e $nd Dutc*C,er*$, $& o of Frenc*9 .owever" none of t*o e &$ngu$ge cont$ined t*e we$&t* of cientific $nd ,*i&o o,*ic$& $rgu-ent t*$t w$ cont$ined in 1$tin" w*ic* &$ngu$ge t*erefore 0ec$-e" for S,ino=$" 0ot* t*e ,ri-$r! ve*ic&e of *i t*oug*t" $nd t*e !-0o& of *i inte&&ectu$& :ue t9 In c*oo ing t*e univer $& &$ngu$ge of our cu&ture" S,ino=$ wrote t*e &$ t indi ,ut$0&e 1$tin -$ ter,iece" $nd one in w*ic* t*e refined conce,tion of -ediev$& ,*i&o o,*! $re fin$&&! turned $g$in t t*e- e&ve $nd de tro!ed entire&!9 .e c*o e $ ing&e word fro- t*$t &$ngu$ge for *i device@ c$uteC<0e c$utiou <Cin cri0ed 0ene$t* $ ro e" t*e !-0o& of ecrec!9 For" *$ving c*o en to write in $ &$ngu$ge t*$t w$ o wide&! inte&&igi0&e" *e w$ co-,e&&ed to *ide w*$t *e *$d written9 -68-

2 Background
S,ino=$ &eft $ ce&e0r$ted de cri,tion of *i &ife< ende$vour@ )fter ex,erience *$d t$ug*t -e t*$t $&& t*ing w*ic* fre:uent&! t$ke ,&$ce in ordin$r! &ife $re v$in $nd futi&eH w*en I $w t*$t $&& t*e t*ing I fe$red $nd w*ic* fe$red -e *$d not*ing good or 0$d in t*e- $ve in o f$r $ t*e -ind w$ $ffected 0! t*e-" I deter-ined $t &$ t to in:uire w*et*er t*ere -ig*t 0e $n!t*ing w*ic* -ig*t 0e tru&! good $nd $0&e to co--unic$te it goodne " $nd 0! w*ic* t*e -ind -ig*t 0e $ffected to t*e exc&u ion of $&& ot*er t*ing @ I deter-ined" I $!" to in:uire w*et*er I -ig*t di cover $nd $c:uire t*e f$cu&t! of en;o!ing t*roug*out eternit! continu$& u,re-e *$,,ine 9 >I i? It w$ t*e $ffect$tion of t*e $ge to ,re ent it conce,tion in t*i w$!Ce$c* $ $ w*o&&! new de,$rture" $ working out $0initio of $n $n wer un,o&&uted 0! received ide$ $nd free fro- cu to-$r! f$& e*ood 9 +ut it i ,er*$, truer of S,ino=$ t*$n of *i conte-,or$rie " t*$t *i enter,ri e w$ one of r$dic$& deduction fro- fir t ,rinci,&e 9 Even *e" *owever" did not t*ink in $ *i toric$& v$cuu-" or wit*out referenceC*owever covertCto conce,tion w*o e -e$ning *$ c&ouded wit* ti-e" $nd w*o e ,&$u i0i&it! i no &onger o0viou 9 S,ino=$ 0eg$n to &e$rn 1$tin w*en *e w$ twent!9 Unti& t*en" *e *$d $cce to eventeent*-centur! t*oug*t $nd &iter$ture on&! t*roug* di cu ion wit* *i co-,$nion $nd te$c*er " $nd t*roug* t*e occ$ ion$& S,$ni * or -67-

.e0rew tr$n &$tion9 4e -u t inevit$0&! conc&ude" t*erefore" t*$t t*e -$in inf&uence over S,ino=$< t*oug*t during *i for-$tive !e$r were not t*o e ,*i&o o,*er " uc* $ De c$rte " to w*o- *e &$ter devoted *i $ttention" 0ut t*e Iewi * $nd 2u &i- writer of e$r&ier centurie " w*o e t*oug*t ,rovided t*e -$in $rgu-ent of conte-,or$r! Iud$i -9 T*roug* t*e work of 2o e 2$i-onide $nd t*e co--ent$rie of t*e )r$0 )verroN " S,ino=$ wou&d *$ve 0eco-e $c:u$inted wit* )ri tot&e9 T*e e $nd &$ter t*eo&ogi$n wou&d $& o *$ve introduced *i- to t*e ide$ of t*e %*ri ti$n c*o&$ tic 9 In 2$i-onide *e wou&d *$ve encountered t*e i-$ge of ,*i&o o,*! $ $ guide to &ifeH in t*e /$00$&$* t*e conce,tion of #od< i--$nence" $nd of t*e u&ti-$te identit! 0etween t*e %re$tor $nd *i cre$tion9 In t*e T$&-ud" $nd $g$in in 2$i-onide " *e wou&d *$ve een $n o0 e ive &ove of -or$& det$i&C$ -inute ex$-in$tion of *u-$n ,$ ion $nd $ction" co-0ined wit* $ u ,icion of t*e c*e-$tic -or$&it! of $0 tr$ct ,rinci,&e9 )&& t*o e ide$ re urge in t*e Et*ic " in re-$rk$0&e $nd tr$n -uted for-9 +ut 0! t*e ti-e S,ino=$ c$-e to write t*$t work" two furt*er inf&uence *$d c*$nged *i conce,tion" 0ot* of t*e :ue tion of ,*i&o o,*!" $nd of t*e -et*od w*ic* cou&d $n wer t*e-9 T*e e two inf&uence were De c$rte " fro- w*o- S,ino=$ took *i conce,tion of -et$,*! ic $ t*e found$tion of cientific know&edgeH $nd t*e new work of ,o&itic$& ,*i&o o,*!Cin ,$rticu&$r t*o e of #rotiu $nd .o00e Cw*ic* $tte-,ted to et -$n wit*in t*e w*o&e context of *i oci$& n$ture $nd ,o&itic$& circu- t$nce" $nd to derive t*e ,rece,t 0e t uited to *i finite $nd erroneou condition9 Of $&& t*o e inf&uence " it i difficu&t now to ing&e out $n! one $ deci ive9 2odern c*o&$r *i, *$ -$de it i-,o i0&e to $cce,t t*e tr$dition$& inter,ret$tion of S,ino=$" $ t*e -o t ! te-$tic of De c$rte < di ci,&e " t*e -et$,*! ic$& -'F,uri t w*o oug*t to reconci&e t*e contr$diction " $nd rectif! t*e cience" of *i -$ ter9 It i $ e$ ! to ee S,ino=$ $ one of t*e &$ t gre$t re,re ent$tive of -ediev$& t*inking" w*o $tte-,ted to reconci&e $n )ri tote&i$n t*eo&og! wit* t*e finding of -odern cience" $nd to ,rovide for t*e new -$n of t*e En&ig*ten-ent $

t*eor! of *u-$n n$ture" $nd of *u-$n *$,,ine " t*$t wou&d vindic$te t*e &ife of conte-,&$tion w*ic* for )ri tot&e w$ t*e *ig*e t good for -$n9 S,ino=$ wou&d *$ve conde-ned t*e ,r$ctice >known now$d$! $ t*e <*i tor! of ide$ <? w*ere0! $ tud! of t*e $nce tr! of ide$ t$ke ,recedence over $n en:uir! into t*eir trut* $nd -e$ning9 P*i&o o,*!" *e re-$rked" *ou&d 0e ;udged $,$rt fro- t*e &ife $nd tudie of it ex,onent >T vii?9 Nevert*e&e " *i own ide$ $nd $rgu-ent wi&& ee- o tr$nge $t fir t ig*t to t*e -odern re$der" $ to 0e c$rce&! inte&&igi0&e wit*out reference to t*eir $ntecedent 9 ) I *$&& &$ter tr! to *ow" it w$ 0! no -e$n $ f$u&t in S,ino=$ t*$t *e ,$id o -uc* $ttention to ide$ w*ic* *$d ,$ ed t*eir ,ri-e9 On t*e contr$r!" it w$ t*e tot$& vi ion of )ri tote&i$n $nd c*o&$ tic ,*i&o o,*! w*ic* *e&,ed to fr$-e S,ino=$< t*eor! of t*e univer e@ $ t*eor! t*$t *owed ex$ct&! *ow we cou&d know t*e wor&d" $ct on it" $nd find our *$,,ine wit*in it9 S,ino=$< $c*ieve-ent w$ to *ow -$n $nd *i wor&d $ $n inextric$0&e unit!" $nd -$n *i- e&f $ i-u&t$neou &! -$ ter $nd erv$nt of t*e f$te w*ic* cre$te *i-9 )ri tote&i$n $nd c*o&$ tic -et$,*! ic It i i-,o i0&e to under t$nd eit*er S,ino=$ or De c$rte wit*out referring to $ conce,t in*erited t*roug* t*e c*o&$ tic fro)ri tot&e@ t*e conce,t of u0 t$nce9 )ccording to )ri tote&i$n &ogic" ever! i-,&e ,ro,o ition cont$in two ,$rt C u0;ect $nd ,redic$teCref&ecting $ fund$-ent$& divi ion in re$&it!" 0etween u0 t$nce " $nd -'6t*e $ttri0ute w*ic* $re <,redic$ted of<" <$ttri0uted to<" or w*ic* <in*ere in< t*e-9 >In t*e ,ro,o ition <Io*n i 0$&d<" for ex$-,&e" 0$&dne i ,redic$ted of Io*n9? T*i &ogic$& di tinction *$ -et$,*! ic$& i-,&ic$tion 9 Since u0 t$nce c$n c*$nge in re ,ect of t*eir $ttri0ute " t*e! -u t endure t*roug* c*$nge9 Indeed" t*ere i $ te-,t$tion cont$ined in t*e ver! ide$ of u0 t$nceC$ te-,t$tion -$;e tic$&&! !ie&ded to 0! S,ino=$Cto u,,o e t*$t

u0 t$nce endure t*roug* ever! c*$nge" $nd c$n t*erefore 0e neit*er cre$ted nor de tro!ed9 2oreover" if we c$n refer to u0 t$nce it -u t 0e ,o i0&e to e,$r$te t*e-" $t &e$ t in t*oug*t" fro- t*e $ttri0ute wit* w*ic* t*e! -ig*t $t o-e ,$rticu&$r -o-ent 0e encu-0ered9 .ence we *ou&d di tingui * t*e <e ence< of u0 t$nceCt*$t wit*out w*ic* it cou&d not 0e t*e ,$rticu&$r t*ing t*$t it i Cfro- it $ccident <@ t*e ,ro,ertie in re ,ect of w*ic* it -ig*t c*$nge wit*out ce$ ing $&toget*er to 0e9 Fin$&&! no $ttri0ute c$n exi t wit*out $ u0 t$nce in w*ic* it in*ere @ $ttri0ute $re e enti$&&! de,endent9 It i t*erefore u0 t$nce " $ccording to t*e )ri tote&i$n vi ion" w*ic* $re t*e u&ti-$te con tituent of re$&it!9 )ri tote&i$n cience con i ted in t*e c&$ ific$tion of u0 t$nce into gener$ $nd ,ecie 9 T*e new cience of +$con $nd #$&i&eo took :u$ntit! $nd not :u$&it! $ t*e deci ive f$ctor in t*e ex,&$n$tion of c*$nge" $nd t*erefore fretted $g$in t t*e 0ond i-,o ed u,on it 0! t*e re tricting conce,t of u0 t$nce9 In ,$rticu&$r" it w$ *$-,ered 0! t*e in en itivit! of t*i conce,t to t*e di tinction 0etween individu$& $nd ,ecie ter- on t*e one *$nd" $nd :u$ntit$tive >or <-$ <? ter- on t*e ot*er9 For ex$-,&e" <-$n<Cw*ic* c$n denote 0ot* $n individu$& $nd t*e c&$ w*ic* u0 u-e *i-Crefer to individu$& u0 t$nce 9 It $& o ex,re e $ ,redic$te w*ic* gener$&&! de cri0e t*e-9 +ut w*$t $0out < now< $nd <w$ter<K T*ere -''$re not individu$& < now < or <w$ter <" exce,t in $n $ttenu$ted en e w*ic* wou&d ee- to o0&iter$te $ di tinction fund$-ent$& to cientific t*oug*t9 T*i i t*e di tinction 0etween <t*ing< $nd < tuff<" 0etween w*$t c$n 0e counted" $nd w*$t c$n on&! 0e -e$ ured9 T*e difficu&t! of forcing t*e ide$ of < tuff< into t*e conce,tu$& fr$-e of < u0 t$nce< i re ,on i0&e for -uc* of t*e re;ection during t*e eventeent* centur! of )ri tote&i$n cience" $nd for t*i re$ on" if for no ot*er" t*e conce,t of u0 t$nce w$ 0ound to occu,! t*e centr$& ro&e w*ic* S,ino=$ $ccorded to it in *i ,*i&o o,*!9

2ediev$& t*eo&og! in*erited ot*er $rgu-ent $nd conce,tion fro- )ri tot&e $nd t*e ,o t-)ri tote&i$n cor,u " $nd -$n! of it origin$& contri0ution $re -$rked 0! t*e un-i t$k$0&e tone of )ri tote&i$n -et$,*! ic 9 T*i i e ,eci$&&! true of w*$t w$ to 0e t*e -o t inf&uenti$& of $&& c*o&$ tic $rgu-ent @ t*e onto&ogic$& ,roof of #od< exi tence9 T*e di cover! of t*i ,roof i nor-$&&! credited to St )n e&-" )rc*0i *o, of %$nter0ur! >6FAA-66F7?" 0ut it i not too gre$t $ di tortion to find g&i-, e of it in cert$in ,$ $ge of )ri tot&e 2et$,*! ic " $nd in t*e co--ent$rie on t*$t work written 0! )&-F$r$0i $nd I0n Sinn$ >)vicenn$?9 It w$ re;ected 0! St T*o-$ ):uin$ in *i ! te-$tic ex,o ition of t*e 0$ i of %*ri ti$n doctrine" 0ut nevert*e&e 0e&ong to $ c&$ of $rgu-ent ot*er of w*ic* *e w$ inc&ined to $cce,t" $nd $&& of w*ic* derive t*eir ,roof for t*e exi tence of #od 0! w$! of t*e conce,t of $ nece $r! 0eingC$ 0eing w*o e e ence invo&ve exi tence9 Put ver! i-,&!" St )n e&-< $rgu-ent i $ fo&&ow 9 4e under t$nd 0! #od $ 0eing gre$ter t*$n w*ic* not*ing c$n 0e t*oug*t9 T*i ide$ c&e$r&! exi t in our -ind $nd i t*e ide$ of $n o0;ect wit* ever! ,erfectionCever! <,o itive $ttri0ute<9 +ut if t*e o0;ect of t*i ide$ were to exi t o&e&! in our -ind" $nd not in re$&it!" t*ere wou&d 0e $n ide$ -'Aof o-et*ing u,erior to it" n$-e&! of t*e 0eing t*$t ,o e e not on&! $&& t*e ,erfection $&re$d! conceived" 0ut $& o t*e $ddition$& ,erfection of re$& exi tence9 4*ic* i contr$r! to *!,ot*e i H *ence t*e ide$ of $ -o t ,erfect 0eing -u t corre ,ond to re$&it!9 In ot*er word " it i $ nece $r! trut* t*$t $ -o t ,erfect 0eing exi t 9 T*e ,*i&o o,*er of t*e 2idd&e )ge C%*ri ti$n" Iew $nd 2u &i-C were ,e&&0ound 0! uc* $rgu-ent w*ic*" for $&& t*eir $0 tr$ctne " c$-e to t*e- i-0ued wit* t*eir own dee,e t $nd -o t ,iou e-otion 9 Nor *$d t*e ,e&& 0een 0roken w*en S,ino=$ wrote9 De c$rte $cce,ted $ ver ion of t*e onto&ogic$& $rgu-entH o did S,ino=$H o did t*e ot*er gre$t r$tion$&i t" 1ei0ni=9 Indeed" it w$ not unti& t*e eig*teent* centur!" $nd /$nt< deci ive refut$tion" t*$t t*e $rgu-ent fin$&&! &o t it $,,e$&" $nd

0! t*en t*e -ediev$& vi ion of -$n< ,&$ce in n$ture *$d 0een irrevoc$0&! we,t $w$!9 T*e $cce,t$nce of t*e onto&ogic$& $rgu-ent" $nd t*e re u&ting conce,tion of $ <nece $r! 0eing<" endowed wit* o-ni,otence $nd o-ni cience" ee- to -$ke non en e of $not*er t*eo&ogic$& c&$i-@ t*e c&$i- t*$t -$n i free" $nd &i$0&e to ;udge-ent9 If $&& t*$t exi t de,end u&ti-$te&! on t*e divine n$ture" $nd if t*$t n$ture i governed 0! nece it!" t*en not*ing in t*e wor&d i contingent9 .ow t*en i *u-$n freedo- ,o i0&eK 4it* t*e $cce,t$nce of t*e )ri tote&i$n -et$,*! ic " t*i :ue tion-f$-i&i$r $&re$d! to t*e f$t*er of t*e %*urc*-$c:uired $ new di-en ion $nd $ new urgenc!9 So-e of t*e gre$te t $c*ieve-ent of -odern ,*i&o o,*! re u&t fro- t*e< $tte-,t to reconci&e t*e 0e&ief in *u-$n freedo- wit* t*e etern$& &$w of #od< n$ture" $nd $-ong t*e e $c*ieve-ent S,ino=$< i not on&! t*e -o t i-$gin$tive $nd ,rofound" 0ut ,er*$, t*e on&! one t*$t i tru&! ,&$u i0&e9 -'D)ri tote&i$n et*ic T*e inf&uence of )ri tot&e< Nico-$c*e$n Et*ic " w*i&e not $t fir t ig*t $,,$rent" i $ ,erv$ ive in S,ino=$< writing $ t*e inf&uence of t*e )ri tote&i$n t*eo&og!" co-ing to *i-" not t*roug* t*e c*o&$ tic " 0ut t*roug* Iewi * $nd 2u &i- ource 9 In order to di cover t*e <good &ife for -$n<" )ri tot&e $rgued" we -u t tud! -$n< di tingui *ing $ttri0uteCt*e $ttri0ute of re$ on9 ) r$tion$& 0eing exerci e *i re$ on in two di tinct w$! C t*eoretic$&&! $nd ,r$ctic$&&!9 .$,,ine co-e on&! t*roug* t*e rig*t exerci e of ,r$ctic$& re$ on" o $ to fu&fi& our n$ture" $nd not to t*w$rt it9 ) r$tion$& 0eing *$ not on&! re$ on" *owever" 0ut $& o e-otion9 .i *$,,ine de,end u,on *i e t$0&i *ing uc* $n order in *i e-otion $ to 0e &ed $&w$! in t*e ,$t* t*$t re$ on $dvi e 9 T*i in turn c$n 0e $c*ieved on&! 0! deve&o,ing cert$in di ,o ition of c*$r$cterCt*e virtue Cw*ic* &e$d $ -$n to do $nd to fee& ,ont$neou &! t*$t w*ic* i in $ccord$nce wit* r$tion$& n$ture9

S,ino=$ *$red )ri tot&e< view of -$n $ $ r$tion$& 0eing" w*o e re$ on i ex,re ed not on&! t*eoretic$&&! $nd ,r$ctic$&&!" 0ut $& o in *i e-otion$& &ife9 .e $& o fo&&owed )ri tot&e in eeing re$ on $ $ kind of di ci,&ine" w*ic* cou&d turn our e-otion in t*e direction of *$,,ine 9 .e de,$rted fro- )ri tot&e" *owever" in *i t*eor! of e-otion" in *i conce,tion of t*e re&$tion 0etween re$ on $nd ,$ ion" $nd in *i ide$ of *$,,ine " of w*ic* *e g$ve $ P&$tonic r$t*er t*$n $n )ri tote&i$n de cri,tion9 #rotiu $nd .o00e S,ino=$< -or$& ! te- i de igned to *ow u t*e w$! to *$,,ine 9 S,ino=$ w$ -ore of $ toic t*$n )ri tot&e" -ore di ,o ed to 0e&ieve t*$t $ -$n -$! $c*ieve *$,,ine $nd ,e$ce of -ind 0! *i own re ource " reg$rd&e of *i oci$&" -'E,o&itic$& $nd -$teri$& circu- t$nce 9 In $ ver! re$& en e -$n" for S,ino=$" i *i own de tin!" $nd owe *i -i er! $nd *$,,ine to *i- e&f9 .owever" -o t of -$nkind neit*er $ ,ire to t*e inner freedo- of t*e ,*i&o o,*er" nor &ive in w$! t*$t ,er-it t*e- to under t$nd it9 Even o" t*e! -$! co-exi t in ,e$ce $nd *$r-on!" ,rovided on&! t*$t t*e! $re governed 0! &$w uited to t*eir r$tion$& n$ture" $nd to&er$nt of t*eir excu $0&e exce 9 T*e Dutc* re,u0&ic" $ $ u t$ined ex,eri-ent in con titution$& govern-ent" in ,ired f$r-re$c*ing ,ecu&$tion concerning t*e n$ture of &$w" freedo- $nd overeignt!9 S,ino=$ w$ *eir to t*i ,ecu&$tion" $nd dee,&! inf&uenced 0! it gre$te t ex,onent .ugo #rotiu >.uig de #root" 6E8A- 6(DE?" $ut*or of t*e fir t $nd t*e gre$te t tre$ti e of intern$tion$& &$w >De Iure +e&&i $c P$ci " 6(AFAE?9 #rotiu recogni=ed t*$t t*e corru,tion $nd dec&ine of P$,$& ;uri diction" $nd t*e 0irt* of t*e -odern t$te" toget*er g$ve ri e to $n urgent need for $ for- of &eg$&it! t*$t wou&d tr$n cend t*e writ of $n! ,$rticu&$r overeign9 T*e o&d ide$ of govern-ent 0! ro!$& decree were woefu&&! in$de:u$te to -$n< c*$nged condition9 ) t$te" #rotiu $rgued" i $n $ oci$tion of free ,eo,&e" ;oined toget*er in ,rotection of t*eir rig*t $nd intere t " $nd $&&

&$w -u t te- eit*er fro- t*$t free $ oci$tion" or fro- t*e *ig*er &$wCt*e &$w of n$tureCw*ic* $,,&ie to $&& -en" $nd $&& n$tion " in ever! circu- t$nce of &ife9 T*e &$w of n$ture i etern$& $nd i--ut$0&e" $nd 0inding even on #odH to di cern it we *$ve 0ut to e-,&o! our re$ on" w*ic* &e$d u $ ine&uct$0&! to t*e ,erce,tion of rig*t $nd wrong" $ it &e$d u to t*e trut* of &ogic $nd -$t*e-$tic 9 #rotiu w$ 0! no -e$n $n i o&$ted t*inkerH t*e ide$ w*ic* *e ex,re ed" concerning &$w" civi& $ oci$tion" w$r $nd ,e$ce" were t*en current in t*e Net*er&$nd " $nd were to e&icit $n e:u$& intere t in Eng&$nd" w*ere T*o-$ -'(.o00e co-,o ed *i De %ive $nd 1evi$t*$n" 0ot* of w*ic* work were tudied 0! S,ino=$9 .o00e $cce,ted t*e 0ro$d tenet of n$tur$& &$w" $ t*e e *$d 0een ex,ounded 0! #rotiu 9 +ut n$tur$& &$w" *e $rgued" i tot$&&! ineffective wit*out t*e ,ower t*$t wi&& enforce it9 It i t*erefore ,ower" r$t*er t*$n rig*t" t*$t deter-ine t*e exi tence $nd c*$r$cter of $ <co--onwe$&t*<9 Power i t*e co--on f$ctor in $&& ,o&itic$& $rr$nge-ent H $nd it di ,o ition" divi ion $nd &i-iting ,rocedure $ccount for t*e o0 erv$0&e difference 0etween govern-ent 9 S,ino=$< ,o&itic$& ,*i&o o,*! i $ kind of !nt*e i of #rotiu $nd .o00e 9 1ike #rotiu " *e 0e&ieve in $ n$tur$& &$w" di cover$0&e to re$ on" t*$t wi&& ,ecif! t*e ide$& for- of govern-entH 0ut &ike .o00e *e recogni=e no difference in re$&it! 0etween rig*t $nd ,ower " $nd ee t*e ,ro0&e- of ,o&itic $ t*$t of t*e di ,o ition of ,ower9 .ow" *e $ k " *ou&d ,ower 0e di ,o ed o t*$t -$n< r$tion$&it! -ig*t 0e ex,re ed in it" $nd *i freedo- ,rotected 0! it exerci eK .i $n wer to t*$t :ue tion i $ intere ting $ $n!t*ing *e wrote9 T*e %$rte i$n revo&ution It i difficu&t for u to $,,reci$te t*e c$t$c&! -ic force wit* w*ic* t*e writing of De c$rte truck t*e Dutc* c*oo& " c*urc*e $nd

univer itie " *$&f o,en $ t*e! $&re$d! were to inte&&ectu$& innov$tion9 Suffice it to $! t*$t" $fter $ ,eriod of &ive&!" $nd often vio&ent controver !" during w*ic* t*e ver! n$-e of De c$rte w$ for $ ti-e dec&$red un-ention$0&e $t t*e Univer it! of 1e!den" t*e new ,*i&o o,*!" wit* it i-,ertinent e$rc* for fir t ,rinci,&e " 0ec$-e $cce,ted $ $ &egiti-$te" if d$ngerou " ource of t*eo&ogic$& $nd cientific $rgu-ent9 In *i Di cour de &$ 2Mt*ode" 6(A( >t*$t it w$ written in Frenc* $nd not in 1$tin w$ $n event in it e&f?" De c$rte -'B*$d initi$ted $ ,rogr$--e of r$dic$& inte&&ectu$& refor-" refu ing to $cce,t $ true $n! ,ro,o ition w*ic* cou&d not 0e c&e$r&! ,roven9 )&& cience" *e $rgued" -u t 0e founded in -et$,*! ic " w*ic* i it e&f t*e ! te- of e&f-evident trut* Ctrut* w*ic* do not re:uire furt*er ,roof t*$n i invo&ved in under t$nding t*e-9 No ,ro,o ition c$n 0e -ore cert$in t*$n t*e ,re-i e w*ic* $re $ u-ed in t*e ,roof of it9 Un&e t*ere $re e&f-evident trut* t*erefore" not*ing i know$0&e" ince ever! ;udge-ent wi&& de,end" in t*e &$ t $n$&! i " u,on $cce,t$nce of un,roven ,re-i e 9 Se&f-evident trut* $re t*o e w*o e trut* i reve$&ed to t*e <n$tur$& &ig*t< of re$ onCw*o e trut*" $ we *ou&d now $!" u ing $ ter- fro- #rotiu " i $ ,riori9 De c$rte < ,ri-e ex$-,&e of $ e&f-evident trut* w$ t*$t cont$ined in t*e ce&e0r$ted cogito@ <I t*ink" t*erefore I $-<9 I c$nnot dou0t t*$t I t*ink" wit*out t*ere0! confir-ing t*$t I $t*inking9 >)nd &ikewi e for t*e ;udge-ent t*$t I exi t9? )not*er ex$-,&e" of -ore intere t to t*e tudent of S,ino=$" i our know&edge of t*e v$&idit! of $n $rgu-ent9 I c$n ee t*$t fro- t*e ,ro,o ition <, $nd :< it fo&&ow t*$t ," $nd t*i too i e&f-evident9 )&t*oug* t*e c$ e i different in cert$in cruci$& re ,ect fro- t*$t of t*e cogito" it i nevert*e&e $n in t$nce of $ trut* reve$&ed to t*e <n$tur$& &ig*t<9 De c$rte wou&d $! t*$t t*e re&$tion 0etween <, $nd :< $nd <,< i o-et*ing t*$t I ,erceive c&e$r&! $nd di tinct&!" or o-et*ing of w*ic* I *$ve $ <c&e$r $nd di tinct ide$<9 )n! uc* ide$ c$n 0e een to 0e true 0! t*e <n$tur$& &ig*t< of re$ on9

<%&e$rne $nd di tinctne < were t*erefore t$ken 0! De c$rte $ ,roviding $n intrin ic criterion of trut*" $ gu$r$ntee" cont$ined in t*e ver! n$ture of $n ide$" t*$t t*e wor&d i $ t*e ide$ re,re ent it9 Preci e&! w*$t i -e$nt 0! <c&e$r $nd di tinct< i $ -$tter of di ,ute9 ) c&e$r ide$ ee- to 0e one t*$t I co-,re*end wit*out $ i t$nce fro- t*e en e or fro- $n! ource ot*er t*$n -! own re$ oning -'8,ower H $ di tinct ide$ one t*$t i un-ixed wit* ide$ t*$t $re not intrin ic to it9 Suc* $n ex,&$n$tion" *owever" doe no -ore t*$n u0 titute one o0 curit! for $not*er9 In ,$rticu&$r" it e-,&o! $g$in t*e ter- w*ic* -o t need ex,&$iningCt*e ter- <ide$< w*ic* De c$rte " in co--on wit* -o t of *i conte-,or$rie " u ed to de cri0e $n! -ent$& content" w*$tever it individu$& n$ture or origin9 Suc* difficu&tie were &e $,,$rent to t*e %$rte i$n t*$n t*e! $re to u 9 T*e -et*od of <c&e$r $nd di tinct ide$ < w$ t$ken to *$ve o&ved t*e fund$-ent$& ,ro0&e- of know&edge@ it ee-ed to ,rovide t*e 0ridge fro- inner to outer" fro- t*e cert$int! $tt$c*ed to our re$ oning" to t*e wor&d $0out w*ic* we t*ink9 S,ino=$ u0 cri0ed to $ -odified for- of De c$rte < -et*od" $nd drew t*e t$nd$rd ,*i&o o,*ic$& conc&u ion9 .e 0ec$-e convinced t*$t t*e fund$-ent$& ,re-i e of *u-$n know&edge -u t 0e e t$0&i *ed" not 0! ex,erience 0ut 0! re$ on" ince re$ on $&one c$n ,rovide in ig*t into t*e e ence of t*ing C$n e ence 0eing ,reci e&! t*$t w*ic* i c$,tured in $ <c&e$r $nd di tinct ide$<9 .e ex,re ed t*i ,oint in $ &etter@ You $ k -e if we *$ve need of ex,erience" in order to know if t*e definition of $ given $ttri0ute i true9 To t*i I $n wer t*$t we never need ex,erience" exce,t in c$ e w*ere t*e exi tence of t*e t*ing c$nnot 0e inferred froit definition 9 9 9 >%X? Scientific know&edge" t*erefore" -u t 0egin fro- e&fevident $xio- " w*ic* tre$t of e ence 9 )nd it -u t ,roceed t*erefro-

0! t*e -et*od of c&e$r $nd di tinct ide$ @ in ot*er word " 0! deduction9 T*e eventeent*-centur! ,*i&o o,*er *$d $ ,$r$dig- of uc* $ r$tion$& cience in t*e geo-etr! of Euc&id" w*ic* ee-ed ,reci e&! to 0egin fro- e&f-evident ,re-i e " $nd to ,roceed 0! c*$in of c&e$r $nd di tinct re$ oning to -'7conc&u ion w*ic* were $ co-,e&&ing $nd $ univer $&&! v$&id $ t*e ,re-i e fro- w*ic* t*e! were derived9 T*e $-0ition t*erefore $ro e to gener$&i=e t*e geo-etric -et*od@ t*$t i " to find" for e$c* cience" $ et of $xio- $nd definition t*$t wou&d cont$in t*e c&e$r $nd ex*$u tive t$te-ent of it 0$ ic ,o tu&$te 9 De c$rte < own ! te- of ,*! ic Cre;ected 0! S,ino=$ on ground w*ic* in o-e re ,ect $ntici,$te -odern cientific t*inkingC ,ointed in t*e direction of uc* $ <geo-etric$&< ex,o ition9 +ut t*e ex,o ition it e&f" De c$rte $rgued" -u t 0egin fro- -et$,*! ic " w*ic* i t*e o&e $nd exc&u ive do-$in of fir t ,rinci,&e 9 In *i Princi,&e of %$rte i$n P*i&o o,*! >6((A? S,ino=$ ,rovided $ ,$r$dig- of t*e geo-etric$& -et*od" 0! reducing De c$rte < ,*i&o o,*! to $ et of $xio- $nd definition " $nd deriving t*erefro- t*e -$in %$rte i$n conc&u ion 9 T*i exerci e" w*ic* ee-ed 0ot* to *$ve co-,&eted t*e %$rte i$n ! te-" $nd to *$ve *own it fund$-ent$& ,oint of error" gre$t&! en*$nced t*e $ut*orit! of t*e geo-etric -et*od9 S,ino=$< own Et*ic w$ t*erefore conceived entire&! in geo-etric ter- " e$c* of it five ,$rt 0eginning fro- $xio- $nd definition $nd ,roceeding 0! -$t*e-$tic$& ,roof tow$rd it conc&u ion 9 ) t*e tit&e indic$te t*e 0ook w$ not intended i-,&! $ $ tre$ti e of -et$,*! ic 9 Of e:u$& i-,ort$nce for S,ino=$ were t*e ,ro0&e- of *u-$n n$ture" *u-$n conduct $nd *u-$n de tin!9 T*e e too" *e 0e&ieved" cou&d 0e tre$ted in geo-etric$& f$ *ion" $nd t*e re u&ting $n wer wou&d *$ve t*e cert$int!" nece it! $nd univer $&it! of t*e 0$ ic &$w of -$t*e-$tic 9 .i ! te-" t*erefore" ende$vour to -ove wit* e:u$& -$t*e-$tic$& rigour tow$rd t*e ,ro,o ition t*$t <$ u0 t$nce i ,rior in n$ture to it

-odific$tion <" $nd tow$rd t*e ,ro,o ition t*$t <t*ere c$nnot 0e too -uc* -erri-ent" for it i $&w$! goodH 0ut -AFon t*e ot*er *$nd" -e&$nc*o&! i $&w$! 0$d<9 >T*e ,roof of t*e econd ,ro,o ition invo&ve " w*en tr$ced 0$ck to it origin$& $xio- " o-et*ing &ike 6FF te, H t*i ide$ of $ <-$t*e-$tic of &$ug*ter< ee- &e tr$nge" w*en et 0e ide S,ino=$< view t*$t -erri-ent i -ore e$ i&! conceived t*$n o0 erved9? T*e de ign of S,ino=$< <Et*ic < In w*$t fo&&ow I *$&& ende$vour to give $ u--$r! of t*e -$in $rgu-ent of S,ino=$< Et*ic 9 I *$&& $& o di cu t*e ,o&itic$& writing " w*ic* $re -ore &oo e&! co-,o ed $nd -$ke no ,retence $t <geo-etric$&< deduction9 In t*e c$ e of t*e Et*ic t*e geo-etric$& -et*od i $n integr$& ,$rt of t*e 0ook< -e $geH wit*out it" indeed" t*e ver! -e$ning of S,ino=$< conc&u ion wou&d not 0e fu&&! inte&&igi0&e9 T*i f$ct ,$rt&! ex,&$in t*e f$ cin$tion exerted 0! t*e work9 It $& o ,re ent $ for-id$0&e o0 t$c&e to t*e -odern re$der9 Not on&! geo-etr!" 0ut $& o &ogic" *$ve undergone ,rofound c*$nge ince S,ino=$< d$!" $nd w*i&e -$t*e-$tici$n $nd cienti t continue to -$ke u e of t*e <$xio-$tic -et*od<" t*e! $re no &onger o di ,o ed to 0e&ieve t*$t t*e $xio- of $n! cience $re < e&f-evident<" or t*$t t*e <ide$ < nece $r! to $ cience -$! c$rr! o-e intrin ic -$rk of trut*9 S,ino=$ w$ *i- e&f $w$re of $ -$;or o0 t$c&e to t*$t &$ t ugge tion" n$-e&!" t*$t $ et of $xio- $nd definition i co-,o ed not of ide$ >w*$tever t*e! -$! 0e? 0ut of word " $nd no word 0e$r it -e$ning on it f$ce9 On&! in t*e context of t*e ! te- $ $ w*o&e c$n t*e content of $n! $xio- 0e ,ecified9 +ut *ow c$n we gu$r$ntee t*$t t*ere i on&! one con i tent inter,ret$tion of t*e ! te-" or t*$t t*i inter,ret$tion wi&& 0e under tood 0! t*e en&ig*tened re$derK 2o e 2$i-onide re,e$ted&! c$ution *i re$der $g$in t t*e <&$ngu$ge of -$n<Ct*e ever!d$! &$ngu$ge in

-A6w*ic* ,*i&o o,*ic$& :ue tion -u t ,erforce 0e di cu ed" 0ut w*ic* c$n 0e u ed on&! figur$tive&! in t*e ex,re ion of u&ti-$te trut*9 .i #uide to t*e Per,&exed i $ -uc* $ tre$ti e on -et$,*or $nd it d$nger $ $n ex,o ition of -onot*ei tic -et$,*! ic 9 S,ino=$ fo&&ow 2$i-onide in re;ecting t*e ordin$r! -e$ning w*ic* $tt$c* to word " $nd in $ king *i re$der to $ttend" not to &$ngu$ge" 0ut to t*e <ide$ < w*ic* *e i $tte-,ting to conve! 0! -e$n of it9 %o--on u $ge i governed 0! t*e i-$gin$tion" w*ic* $ oci$te word " not wit* c&e$r $nd di tinct ide$ " 0ut wit* t*e confu ed conce,tion of ex,erience9 In t*e &$ngu$ge of i-$gin$tion not*ing c$n 0e tru&! de cri0ed" $nd not*ing i -ore -i &e$ding&! rendered 0! t*e i-$gin$tion t*$n t*e u&ti-$te u0;ect--$tter of ,*i&o o,*ic$& ,ecu&$tionC#od *i- e&f@ <4ord $re for-ed $ccording to ,o,u&$r f$nc! $nd under t$nding O$d &i0itu- et $d c$,ture vu&giP" $nd $re t*erefore ign of t*ing on&! $ t*e! $re in t*e i-$gin$tion" $nd not $ t*e! $re in t*e inte&&ect 9 9 9< >I xi?9 T*e 1$tin of t*e Et*ic i $ tec*nic$& &$ngu$ge" to 0e under tood on&! in t*e fu&& e&$0or$tion of t*e ,roof 9 Suc* $ &$ngu$ge -$! 0e $ e$ i&! -i inter,reted $ $n! ot*er@ indeed" -ore e$ i&!9 In re,&! to :ue tion fro- Si-on de Vrie " S,ino=$ ex,&$in >%IX? t*$t it i ,o i0&e to u e &$ngu$ge to g$in $cce to t*e re$&- of etern$& trut*" ,rovided t*$t one t$ke c$re to ,re ent on&! re$& definition @ definition w*ic* $re not $r0itr$r! ti,u&$tion " 0ut w*ic* ,re ent t*e e ence of t*e t*ing defined9 To u,,o e t*$t uc* definition $re ,o i0&e" *owever" i $&re$d! to $ u-e one of t*e -$;or c&$i- of S,ino=$< -et$,*! ic C$ c&$i- w*ic* *e e t$0&i *e on&! 0! ,roof in w*ic* <re$& definition < $re e-,&o!ed9 It wou&d t$ke u too f$r $fie&d to ex,&ore t*i difficu&t! in it entiret!9 It i one w*ic* De c$rte too *$d encountered" $nd w*ic* w$ to 0e encountered 0! -$n! of S,ino=$< -A'ucce or 9 Suffice it to $! t*$t t*e re$der c$n never 0e tru&! cert$in" in tud!ing t*e Et*ic " t*$t *e *$ re$&&! $dv$nced fro-

t*e word on t*e ,$ge to t*e <ide$ < t*$t $re ex,re ed in t*e-9 Often *e wi&& ee- to gr$ , t*e w*o&e ! te- in it c&$rit!@ &ike t*e tower of V$&*$&&$" *owever" t*e vi ion co-e on&! wit* t*e g$t*ering of d$rkne " $nd i no ooner gr$nted t*$n $t once extingui *ed 0! t*e nig*t9 T*e Et*ic con i t of five ,$rt 9 T*e fir t" <%oncerning #od<" out&ine S,ino=$< ver ion of t*e onto&ogic$& $rgu-ent" $nd *i t*eor! t*$t #od i not di tinct fro- t*e wor&d" 0ut i--$nent wit*in it9 T*e econd" <%oncerning t*e n$ture $nd origin of t*e -ind<" cont$in $ uccinct $nd f$ cin$ting u--$r! of S,ino=$< ,*! ic " w*i&e ,rinci,$&&! $ddre ing it e&f to t*e -$;or ,ro0&e- of %$rte i$n ,*i&o o,*!@ t*$t of t*e re&$tion 0etween -ind $nd -$tter9 De c$rte *$d $rgued t*$t -ind i $ e,$r$te u0 t$nce fro- -$tterH $t t*e $-e ti-e" *i conce,tion of u0 t$nce i-,&ied >$ *e recogni=ed" $nd $ S,ino=$ ,roved? t*$t t*ere c$n 0e no inter$ction 0etween u0 t$nce 9 In w*ic* c$ e w*$t ,&$ce *$ -$n in n$ture" $nd *ow i know&edge ,o i0&eK S,ino=$ $n wer t*o e :ue tion " 0ut 0! re;ecting De c$rte < ,re-i e 9 T*e t*ird ,$rt" <On t*e origin $nd n$ture of t*e e-otion <" cont$in S,ino=$< $ccount of *u-$n n$ture" $nd *i $n wer to t*e -$;or difficu&t! r$i ed 0! *i own -et$,*! ic @ t*e :ue tion of individu$& exi tence9 If ever!t*ing t*$t exi t exi t in #od" in w*$t en e doe t*e wor&d cont$in individu$& t*ing " $nd in w*$t en e $- I $n individu$&" wit* $ n$ture $nd de tin! t*$t $re -ineK P$rt Four concern <.u-$n ervitude $nd t*e trengt* of t*e e-otion <9 .ere S,ino=$ de cri0e t*e en &$ved condition of *u-$nit!" co-,e&&ed 0! ,$ ion" o,inion $nd i-$gin$tion to den! it true n$ture" $nd !et $t $t t*e $-e ti-e ex,re ing" even in it 0ond$ge" t*e $0 o&ute ,erfection of t*e univer e of w*ic* it i $ -AAco-,onent9 In t*e fin$& ,$rt" S,ino=$ de cri0e <T*e ,ower of t*e inte&&ect or *u-$n freedo-<" *owing *ow -$n -$! $c*ieve freedo- $nd *$,,ine t*roug* t*e exerci e of re$ on" $nd *ow" in doing o" *e $ ,ire to t*$t $0 o&ute know&edge of t*e wor&d w*ic* i t*e 0&e edne of #od9 -AD-

3 God
In t*e fir t ,$rt of t*e Et*ic S,ino=$ $ddre e *i- e&f to t*e :ue tion <4*$t exi t K<C$nd *i $n wer i cont$ined in Pro,o ition 6D $nd 6E@ <Exce,t #od no u0 t$nce c$n 0e gr$nted or conceived<" $nd <4*$tever i " i in #od" $nd not*ing c$n exi t or 0e conceived wit*out #od<9 T*o e triking ,ronounce-ent $re &e c&e$rC$nd" w*en inter,reted" -$rgin$&&! &e ur,ri ingCt*$n t*e! ee-9 T*e ter- <#od<" < u0 t$nce<" <conceive< $nd <in< $re $&& tec*nic$&itie of S,ino=$< ,*i&o o,*!" $nd t*eir inter,ret$tion i $ -$tter of di ,ute9 In P$rt 6 of t*e Et*ic t*e! derive t*eir en e &$rge&! fro- $n e&$0or$te ver ion of t*e onto&ogic$& $rgu-ent for t*e exi tence of #od9 T*e onto&ogic$& $rgu-ent ee- to ,rove t*e exi tence of o-et*ing fro- t*e conce,tion of t*$t t*ing9 It ,rovide $ ,$r$dig- of r$tion$&i t ,*i&o o,*!" 0eginning fro- $ <c&e$r $nd di tinct ide$< of #od" $nd &e$ding" 0! <c&e$r $nd di tinct< te, " to $ conc&u ion $0out t*e wor&d@ n$-e&! t*$t #od exi t " $nd exi t nece $ri&!9 4*ere$ ,reviou ,*i&o o,*er *$d t$ken t*e onto&ogic$& $rgu-ent to *ow t*$t $t &e$ t one t*ing >#od? exi t " S,ino=$ 0e&ieve t*e $rgu-ent $& o to *ow t*$t $t -o t one t*ing exi t " $nd *ence t*$t ever!t*ing w*ic* exi t i " in o-e en e" <in< #od9 T*e -$;or difficu&t! in under t$nding t*i conc&u ion derive fro- t*e &itt&e word <in<9 S,ino=$< u e of t*i word owe it en e ,$rt&! to *i ,ecu&i$r $,,reci$tion" $nd idio !ncr$tic revi ion" of t*e di tinction 0etween u0 t$nce $nd $ttri0ute" $nd ,$rt&! to $ ,re-i e t*$t i o dee,&! conce$&ed in S,ino=$< ,*i&o o,*! $ to re-$in un$cknow&edged t*roug*out t*e fir t ,$rt of t*e Et*ic 9 -AE-

T*e *idden $ u-,tion T*e *idden $ u-,tion of S,ino=$< ,*i&o o,*! i t*$t re$&it! $nd conce,tion coincide" o t*$t re&$tion 0etween ide$ corre ,ond ex$ct&! to re&$tion in re$&it!9 )t $ &$ter ,oint" S,ino=$ ,ur,ort to ,rove t*i t*e i " $nd to ,rovide $ t*eor! of know&edge t*$t wi&& ;u tif! *i own ,eci$& ver ion of t*e -et*od of <c&e$r $nd di tinct ide$ <9 +ut ince t*$t -et*od >or o-et*ing &ike it? i $ u-ed in t*e ver! ,roof of it" t*e *idden $ u-,tion re-$in " in t*e end" no -ore t*$n $n $ u-,tion9 %ert$in con e:uence $re $&re$d! -$nife t in t*e $xio- of t*e fir t ,$rt of t*e Et*ic 9 T*u S,ino=$ $ ert >)xio- D? t*$t <t*e know&edge >cognitio? of $n effect de,end u,on t*e know&edge of it c$u e" $nd invo&ve t*e $-e<9 For S,ino=$" to $! t*$t ) c$u e + i to $! t*$t + i de,endent on ) for it exi tence $nd n$ture9 T*i de,endence 0etween t*ing i <ex,re ed in< or <conceived t*roug*< $ de,endence 0etween ide$ 9 T*e ide$ of + i de,endent on t*e ide$ of ) if it trut* -u t 0e e t$0&i *ed 0! reference to t*e ide$ of )9 T*e conc&u ion of $ -$t*e-$tic$& ,roof $re t*erefore de,endent on t*e ,re-i e 9 2$t*e-$tic$& re$ oning i indeed $ ,$r$dig- of t*e re&$tion of <r$tion$& de,endence< 0etween ide$ 9 It i $& o $ ,$r$dig- of <c$u $&it!<" w*ic* i t*e re&$tion t*$t exi t 0etween ) $nd + w*en t*e exi tence $nd n$ture of + -u t 0e ex,&$ined in ter- of )9 T*roug* ,roof we ex,&$in $ conc&u ion" $nd if t*e ,re-i e $re e&f-evident" we ex,&$in it co-,&ete&!9 T*e *idden $ u-,tion i-,&ie t*$t re&$tion of de,endence in t*e wor&d $re $&& inte&&igi0&e $ &ogic$& re&$tion 0etween ide$ 9 T*u o-et*ing i inde,endent if it ,ro,ertie fo&&ow fro- it ide$@ i9e9 if !ou do not need to &ook out ide t*e ide$ of t*e t*ing in order to ex,&$in it9 + i de,endent on ) if t*e n$ture of + fo&&ow not frot*e ide$ -A(of + 0ut fro- t*e ide$ of )9 )&& ,ro,ertie $re in t*i en e de,endent on" or c$u ed 0!" t*e u0 t$nce in w*ic* t*e! in*ere9

)nd t*i i w*$t S,ino=$ -e$n 0! <in<@ <+ i in )< i $not*er w$! of $!ing t*$t ) i t*e ex,&$n$tion of +9 )n e-,irici t wou&d o0;ect trong&! to t*i $ ,ect of S,ino=$< ,*i&o o,*!" $rguing t*$t S,ino=$ *$ det$c*ed c$u $&it! fro- t*e wor&d $nd $tt$c*ed it in te$d to our conce,tion 9 +ut w*$t gu$r$ntee do we *$ve t*$t t*e wor&d i $ we conceive itK S,ino=$ wou&d *$ve $n wered uc* $n o0;ection 0! referring $g$in to t*e -et*od of <c&e$r $nd di tinct ide$ <" w*ic* ,re ent our ,$r$digof know&edge9 Not*ing c$n 0e -ore cert$in t*$t t*e e&f-evident ,re-i e fro- w*ic* re$ on 0egin " $nd if t*e e do not ,rovide $ gu$r$ntee of trut* t*en not*ing doe 9 +ut $ e&f-evident trut* i ,reci e&! one in w*ic* t*e ,$ $ge fro- t*oug*t to re$&it! i $cco-,&i *ed@ we ,erceive fro- t*e ver! ide$ t*$t t*e wor&d i $ t*e ide$ re,re ent it to 0e9 In $ e&f-evident ide$ we *$ve $ co-,&ete $nd $ti f$ctor! $n wer to t*e :ue tion <w*!K<9 T*roug* uc* ide$ t*e wor&d ex,&$in it e&f to u 9 In *i $xio- " t*erefore" S,ino=$ c$n e-,&o! t*e notion of <conce,tion<" $nd ti&& 0e&ieve t*$t *e ,rovide " 0! -e$n of it" $ de cri,tion of t*ing in t*e wor&d9 .owever" t*e $xio- $re f$r fro- e&f-evident" $nd derive t*eir c&$i- to 0e <$de:u$te< on&! in t*e cour e of ,roof w*ic* $&re$d! $ u-e t*e- to 0e o9 S,ino=$" $w$re of t*i difficu&t!" $tte-,ted to ,rovide $ -et*od for t*e <i-,rove-ent of t*e under t$nding< w*ic* wou&d &e$d u " of it own $ccord" to know&edge9 >I" ,$ i-9? +ut t*i -et*od doe &itt&e to u t$in S,ino=$< *idden $ u-,tion" t*$t t*e wor&d re$&&! i inte&&igi0&e to re$ on" $nd t*$t it c$u $&it! re$&&! i $ <c$u $&it! of re$ on<9 T*roug*out t*e ,roof of t*e Et*ic " t*erefore" t*e re$der c$n never 0e -ABcert$in w*et*er t*e extr$ordin$r! ide$ w*ic* $re 0roug*t o co-,e&&ing&! 0efore *i- $re fiction or re$&it!9

Su0 t$nce" -ode" $nd $ttri0ute S,ino=$ 0egin wit* t*e fo&&owing definition" t$ken fro2$i-onide @ <I under t$nd t*$t to 0e c$u e of it e&f Oc$u $ uiP w*o e e ence invo&ve exi tence $nd w*o e n$ture c$nnot 0e conceived un&e exi ting< >E 6" Definition 6?9 T*$t definition" it tr$n ,ire " identifie t*e w*o&e u0;ect-$tter of t*e Et*ic " $nd $& o t*e entire content of t*e wor&d9 It i fo&&owed 0! $ tri-,$rtite di tinction 0etween < u0 t$nce<" <$ttri0ute< $nd <-ode<9 Su0 t$nce i <t*$t w*ic* i in it e&f $nd i conceived t*roug* it e&f<" t*$t" t*e conce,tion of w*ic* doe not re:uire t*e conce,tion of o-e ot*er t*ing >E 6" Definition A?9 In ot*er word " u0 t$nce i o-et*ing of w*ic* we c$n o0t$in $n <$de:u$te ide$<" t*roug* w*ic* it n$ture c$n 0e under tood wit*out recour e to $n!t*ing out ide of it9 S,ino=$ $rgue >E 6" (? t*$t w*$tever i " in t*i w$!" conce,tu$&&! inde,endent" i $& o onto&ogic$&&! inde,endent" de,ending for it exi tence on not*ing out ide it e&f9 .ence <exi tence $,,ert$in to t*e n$ture of u0 t$nce< >E 6" B?" $nd ever! u0 t$nce cont$in wit*in it e&f t*e co-,&ete ex,&$n$tion of it own n$ture $nd exi tence9 In t*$t c$ e u0 t$nce i nece $ri&! <c$u e of it e&f<@ it e ence invo&ve exi tence" $nd it c$nnot t*erefore 0e conceived exce,t $ exi ting9 T*e fir t $n wer to t*e ridd&e of exi tence" t*erefore" i t*$t u0 t$nce exi t " $nd exi t nece $ri&!9 It i $&re$d! o0viou t*$t S,ino=$< u e of t*e ter- < u0 t$nce< doe not confor- to t*e )ri tote&i$n tr$dition9 )t t*e $-e ti-e" S,ino=$ reg$rded *i ,roof $ deriving t*e ine c$,$0&e &ogic$& con e:uence of $n ide$ w*ic* *$d ,reviou &! 0een on&! confu ed&! under tood9 2$n! -A8c*o&$ tic $nd %$rte i$n t*inker *$d $ u-ed u0 t$nce to 0e t*e u&ti-$te con tituent of re$&it!" $nd" $ uc*" e&fde,endent9 4*$t t*e! *$d f$i&ed to ee w$ t*e con e:uence of t*e e $ u-,tion Cn$-e&!" t*$t $n! u0 t$nce -u t 0e c$u $ ui" $nd t*erefore nece $ri&! exi tent9

T*e tr$dition$& di tinction 0etween u0 t$nce $nd $ttri0ute i rede cri0ed 0! S,ino=$ $ t*e di tinction 0etween u0 t$nce $nd -odific$tion or -ode >-odu ?9 >T*e ter- <$ttri0ute< *e e-,&o! in $not*erC$nd w*o&&! ,ecu&i$rCw$!9? ) -ode i o-et*ing w*ic* c$nnot exi t inde,endent&! 0ut on&! in o-e ot*er t*ing" u,on w*ic* it de,end 9 In *i e$r&ier writing S,ino=$ re,e$ted&! $ffirt*e ,rinci,&e t*$t" exce,t for u0 t$nce $nd -ode " not*ing exi t >2 Pt 6" %*9 6H Pt '" %*9 6H % XII?9 .owever" *e doe not confine -ode to t*e &ogic$& c$tegor! of ,ro,ertie $nd re&$tion @ -ode inc&ude individu$& t*ing 9 You $nd I $re 0ot* -ode of t*e divine u0 t$nce" ince we c$n 0ot* 0e conceived $ not exi ting" $nd t*erefore owe t*e ex,&$n$tion of our exi tence to o-et*ing out ide our e&ve 9 .ence we $re not e&f-de,endent" $nd if we exi t" it i t*roug* t*e ,ower of o-et*ing out ide of u 9 On t*i definition" t*e c$tegor! of -ode i extre-e&! wide@ it inc&ude >in co--on ,$r&$nce? ,ro,ertie >t*e redne of t*i 0ook?H re&$tion >t*i 0ook< 0eing -$&&er t*$n ot*er ?H f$ct >t*$t t*i 0ook exi t ?H ,roce e >t*i 0ook< &ow di integr$tion?H $nd individu$& >t*e 0ook it e&f?9 T*e di tinction 0etween t*o e c$tegorie $re $&& in ignific$nt for S,ino=$@ o f$r *$ve we $&re$d! co-e fro- <t*e &$ngu$ge of -$n<J S,ino=$ doe " *owever" di tingui * <finite< fro<infinite -ode <" t*e &$ter 0eing -odific$tion of u0 t$nce w*ic* $re -$nife t in ever! finite -ode9 >S,ino=$< two ex$-,&e C<-otion $nd re t< $nd <t*e f$ce of t*e w*o&e univer e<C for- t*e 0$ i of *i ,*! ic " w*ic* I di cu 0e&ow9? -A7T*i ,$rt of S,ino=$< ,*i&o o,*! c$n 0e t 0e u--$ri=ed in *i own word @ 4*en I $! t*$t I -e$n 0! u0 t$nce t*$t w*ic* i conceived t*roug* $nd in it e&fH $nd t*$t I -e$n 0! -odific$tion or $ccident t*$t w*ic* i in o-et*ing e& e" $nd i conceived t*roug* t*$t w*erein it i " evident&! it fo&&ow t*$t u0 t$nce i 0! n$ture ,rior to it $ccident 9 For wit*out t*e for-er t*e &$tter c$n neit*er 0e nor 0e conceived9 Second&! it fo&&ow t*$t 0e ide u0 t$nce $nd $ccident not*ing exi t re$&&! or extern$&&! to t*e inte&&ect9 >% IV?

Once we under t$nd t*e u e of t*e word <in<" to denote t*e re&$tion of r$tion$& de,endence" uc* ,$ $ge ,re ent no ,eci$& difficu&t!" even to $ re$der w*o re;ect t*eir *idden $ u-,tion9 T*e gre$te t ing&e o0 t$c&e to $n under t$nding of S,ino=$< ,*i&o o,*! i t*$t ,re ented 0! t*e ter- <$ttri0ute<9 )n $ttri0ute i defined $ <t*$t w*ic* t*e inte&&ect ,erceive $ con tituting t*e e ence of u0 t$nce< >E 6" Definition D?" $nd t*ere $re ever$&C ,o i0&! infinite&! -$n!C<$ttri0ute <9 )t t*e $-e ti-e" $n $ttri0ute i not i-,&! $ u0;ective $ ,ectC$ w$! t*ing ee- fro- $ ,$rticu&$r ,oint of view9 For" 0! t*e *idden $ u-,tion" <w*$t t*e inte&&ect ,erceive $ con tituting t*e e ence of u0 t$nce< re$&&! doe con titute t*e e ence of u0 t$nce9 .ence t*e $ ertion t*$t $ u0 t$nce *$ two or -ore $ttri0ute i t$nt$-ount to t*e $ ertion t*$t it e ence c$n 0e conce,tu$&i=ed in two inde,endent w$! @ $nd t*i i $n extre-e&! ,u==&ing ide$9 On t*i view" two ,eo,&e c$n e$c* *$ve co-,&ete know&edge of t*e fund$-ent$& n$ture of $ t*ing" $nd !et e$c* give co-,&ete&! inco--en ur$0&e $ccount of it9 -DFSo-e &ig*t i c$ t on S,ino=$< t*eor! 0! $n $rgu-ent t*$t ,rovided *i- wit* $ ,$r$dig- of ,*i&o o,*ic$& deduction9 In $ f$-ou ,$ $ge of t*e 2edit$tion De c$rte *$d re$ oned $ fo&&ow @ %on ider $ &u-, of w$x@ it *$ $ cert$in *$,e" i=e" co&our" odourCin *ort $ et of < en or! :u$&itie <" ,erceiv$0&e to ig*t" touc*" t$ te $nd -e&&9 +ut w*en I $,,ro$c* t*e w$x to t*e fire I find t*$t it co&our" *$,e" *$rdne " odourC$&& t*o e :u$&itie in ter- of w*ic* I di tingui * itCundergo $ c*$nge9 )nd !et t*e w$x re-$in @ no con tituent of re$&it! i de tro!ed in t*i tr$n for-$tion9 It fo&&ow " De c$rte $rgued" t*$t t*e w$x ,o e e it en or! :u$&itie on&! $ccident$&&!Ct*e! $re not <of it n$ture< or <e enti$&<9 T*e en or! :u$&itie of uc* $n o0;ect $re t*erefore no -ore t*$n ,$ ing $ccident " t*roug* w*ic* it e ence i di-&! $nd confu ed&! ,erceived9 If we $re to know t*e e ence of t*e w$x we -u t con u&t not t*e en e 0ut t*e inte&&ect" w*ic* i $&one

c$,$0&e of gr$ ,ing t*e e ence of t*ing 9 T*e on&! ,ro,ertie t*$t t*e w$x ee- to *$ve e enti$&&! $re exten ion" f&exi0i&it! $nd -ov$0i&it! in ,$ce9 Fro- t*i we -$! conc&ude t*$t -$teri$& u0 t$nce > uc* $ t*e w$x? $re e enti$&&! extended" $nd t*$t c*$nge in -$teri$& u0 t$nce $re c*$nge in t*eir ,$ti$& di ,o ition9 T*i conc&u ion give u t*e fir t ,rinci,&e of ,*! ic$& cience" $nd De c$rte w$ furt*er confir-ed in it 0! *i inter,ret$tion of Euc&ide$n geo-etr!9 For it ee-ed $ t*oug* Euc&id *$d *own t*$t we *$ve $ <c&e$r $nd di tinct ide$< of ,$ce" $nd t*erefore c$n re$c* know&edge of $&& it ,ro,ertie 0! re$ on $&one" t*roug* $ deductive cience t*$t -$ke no reference to en or! ex,erience9 It re-$in on&! to co-,&ete t*$t cience" 0! $ i-i&$r deductive ex,o ition of t*e ,ro,ertie of $n <occu,$nt< of ,$ce@ t*$t w*o e e ence i to 0e in ,$ce" -D6$nd c*$nge$0&e wit* re ,ect to ,$ceH w*o e e ence i t*$t of $n <extended t*ing<9 T*i ,$r$dig- of r$tion$&i t ,*i&o o,*! under&ie S,ino=$< t*eor! of t*e $ttri0ute " of w*ic* exten ion i one9 T*ing in ,$ce c$n 0e under tood $ ,riori" $nd t*eir n$ture di c&o ed to re$ on" ,reci e&! 0ec$u e exten ion con titute t*e e ence of w*$tever ,o e e it9 +! conceiving exten ion t*e inte&&ect i $c:u$inted wit* $ <re$& e ence<" exi ting inde,endent&! of t*e finite -ind w*ic* conceive it9 T*e inte&&ect i gr$nted $ co-,&ete in ig*t into t*e n$ture of o-et*ingC$n in ig*t fro- w*ic* t*e fund$-ent$& ,ro,ertie of extended t*ing -$! eventu$&&! 0e deduced9 )n $ttri0ute i t*$t w*ic* i <$ttri0uted< to re$&it! 0! t*e inte&&ect" in t*e cour e of uc* $ co-,&ete $nd ! te-$tic conce,tion9 To $! t*$t t*ere $re two $ttri0ute i to $! t*$t we c$n know t*e wor&d co-,&ete&! in two inco--en ur$0&e w$! 9 T*e onto&ogic$& $rgu-ent S,ino=$ define #od $ <$ u0 t$nce con i ting of infinite $ttri0ute " e$c* of w*ic* ex,re e etern$& $nd infinite e ence<" $nd $rgue t*$t" ince no <c$u e or re$ on< cou&d ,o i0&! 0e

gr$nted w*ic* cou&d ,revent t*e exi tence of uc* $ 0eing" it fo&&ow t*$t #od nece $ri&! exi t 9 Since it i in t*e n$ture of #od to exi t" #od -u t exi t un&e ,revented" 0ut *e c$nnot 0e ,revented9 ) S,ino=$ i $w$re" t*e $-e cou&d 0e $id of $n! u0 t$nce" ince $ u0 t$nce i t*$t w*ic* cont$in wit*in it e&f >wit*in it ide$? t*e co-,&ete ex,&$n$tion of it own exi tence9 ) u0 t$nce i w*$tever i *own to exi t 0! $n onto&ogic$& $rgu-ent9 T*$t w*ic* owe it exi tence to $n <extern$& c$u e< i of nece it! not $ u0 t$nce 0ut $ -ode9 Su0 t$nce" -oreover" i $&w$! <infinite in it own kind<-i9e9 un&i-ited 0! $n!t*ing of t*e $-e n$ture $ it e&f9 >For -D'to 0e &i-ited i to 0e $ffected 0! $n <extern$& c$u e<9? .ence ever! u0 t$nce exi t nece $ri&! $nd infinite&!9 T*e *idden ,re-i e of r$tion$&i - &ed S,ino=$ to t*e conc&u ion t*$t t*ere i on&! one u0 t$nce9 For w*i&e we c$n ex,&$in t*e exi tence of one u0 t$nce fro- t*e n$ture of t*$t u0 t$nce" no uc* $ ,riori ex,&$n$tion cou&d 0e given" *e 0e&ieved" for t*e exi tence of -ore t*$n one u0 t$nce of t*e $-e kind@ <$&& t*ing w*ic* $re conceived to exi t in t*e ,&ur$& -u t nece $ri&! 0e ,roduced 0! extern$& c$u e " $nd not 0! t*e force of t*eir own n$ture< >% XXIV?9 )nd if o-e u0 t$nce exi ted of $not*er kindone t*$t &$cked #od< infinite ,erfection Cit wou&d nece $ri&! owe it exi tence to #od" $nd t*erefore 0e $ -ode of #od $nd not $ u0 t$nce $t $&&9 >It wou&d 0e $ &i-it$tion of #od< n$ture" t*$t o-et*ing exi ted of w*ic* *i n$ture w$ not t*e u&ti-$te ex,&$n$tion@ 0ut 0! *!,ot*e i #od i un&i-ited9? No ot*er u0 t$nce 0ut #od c$n t*erefore 0e gr$nted9 Nor" $dd S,ino=$ >E 6" 6D?" c$n uc* $not*er u0 t$nce even 0e conceived" ince to conceive of $ u0 t$nce i to conceive of it $ exi ting >e$c* u0 t$nce 0eing c$u $ ui?" $nd t*ereforeC0! t*e onto&ogic$& $rgu-entCto e t$0&i * it exi tence9 .ence <4*$tever i " i in #od" $nd not*ing c$n exi t or 0e conceived wit*out #od<9

Once we under t$nd t*e tec*nic$& en e of t*e word <in< $nd <conceived< in t*i ,ro,o ition" it conc&u ion ee- ine c$,$0&e" $nd S,ino=$< ,roof Cf$r -ore co-,&ex t*$n I *$ve 0een $0&e to di ,&$!C $ti fied *i- t*$t t*i ,ro,o ition cont$in t*e co-,&ete $nd on&! $n wer to t*e ridd&e of exi tence9 Not ever! r$tion$&i t w*o $cce,ted t*e onto&ogic$& $rgu-ent $& o e-0r$ced S,ino=$< -oni tic conc&u ion9 1ei0ni=" for ex$-,&e" ende$voured to reconci&e t*e r$tion$&i t $ u-,tion wit* $ ,&ur$&i tic t*eor! of t*e -DAuniver e" $d-itting $n infinit! of u0 t$nce 0e ide #od into t*$t <0e t of $&& ,o i0&e wor&d < w*ic* i t*e $ctu$& wor&d of #od< cre$tion9 +ut" $ 1ei0ni= $cknow&edged" t*ere cou&d 0e no inter$ction 0etween t*e e e,$r$te u0 t$nce " no de,endence of one on t*e ot*er" no ex,&$n$tion of t*eir ee-ing re ,on ivene one to $not*er" $nd indeed" no re$& re&$tion 0etween t*e- $t $&&9 )nd t*e ,icture of $ univer e of infinite&! -$n! w*o&&! unre&$ted u0 t$nce i $t &e$ t $ *$rd to under t$nd $ t*e -oni - of S,ino=$" $nd f$r &e e$ ! to reconci&e wit* $,,e$r$nce 9 One :u$&ific$tion *ou&d 0e -entioned9 S,ino=$ often c$ution u $g$in t ,e$king of #od< < ing&ene <9 To c$&& *i- <one or ing&e< i to i-,&! t*$t #od -ig*t 0e enu-er$tedC$ t*oug*" counting t*e e&e-ent of t*e univer e" we to, $t t*e nu-0er one >%1?9 Nu-0er" *owever" doe not ,ert$in to t*e e ence of t*ing @ it 0e&ong " r$t*er" to our finite under t$nding of t*e-" $nd c$nnot fe$ture in $n! $ ,riori ex,o ition of t*eir n$ture9 T*e origin of t*i t*oug*t i in 2o e 2$i-onide >#uide to t*e Per,&exed" i" E6-B?" w*o $rgued t*$t nu-0er 0e&ong to t*e <&$ngu$ge of -$n<" $nd c$n t*erefore 0e $,,&ied on&! neg$tive&! to #od9 +ut S,ino=$ went furt*er t*$n 2$i-onide " $nd 0$ ed u,on t*i $nd i-i&$r o0 erv$tion $ ,ecu&i$r $nd inf&uenti$& ,*i&o o,*! of $rit*-etic" $ccording to w*ic* nu-0er ignifie " not o-e ,ro,ert! of re$&it!" 0ut $ fe$ture of *u-$n ,erce,tion9 Of t*i ,*i&o o,*! I *$&& *$ve -ore to $! 0e&ow9

T*e $ttri0ute of #od )n $ttri0ute i given 0! $ <co-,&ete $nd $de:u$te ide$< of #od" one w*ic*" 0ec$u e of it <$de:u$c!<" *ow #od $ *e e enti$&&! i 9 )n $ttri0ute i " t*erefore" -ore t*$n $n e enti$& ,ro,ert!9 I $$n $ni-$&" $nd $& o $ ,er on@ if I &o e -DDeit*er of t*o e ,ro,ertie " I ce$ e to exi t" $nd t*erefore e$c* ,ro,ert! i e enti$&9 +ut neit*er <con titute -! e ence< in t*e w$! t*$t $n $ttri0ute con titute t*e e ence of #od9 It i extre-e&! difficu&t to under t$nd *ow #od c$n *$ve -ore t*$n one $ttri0ute@ i9e9 *ow *i e ence c$n 0e co-,&ete&! con tituted in ever$& inco--en ur$0&e w$! 9 S,ino=$ identifie two $ttri0ute of #od@ t*oug*t $nd exten ion9 T*e fir t i t*e ! te- of ide$ " t*e econd t*$t of ,*! ic$& o0;ect 9 Our ,*! ic$& cience i not $ deductive ! te-" 0ut $ erie of gener$&i=$tion 0$ ed in o0 erv$tion of <finite -ode <9 Nevert*e&e " our ver! ,rocedure" in deriving t*erefro- $ &$w&ike de cri,tion of t*e <infinite -ode <" ,re u,,o e t*e ,o i0i&it! of $ deductive cience9 Suc* $ cience of <exten ion< wou&d ,rovide co-,&ete know&edge of $ e&f-de,endent tot$&it!9 Fro- it e&fevident ,re-i e " 0! deductive $rgu-ent" $ de cri,tion of t*e wor&d cou&d 0e e&$0or$ted" in w*ic* $&& t*e re&$tion of de,endence >t*e <c$u $& &$w <? wou&d 0e identified9 T*e ,*! ic$& >extended? wor&d -u t t*erefore *$ve t*e c*$r$cter of $ e&fufficient ! te-" 0e!ond w*ic* we do not *$ve to en:uire in order to ex,&$in $n! ,*! ic$& occurrence9 )n ide$& cience of t*e ,*! ic$& >of exten ion? wou&d give u know&edge of $n e ence" $nd t*erefore of t*e u0 t$nce in w*ic* t*$t e ence re ide 9 It fo&&ow t*$t exten ion i $n $ttri0ute of #od9 De c$rte " &ike S,ino=$" $w t*e ,*! ic$& wor&d $ $ ing&e $nd u0 t$nti$& ! te-9 .owever" *e w$ un$0&e to $ccount for t*e ,&$ce of -ind wit*in it9 Our -ent$& t$te >ide$ ? ee- to 0e &inked to t*e ,*! ic$& wor&d 0! c$u $& connection " wit*out 0eing -odific$tion of $n! ,*! ic$& u0 t$nce9 T*e! $re" De c$rte $rgued" e enti$&&! non,*! ic$&"

wit*out ,&$ce" *$,e" 0ound$rie or -ove-ent9 .owever" on&! if ) $nd + $re -odific$tion of $ ing&e -DEu0 t$nce c$n t*ere 0e $ c$u $& re&$tion 0etween t*e-9 4*$t" t*en" i t*e re&$tion of t*e -ind to t*e 0od!K De c$rte fudged t*i i ue" $nd it ,roved to 0e t*e -$;or re$ on for di $ti f$ction wit* t*e %$rte i$n ! te-9 S,ino=$ o&ved t*e ,ro0&e- in *i own re-$rk$0&e w$!" 0! $rguing t*$t ide$ $nd ,*! ic$& o0;ect $re -odific$tion of $ ing&e u0 t$nce" conceived" *owever" in two e,$r$te $nd inco--en ur$0&e w$! " now $ -ind" now $ -$tter or exten ion9 In referring to ide$ we $re referring to #od t*roug* $not*er of *i $ttri0ute " $nd inti-$ting $not*er co-,&ete $nd $ ,riori cience of t*e w*o&e9 T*e c&e$r $nd indu0it$0&e $,,re*en ion t*$t we *$ve of t*e n$ture of individu$& ide$ ugge t t*$t $n $ ,riori cience of t*e -ent$& >of re$&it! conceived in -ent$& ter- ? i $ re$& $ ,o i0i&it! $ $n $ ,riori cience of t*e ,*! ic$& >of re$&it! conceived $ exten ion?9 Two new ,ro0&e- $re r$i ed 0! S,ino=$< ingeniou o&ution9 Fir t" *ow -$n! $ttri0ute doe #od *$veK Second&!" w*$t ,reci e&! doe it -e$n to $! t*$t #od *$ -ore t*$n one $ttri0ute" $nd *ow i t*i co-,$ti0&e wit* S,ino=$< t*eor! t*$t re$&it! i oneK T*e econd of t*o e ,ro0&e- wi&& occu,! u in t*e next c*$,ter9 T*e fir t" *owever" re:uire $n $n wer *ere9 S,ino=$ define #od $ $ < u0 t$nce con i ting of infinite $ttri0ute " e$c* of w*ic* ex,re e etern$& $nd infinite e ence< >E6" 66?9 T*e definition i re,e$ted in v$riou for- in t*e corre ,ondence >e9g9 % II?" 0ut never in uc* $ w$! $ to ugge t t*$t S,ino=$ did not -e$n" 0! t*e fir t occurrence of <infinite<" <infinite&! -$n!<9 )nd !et *e refer to on&! two uc* $ttri0ute 9 %o--ent$tor $re t*erefore divided $ to t*e -e$ning of S,ino=$< definition9 Doe *e re$&&! -e$n t*$t t*ere $re infinite&! -$n! $ttri0ute " or on&! t*$t e$c* $ttri0ute i in o-e en e infinite in it own n$tureK >S 67 $nd AD ,oint un$-0iguou &! to t*e fir t

-D(inter,ret$tion $ doe E6" 79? S,ino=$ u,*o&d t*e fir t inter,ret$tion in corre ,ondence wit* T c*irn*$u " 0ut in tert*$t $re o o0 cure $ ,er*$, to ;u tif! t*e -i giving of t*e &e$rned9 .e $ffir- >%1XIV? t*$t t*ere $re infinite&! -$n! $ttri0ute " 0ut $rgue t*$t t*e *u-$n -indCw*ic* i > ee 0e&ow? t*e ide$ of t*e *u-$n 0od!Cc$n know on&! two" exten ion >reve$&ed in t*e 0od!? $nd t*oug*t >reve$&ed in t*e ide$ of it?9 +ut t*e ex,&$n$tion i neit*er inte&&igi0&e nor o0viou &! incere9 In t*e n$ture of t*e c$ e" S,ino=$< -ode of $rgu-ent c$nnot gener$te nu-eric$& conc&u ion @ *e c$n e t$0&i * t*$t t*ere i one t*ing of $ kind" or t*$t t*ere $re infinite t*ing of $ kind" or t*$t t*ere $re none >cf9 E6" 8" Sc*o&iu- '?9 +ut t*i i 0ec$u e <one<" <infinite< $nd <none< denote" for S,ino=$" not nu-0er " 0ut onto&ogic$& c$tegorie @ inde,endent exi tence" <un&i-itedne < $nd non-exi tence9 It i t*erefore i-,o i0&e t*$t t*ere *ou&d 0e $n $ ,riori ,roof of t*e f$ct t*$t t*ere $re ;u t two $ttri0ute 9 )t t*e $-e ti-e <infinite< -u t 0e co-,$ti0&e wit* <$t &e$ t two< if S,ino=$ i to $rgue $ *e doe @ <infinite< -u t t*erefore u t$in o-e kind of nu-eric$& inter,ret$tion9 )g$in" *owever" S,ino=$ $rgue $ t*oug* nu-0er i not in t*e n$ture of t*ing " 0ut i-,o ed u,on t*e- 0! our i-$gin$tion > ee 0e&ow?9 .ere" t*en" i $n i ue w*ic* ,re ent for-id$0&e difficu&tie to S,ino=$9 )nd *ere it i S,ino=$< turn to fudge" 0ot* in t*e &etter to T c*irn*$u " $nd in *i wider u e of t*e conce,t of infinit!9 2oreover" not on&! doe *i ! te- cont$in t*i gre$t $nd di concerting &$cun$9 T*e $tte-,t 0! co--ent$tor to fi&& it *$ ,roduced one of t*e -o t ex$ ,er$ting" tediou $nd futi&e econd$r! &iter$ture in t*e entire *i tor! of c*o&$r *i,9 I t*erefore $! no -ore $0out t*e ,ro0&e-" exce,t t*$t it i in o&u0&e9 -DB-

#od or N$ture It fo&&ow fro- S,ino=$< t*eor! t*$t #od i not di tinct fro- t*e wor&d 0ut identic$& wit* it9 +ut #od i conceived 0! t*e *u-$n -ind in two e,$r$te w$! @ w*en conte-,&$ting t*e divine -ind" $nd our own -ind $ ,$rt of it" or e:u$&&! w*en inve tig$ting t*e tructure of t*e ,*! ic$& wor&d" we $re $dv$ncing our know&edge of #od9 )&& t*$t i done for t*e $ke of t*$t know&edge i we&& done" $nd done to our $&v$tion9 S,ino=$ ex,re e *i -oni - in $ ce&e0r$ted ,*r$ eH t*e wor&d i Deu ive N$tur$C<#od or N$ture<9 T*i ,ronounce-ent *$ c$u ed S,ino=$ to 0e con idered 0ot* $ $n $t*ei t $nd $ $ ,$nt*ei t" evenCin t*e f$-ou word of Nov$&i C$ $ <#odintoxic$ted -$n<" for w*o- t*e divine counten$nce *ine fort* fro- t*e w*o&e of n$ture9 +ot* inter,ret$tion wou&d *$ve 0een re,udi$ted 0! S,ino=$" $ di ,&$!ing $ &i-ited under t$nding of #od9 .i t*eo&og! i e enti$&&! i-,er on$&" ;u t $ *i conce,tion of t*e ,*! ic$& wor&d i e enti$&&! t*eo&ogic$&9 )&& c$u $&it! o0e! $ &ogic$& ,$r$dig-" $nd $&& ex,&$n$tion i re$&&! $ for- of ,roof9 To under t$nd t*e c$u $&it! of t*ing " t*erefore" i to under t$nd $ co-,&ex -ent$& o,er$tion" undert$ken 0! $n infinite -ind9 V$riou con e:uence fo&&ow9 Fir t" #od i not t*e <tr$n eunt"< 0ut t*e <i--$nent< c$u e of ever!t*ing@ t*$t i " *e exi t in t*e wor&d of *i cre$tion" $nd not 0e!ond it >E 6" 68" $nd SAF" AD $nd A(ff9?9 2oreover" ince c$u $&it! i $ for- of nece it!" $nd ince t*e divine n$ture i etern$&&! $nd nece $ri&! $ it i " ever!t*ing t*$t *$,,en in t*e wor&d *$,,en 0! nece it!9 T*ere i $ &itt&e freedo- in t*e ,*! ic$& wor&d $ in t*e wor&d of ide$ " $nd $n effect fo&&ow fro- it c$u e wit* t*e rigid nece it! of $ -$t*e-$tic$& ,roof9 2oreover" ever! *u-$n $ction" $ $ -ode of #od" $ri e out of t*e $-e un0re$k$0&e c*$in of nece it!" -D8$nd t*erefore ide$ uc* $ <c*$nce< $nd <freedo-< c$nnot 0e given t*e ignific$nce t*$t t*e! *$ve in t*e i-$gin$tion of t*e vu&g$r9 T*ing cou&d *$ve 0een ot*erwi e on&! if #od cou&d *$ve

0een ot*erwi e" >SDD?@ 0ut t*$t i to u,,o e t*e ,o i0i&it! of $not*er u0 t$nce" $nd uc* $ u,,o ition i trict&! inco*erent9 T*o e conc&u ion $re $&re$d! counter-intuitive9 +ut -$tter $re wor e t*$n t*e! i-,&!9 For t*ere i $ re$& en e in w*ic* not*ing in S,ino=$< wor&d re$&&! <*$,,en <9 #od i " indeed" t*e c$u e of ever!t*ing" 0ut *e i t*e <etern$&< c$u e9 .e doe not" rig*t&! conceived" ,$rtici,$te in c*$nge9 .e i not <in< ti-e" $nd t*e conce,tion of ti-e ,&$! no ,$rt in t*e true know&edge of #od9 4*i&e we under t$nd t*e wor&d in ter- of <c*$nge< $nd <,roce <" t*e e de cri,tion $tt$c* on&! to -ode of #od" <$nd not to t*e divine e ence9 T*e! ex,re on&! t*e ,$rti$& $nd confu ed ,erce,tion of t*o e w*o *$ve no co-,&ete or $de:u$te ide$ of t*e wor&d9 4e c$n indeed u e t*e e ,$rti$& ,erce,tion " in con;unction wit* $ ,ro,er cientific -et*od" to derive $n $ccount of t*e <infinite -ode < of #od9 )nd in doing o we ,rovide $ fu&&er ex,&$n$tion of t*e wor&d t*$n $n! t*$t i evident to co--on en e9 Nevert*e&e " to ex,&$in t*ing u&ti-$te&! we -u t not re&$te t*e- to w*$t ,recede t*e- in ti-eC ince t*$t i -ere&! to re&$te one -ode to $not*erH r$t*er" we -u t *ow t*eir ti-e&e re&$tion to t*e etern$& e ence of #od9 )n ide$& cience" t*erefore" &ike $ true re&igion" wou&d $i- to ee t*e wor&d not in it te-,or$& di-en ion" 0ut <under t*e $ ,ect of eternit!< > u0 ,ecie $eternit$ti ?" in t*e -$nner of $ -$t*e-$tic$& ,roof9 #od i t*e on&! <free< c$u e" ince *e $&one i e&fcre$ting9 In o f$r $ we t*ink of #od in t*i w$! we under t$nd n$ture $ $n $ctive $nd cre$tive ,rinci,&e" inte&&igi0&e in $nd t*roug* it e&fC$ n$tur$ n$tur$n " to u e S,ino=$< c*o&$ tic ,*r$ e9 +ut we c$n $& o tud! n$ture -D7$ t*e ,roduct of cre$tion" $ t*e working out of $ cre$tive ende$vour t*roug* t*e infinite $nd finite -ode of t*e one true u0 t$nce@ $ n$tur$ n$tur$t$ >E 6" '7 Sc*o&iu-?9 T*ere i no contr$diction 0etween t*e e two ide$ H e$c* $,,ro$c*e t*e one identic$& re$&it!" fro- two contr$ ting ,oint of view9 T*e ,*i&o o,*er $nd t*e cienti t e-,*$ i=e different fe$ture of t*e

wor&d" fo&&ow different intere t $nd in ,ire different ,$ ion in t*e ou&9 +ut t*e $i- of t*eir tud! i in e$c* c$ e t*e $-e@ t*e u,re-e good w*ic* con i t in t*e $de:u$te know&edge of #od > ee e ,eci$&&! S %* 9 8 $nd 7?9 T*i " t*en" i t*e conc&u ion to w*ic* S,ino=$< -et$,*! ic tend @ Not*ing exi t $ve t*e one u0 t$nceCt*e e&f-cont$ined" e&fu t$ining" $nd e&fex,&$n$tor! ! te- w*ic* con titute t*e wor&d9 T*i ! te- -$! 0e under tood in -$n! w$! @ $ #od or N$tureH $ -ind or -$tterH $ cre$tor or cre$tedH $ etern$& or te-,or$&9 It c$n 0e known $de:u$te&! $nd c&e$r&! t*roug* it $ttri0ute " ,$rti$&&! $nd confu ed&! t*roug* it -ode 9 )nd to under t$nd it in it tot$&it!" under t*e $ ,ect of eternit!" i $& o to know t*$t ever!t*ing in t*e wor&d exi t 0! nece it!" $nd t*$t it cou&d not 0e ot*er t*$n it i 9 T*e inter,ret$tion of S,ino=$< -et$,*! ic S,ino=$ det$c*e t*e conce,tion of u0 t$nce fro- it inte&&ectu$& origin 9 ) u0 t$nce i no &onger" in *i writing " $n <individu$& o0;ect<" or t*e nor-$& u0;ect-$tter of t*oug*t9 #od i not <individu$ted< 0! *i true de cri,tion" ince it i i-,o i0&e to conceive of $n! ot*er entit! fro- w*ic* *e cou&d 0e di tingui *ed9 It i ,er*$, e$ ier to under t$nd < u0 t$nce< in t*e ter- et 0! t*e new cience of t*e eventeent* centur!" in w*ic* :u$ntit! $nd tr$n for-$tion t$ke ,recedence over :u$&it! $nd c&$ ific$tion9 ) I re-$rked in t*e &$ t c*$,ter" we identif! -EFt*e content of t*e wor&d not on&! $ individu$& t*ing 0ut $& o $ tuff >< u0 t$nce < in our -ore u u$& -odern under t$nding of t*e ter-?9 T*ere i $ -odern e:uiv$&ent of S,ino=$< -oni - in t*e view t*$t $&& tr$n for-$tion in t*e wor&d $re tr$n for-$tion of $ ing&e tuffC-$tter for t*e Newtoni$n " energ! for t*e fo&&ower of P&$nck $nd Ein tein9 S,ino=$ *i- e&f i o-eti-e t*oug*t to 0e ne$rer to Ein tein" in t$king <-otion $nd re t< $ t*e fund$-ent$& v$ri$0&e" $nd in $rguing t*$t <0odie $re di tingui *ed fro- e$c* ot*er in re ,ect of t*e -otion $nd re t cont$ined in

t*e-< >E'" 6A?9 .owever" t*i <-otion $nd re t< i not" for S,ino=$" $n $ttri0ute of u0 t$nce" 0ut $n <infinite -ode<@ in ot*er word " o-et*ing w*ic* ever!w*ere in*ere in" 0ut i not ex*$u tive of" t*e u&ti-$te re$&it!9 )t t*e $-e ti-e" exten ion >t*e $ttri0ute? c$n 0e een $ $ <,ower to ,roduce -otion $nd re t< >S" 6'F?9 T*e ide$ of #od< unit! $nd e&f-gener$tion $& o *$ve t*eir e:uiv$&ent in -odern cience" 0eing t$nt$-ount" on t*e inter,ret$tion ;u t ventured" to t*e view @ >6? t*$t $&& o0;ect in t*e wor&d $re in t*oroug*going c$u $& inter$ctionH >'? t*$t t*e univer e i $ c&o ed ! te-" 0e!ond w*ic* we c$nnot e$rc* >$nd" given t*e trut* of >6?" 0e!ond w*ic* we need not e$rc*? for t*e c$u e of $n!t*ing wit*in it9 T*ere i no $n wer to t*e :ue tion <w*!K< t*$t doe not refer to t*e $ctu$& ! te- of t*e wor&d" $nd t*e $tte-,t to go 0e!ond t*$t ! te-Cto find $ <tr$n cendent$& c$u $&it!< of cre$ted t*ing Ci in*erent&! -e$ning&e 9 ) ing&e tuff" o0edient to $ ing&e et of &$w definitive of it n$ture" give ri e to $&& t*$t we o0 erve9 T*e t$ k of cience i to ,rovide t*e co-,&ete de cri,tion of t*$t u0 t$nce $nd t*e &$w w*ic* $,,&! to it" o t*$t ever! event c$n 0e fin$&&! ex,&$ined9 2oreover" de cri,tion of t*e u0 t$nce $nd de cri,tion of t*e &$w w*ic* govern it $re not two -E6de cri,tion 0ut one@ to give t*e u&ti-$te ,ro,ertie of exten ion >-$tter" energ!? i $t t*e $-e ti-e to give t*e &$w w*ic* govern $&& extended t*ing 9 Suc* $ <tr$n &$tion< of S,ino=$< t*eo&og! *$ -et wit* $ cert$in $,,rov$& $-ong conte-,or$r! co--ent$tor H ,$rt&! 0ec$u e it render t*e re t of S,ino=$< ,*i&o o,*! u efu& $ $ -or$&it! for cientific -$n9 )t fir t ig*t it i f$r fro- t*e vi ion of t*e <#odintoxic$ted< ,$nt*ei t w*ic* tirred t*e !-,$t*ie of Nov$&i $nd #oet*e9 +ut ,er*$, on&! $t fir t ig*t9 4e *ou&d re-e-0er t*e c$&- re&igiou f$it* w*ic* Ein tein 0ui&t u,on *i t*eor! of re&$tivit!C$ t*eor! w*ic* 0eg$n ,reci e&! fro- t*e $ u-,tion t*$t I *$ve ;u t out&ined" $nd w*ic* ee-ed" to it inventor" to ;u tif! t*e w$! of #od to -$n9

T*e re$& difficu&t! for t*e inter,ret$tion i ugge ted" *owever" 0! t*e co-,$ri on wit* Ein tein9 S,$ce" ti-e $nd nu-0er &ie $t t*e found$tion of -odern ,*! ic H 0ut" w*$t $re t*e! for S,ino=$K Ti-e in ,$rticu&$r ee- &itt&e 0etter t*$n $ -et$,*or" $ kind of ,erv$ ive figure of ,eec* w*ic* run t*roug* $&& our ex,erience" 0ut on&! 0ec$u e our ex,erience i $n <in$de:u$te< guide to u&ti-$te re$&it!9 +efore returning to t*$t difficu&t!" *owever" we -u t f$ce w*$t w$ for S,ino=$ t*e -o t i-,ort$nt of $&& t*e ,ro0&e- r$i ed 0! *i -et$,*! ic @ t*e ,ro0&e- of -$n< ,&$ce in n$ture9 -E'-

4 Man
S,ino=$< $n wer to t*e ridd&e of exi tence c$n 0e ,ut uccinct&!@ $&& t*ing t*$t exi t" exi t nece $ri&!" in t*oroug*going interde,endence9 T*e en uing -et$,*! ic *$ cert$in di tur0ing i-,&ic$tion for -$n< e&funder t$nding9 2ent$&it! -$!" in o-e en e" 0e $ di tingui *ing fe$ture of ,eo,&e@ nevert*e&e " ever!t*ing in t*e wor&d i ex,re i0&e 0ot* $ ide$ $nd $ ,*! ic$& o0;ect" $nd t*e re&$tion 0etween ide$ $nd extended t*ing i -$de not -ore 0ut &e e$ ! to gr$ ," 0! S,ino=$ t*eor! of t*e $ttri0ute 9 Furt*er-ore" S,ino=$< -oni - gener$te $ *ig*&! ,$r$doxic$& ide$ of t*e *u-$n ,er on9 T*e individu$& ,er on i not" it ee- " $n individu$& $t $&&9 Nor i $n!t*ing e& e9 T*e identit!" e,$r$tene " $nd e&f ufficienc! of t*e ,er on $&& ee- to 0e denied 0! S,ino=$" $nd -$n" $ ,$rt of n$ture" ee- to 0e no -ore i-,ort$nt $ fe$ture in t*e c*e-e of t*ing t*$n $re rock $nd tone $nd tree 9 Fin$&&!" t*e $ ertion t*$t ever!t*ing *$,,en 0! nece it! eeto &e$ve t*e w*o&e of -or$&it! in dou0t9 It i unc&e$r w*et*er t*e :ue tion <4*$t *$&& I doK< *$ $n! -e$ning for S,ino=$9 For not on&! doe t*e <I< ee- to 0e ,ro0&e-$ticC$ f&eeting -ode of #od wit* neit*er individu$&it! not e&f-de,endenceCt*e w*o&e ugge tion t*$t uc* $ t*ing -ig*t $ctu$&&! do o-et*ing i wit*out -e$ning" ince in not*ing doe it *$ve t*e &ig*te t c*oice9 T*e -o t origin$& ,$rt of S,ino=$ ,*i&o o,*! con i t in *i $tte-,t to $n wer t*e t*ree ,ro0&e- t*$t we *$ve ketc*edCt*e ,ro0&e- of -ind $nd 0od!" t*e ,ro0&e- of individu$& exi tence" $nd t*e ,ro0&e- of freedo-C$nd in -EA-

doing o" to reconci&e t*e :ue t for *$,,ine wit* t*e know&edge of #od9 Nor i t*i $tte-,t wit*out i-,ort$nce for u " w*o $re $ 0e et $ w$ S,ino=$ 0! $ en e of -$n< f&eetingne " fr$gi&it! $nd -et$,*! ic$& nu&&it!" $nd $0ove $&& 0! $ en e of *i utter de,endence u,on $ tot$&it! w*ic* *e doe not contro&9 )ttri0ute $nd $ ,ect 4e know #od 0ot* t*roug* t*e $ttri0ute of exten ion $nd t*roug* t*e $ttri0ute of t*oug*t9 T*e te-,t$tion i to inter,ret t*i t*eor! < u0;ective&!<Ci9e9 to u,,o e t*$t S,ino=$ i de cri0ing two w$! of ,erceiving $ ing&e re$&it!" r$t*er t*$n $n intrin ic du$&it! in t*e re$&it! ,erceived9 S,ino=$ *i- e&f encour$ge uc* $n inter,ret$tion@ You de ire" t*oug* t*ere i no need" t*$t I *ou&d i&&u tr$te 0! $n ex$-,&e" *ow one $nd t*e $-e t*ing c$n 0e t$-,ed wit* two n$-e 9 In order not to ee-i er&!" I wi&& give !ou two9 Fir t" I $! t*$t 0! I r$e& i -e$nt t*e t*ird ,$tri$rc*H I -e$n t*e $-e 0! I$co0" t*e n$-e I$co0 *$ving 0een given" 0ec$u e t*e ,$tri$rc* in :ue tion *$d c$ug*t *o&d of t*e *ee& of *i 0rot*er9 Second&!" 0! $ co&our&e urf$ce I -e$n $ urf$ce" w*ic* ref&ect $&& r$! of &ig*t wit*out $&tering t*e-9 I -e$n t*e $-e 0! $ w*ite urf$ce" wit* t*i difference" t*$t $ urf$ce i c$&&ed w*ite in reference to $ -$n &ooking $t it9 >%IX? Neit*er of S,ino=$< ex$-,&e *$ $n! o0viou 0e$ring on t*e ,ro0&e- of t*e $ttri0ute >e$c* of w*ic* i u,,o ed to ,rovide $ co-,&ete $nd identif!ing e ence of t*e t*ing to w*ic* it i $ttri0uted?H $nd e$c* ex$-,&e i o0 cure9 +ut 0ot* ee- to encour$ge t*e inter,ret$tion of t*e $ttri0ute $ <,er ,ective < or <$ ,ect <9 4e c$n &ook on #od" now -EDunder t*e $ ,ect of t*oug*t" now under t*e $ ,ect of exten ion" r$t*er $ $ -$n -$! &ook $t $ ,icture" fir t $ $ di ,o ition of

co&oured ,$tc*e " t*en $ $ ,ortr$it" $nd in e$c* c$ e 0e under t$nding t*e $-e -$teri$& t*ing9 Suc* $n inter,ret$tion neg&ect S,ino=$< *idden $ u-,tion9 T*e r$tion$&i t ee our know&edge of t*e wor&d on t*e -ode& of -$t*e-$tic 9 Iu t $ t*ere i no g$, 0etween *ow nu-0er $re" $nd *ow t*e! $re re,re ented 0! our ,roof " o" for t*e r$tion$&i t" i t*ere no g$, 0etween *ow t*e wor&d i " $nd *ow it i re,re ented in our re$ oningC,rovided t*$t we re$ on" $ in -$t*e-$tic " 0! <c&e$r $nd di tinct ide$ <9 T*i fe$ture of -$t*e-$tic i often t$ken 0! e-,irici t to *ow t*$t -$t*e-$tic$& entitie " uc* $ nu-0er " $re not re$&&! inde,endent of u @ if we c$n know $&& $0out t*e-" if t*eir ,ro,ertie ,erfect&! -irror our cognition of t*e-" t*en t*i i 0ec$u e t*e! $re in o-e en e con tructed in t*e $ct of under t$nding t*e-9 For t*e r$tion$&i t" *owever" -$t*e-$tic i i-,&! t*e ,erfect i&&u tr$tion of t*e ,o i0i&it! t*$t I -$! g$in $ ,riori know&edge of o-et*ing w*ic* i not -! e&f9 Si-i&$r&! S,ino=$ define $n $ttri0ute $ t*$t w*ic* t*e inte&&ect ,erceive to 0e t*e e ence of $ u0 t$nce9 )nd w*$t t*e inte&&ect >,ro,er&! c*oo&ed? ,erceive to 0e t*e e ence of o-et*ing" i t*e e ence of t*$t t*ing9 T*e two conce,tion $re t*erefore not two ,oint of view on t*e wor&d" 0ut two co-,&ete $nd $de:u$te de cri,tion of t*e wor&d $ it e enti$&&! i " $nd $n $ttri0ute i not tru&! di tinct fro- t*e u0 t$nce in w*ic* it in*ere 9 In e$r&ier writing S,ino=$ ,ut t*e ,oint $ fo&&ow @ <+eing $ 0eing" 0! it e&f $&one" $ u0 t$nce" doe not $ffect u " $nd t*erefore it i to 0e ex,&$ined 0! o-e $ttri0ute" fro- w*ic* it i !et not di tingui *ed" $ve ide$&&!< >2 Pt 6" %*9 A?9 )t t*e $-e ti-e" $n $ttri0ute i o c$&&ed 0ec$u e <t*e inte&&ect $ttri0ute $ cert$in n$ture to u0 t$nce< >%IX?9 -EEPer*$, t*e 0e t w$! of under t$nding S,ino=$< t*oug*t i in ter- of $n $n$&og! ,ut forw$rd 0! T*o-$ %$r on 2$rk > ee +i0&iogr$,*!?9 %on ider S,ino=$< ,$r$dig- of o0;ective cience@ t*e geo-etr! of Euc&id9 T*e $xio- ,ut forw$rd 0! Euc&id e-,&o! intuitive notion of t*e ,&$ne figure" uc* $ &ine $nd ,oint" w*ic* we *$ve no difficu&t! in re&$ting to our ever!d$! ex,erience of

,$ce9 T*e $-e $xio- c$n 0e re-ex,re ed u ing %$rte i$n coordin$te " w*ic* *ow *ow figure $re deter-ined 0! e:u$tion of two v$ri$0&e " $nd w*ic* tr$n for- t*e re u&ting ,roof of geo-etric$& t*eore- into ,roof in $&ge0r$9 T*e ,roof corre ,ond to e$c* ot*er" $nd neit*er cience de&iver re u&t t*$t $re not de&ivered in e:uiv$&ent for- 0! t*e ot*er9 +ut t*ere wou&d 0e $ tr$nge f$u&t of &ogic ex*i0ited 0! $n!one w*o c*$nged froone idio- to t*e ot*er in t*e cour e of $ ,roof9 .ere one -ig*t $! t*$t t*e %$rte i$n $nd Euc&ide$n ,re ent$tion of ,&$ne geo-etr! give co-,&ete $ccount of t*e $-e ! te- of -$t*e-$tic$& trut* " $nd $ co-,&ete $n$&! i of $&& t*e re&$tion of &ogic$& de,endence t*$t o0t$in wit*in t*e ! te-9 )t t*e $-e ti-e" t*e ,ro,o ition of one cience" even t*oug* nece $ri&! true" c$nnot 0e u0 tituted in t*e ,roof 0e&onging to t*e ot*er9 )n! ,ro,o ition t*$t i &e t*$n $ conce,tion of t*e w*o&e i -$rked inde&i0&! $ eit*er %$rte i$n or Euc&ide$n" $nd on&! t*e w*o&e >or" in S,ino=$ word " <$de:u$te<? ide$ w*ic* i t*e tot$& cience wou&d *ow t*e u0;ect--$tter to 0e in e$c* c$ e one $nd t*e $-e9 T*e $n$&og! i &e t*$n ,erfect9 +ut it i ,ro0$0&! $ ne$r $ we c$n co-e to ,roviding $ -ode& for S,ino=$< t*eor! of t*e re&$tion 0etween t*e $ttri0ute of t*oug*t $nd exten ion" e$c* of w*ic* ,rovide co-,&ete $nd $de:u$te know&edge of t*e e ence of $ ing&e u0 t$nce9 T*oug*t $nd exten ion e$c* re,re ent re$&it! $ it e enti$&&! i " $nd -E(e$c* $ttri0ute give $ co-,&ete $ccount of t*$t re$&it!9 .ence ever! -odeCinc&uding ever! o0;ect in t*e ! te- of ti-e $nd c*$ngeCc$n 0e de cri0ed 0ot* in -ent$& $nd in ,*! ic$& ter- " $nd if we $re not $c:u$inted wit* t*e ide$ w*ic* ex,re t*e re$&it! of $ tone or $ t$0&e" t*i i -ere&! $ re u&t of our confu ed ,erce,tion9 In our own c$ e" *owever" we know 0ot* t*e -ent$& $nd t*e ,*! ic$& ex,re ion of $ ing&e finite -ode9 T*e -ind" S,ino=$ te&& u " i $ ,$rticu&$r ide$" n$-e&! <t*e ide$ of t*e 0od!< >E '" 6A?9 T*i ide$ i <not i-,&e" 0ut co-,o ed of -$n! ide$ < >E '" 6E?" $nd to e$c* of it co-,onent t*ere corre ,ond $ 0odi&! ,roce w*ic* i it <o0;ect< or ide$tu-9

Nor-$&&!" w*en we $! t*$t $n ide$ i $n ide$ of o-e o0;ect" we do not -e$n to ugge t t*$t t*e ide$ $nd t*e o0;ect $re inti-$te&! connected9 )fter $&&" we *$ve ide$ of di t$nt o0;ect w*ic* c$nnot exi t in t*e *u-$n -ind" $nd ide$ of fiction " w*ic* do not exi t $t $&&9 Nor-$&&! t*e word <of< -e$n <$0out<" $nd t*e <o0;ect< of $n ide$ i t*$t w*ic* i re,re ented in or t*roug* it9 For S,ino=$" *owever" t*$t w$! of t*inking i -ere&! $ ref&ection of our own in$de:u$te under t$nding9 T*e on&! re$& cognitive re&$tion t*$t cou&d exi t 0etween $n ide$ $nd $ -$teri$& t*ing" i t*e re&$tion t*$t exi t 0etween $n ide$" w*ic* i $ -ode of t*e ing&e u0 t$nce conceived under t*e $ttri0ute of t*oug*t" $nd t*e ver! $-e -ode conceived under t*e $ttri0ute of exten ion9 4*et*er we c$n c$&& t*i re&$tion one of identit! i $ nice ,oint of &ogic9 Nevert*e&e " S,ino=$ $ffir- t*$t <t*e -ind $nd t*e 0od! $re one $nd t*e $-e t*ing" w*ic* i conceived now under t*e $ttri0ute of t*oug*t" now under t*e $ttri0ute of exten ion< >E '" '6" Sc*o&iu-?9 4*$t" t*en" i t*e re&$tion 0etween -ind $nd 0od!K T*i i $g$in $ ,oint of c*o&$r&! controver !" 0ut we -$! $00revi$te $ v$ t $nd inconc&u ive &iter$ture into $ *ort $nd ,ro0$0&! e:u$&&! $ti f$ctor! entence" 0! $!ing t*$t -EBS,ino=$ co-0ined onto&ogic$& -oni - wit* conce,tu$& du$&i -9 2ind $nd 0od! $re one t*ingH 0ut to de cri0e t*$t t*ing $ -ind $nd to de cri0e it $ 0od! $re to itu$te it wit*in two e,$r$te $nd inco--en ur$0&e ! te- 9 T*e det$i& of t*o e ! te- c$nnot 0e -utu$&&! u0 tituted" $nd t*erefore t*e $ ertion of $ c$u $& re&$tion >$ re&$tion of de,endence? 0etween -ind $nd 0od! i inco*erent9 If we -e$n 0! <$ i identic$& to 0< t*$t <$< c$n 0e tru&! $nd en i0&! u0 tituted for <0< in $n! true entence $0out 0" t*en -ind $nd 0od! $re not identic$&9 On t*e ot*er *$nd" t*e co-,&ete ! te- to w*ic* t*e -ind 0e&ong i ,reci e&! t*e $-e ! te- $ t*$t to w*ic* t*e 0od! 0e&ong 9 2oreover" -ind $nd 0od! occur $t i o-or,*ic ,oint in t*e two ,$r$&&e& ! te- 9 Onto&ogic$&&! ,e$king" t*erefore" t*e -ind i <not*ing 0ut< t*e 0od!" $nd *$ no re$&it! $,$rt fro- t*e re$&it! $ttri0uted to t*e 0od!" even t*oug*

<t*e 0od! c$nnot deter-ine t*e -ind to t*ink" nor t*e -ind t*e 0od! to re-$in in -otion or $t re t< >E A" '?9 Suc* $ view of t*e re&$tion 0etween -ind $nd 0od! i not wit*out it -odern $d*erent 9 2$n! ,*i&o o,*er now $rgue $ fo&&ow >fro- ,re-i e w*ic* -irror t*e < cientific< inter,ret$tion t*$t I g$ve of S,ino=$< -et$,*! ic ?@ To de cri0e t*e 0e*$viour of $ ,er on in -ent$& ter- i not to refer to o-e occu&t ,roce &!ing 0e!ond t*e tr$n for-$tion of t*e 0od!" 0ut to de cri0e t*o e ver! tr$n for-$tion " u ing conce,t of $ r$dic$&&! different kind fro- t*o e e-,&o!ed in t*e n$tur$& cience 9 ) -$n w*o t*ink " de ire " or r$ge i in $ cert$in ,*! ic$& condition" $nd t*i condition con titute " in o-e -$nner" *i t*oug*t" de ire or r$ge9 +ut in de cri0ing *i condition in -ent$& ter- " we u e conce,t t*$t *$ve no ,&$ce in t*e cientific ex,&$n$tion of n$ture@ we $re inter,reting *i 0e*$viour" 0! itu$ting it in t*e <*u-$n wor&d< of ,er on$& intercour e9 ) critic" de cri0ing t*e -e$ning of $ ,iece of -E8-u ic" i de cri0ing t*e ver! $-e o0;ect $ t*e ,*! ici t" w*o de cri0e it co-,onent ound H $nd !et *e i inter,reting t*e- in $ w$! t*$t *$ $ ,eci$& ignific$nce for t*o e w*o re ,ond to -u ic9 T*e -e$ning of t*e -u ic i not e,$r$te fro- t*e ound @ r$t*er it i t*e ound " under tood t*roug* conce,tion t*$t ,&$ce t*e- in ignific$nt re&$tion wit* our e&ve 9 In $ i-i&$r w$!" t*e -ind of $not*er i not e,$r$te fro- t*e 0odi&! ,roce e w*ic* c$u e *i 0e*$viour" even t*oug*" w*en we ee t*e- $ -ind" we ee t*e- under $ ,eci$& inter,ret$tion" w*ic* re&$te t*e- to our own re ,on e9 T*i inter,ret$tion e-,&o! conce,t t*$t cou&d ,&$! no ro&e in t*e for-u&$tion of cientific &$w 9 .ence t*e $ ertion of $ c$u $& re&$tion 0etween ,*! ic$& $nd -ent$& event i in*erent&! ,$r$doxic$&" ,er*$, even inco*erent9 Individu$& $nd <con$tu < ) o f$r ,re ented" *owever" t*e t*eor! i r$dic$&&! inco-,&ete9 For it te&& u on&! of t*e re&$tion in t*e $0 tr$ct of t*e -ent$& to t*e ,*! ic$&9 It give u no $ccount of t*e ,$rticu&$rit! of t*e

*u-$n -ind" $nd no ide$ of *ow we -ig*t individu$te" eit*er t*e -ind" or t*e 0od! w*ic* i it ide$tu-9 )nd wit*out individu$tion t*e re&$tion 0etween -ind $nd 0od! i ti&& in dou0t9 .ow" t*en" c$n we under t$nd t*e e,$r$tene $nd individu$&it! t*$t i >in uc* c$ e ? $ttri0uted to finite -ode K It i on&! in $ ,ro0&e-$tic en e t*$t #od c$n 0e ,oken of $ $n individu$&C$ <one or ing&e<9 )nd indeed" it -ig*t 0e u,,o ed t*$t t*ere i re$&&! no ,&$ce in S,ino=$< ,*i&o o,*! for t*e conce,t of $n individu$&" or for t*e di tinction" o i-,ort$nt to our ordin$r! t*oug*t" 0etween $n individu$& $nd it ,ro,ertie 9 %on ider t*e redne of t*i 0ook9 On S,ino=$ t*eor! t*i i $ -ode of #od9 4*! t*en *ou&d we $ cri0e t*e redne to t*e 0ook $nd not to #od" -E7$nd w*! do we fee& uc* re&uct$nce to ee t*e 0ook $ $ ,ro,ert! of #odK .ow c$n $ finite -ode 0e conceived $ $n inde,endent individu$&" $nd not ;u t $ $ tr$n ient t$te of o-et*ing e& e" in w*ic* it in*ere K S,ino=$ often refer to finite individu$& " $nd ,e$k of t*i or t*$t finite -ode <in o f$r $ >:u$te- or :u$tenu ? it i in it e&f< >for ex$-,&e E A" (?9 In ot*er word " t*ere i $ en e in w*ic*Cor $ ,oint to w*ic*Cfinite -ode -$! 0e e&f-de,endent ><in< t*e- e&ve ? in t*e w$! t*$t #od i e&f-de,endent9 S,ino=$ $& o ,rovide $ definition of e ence >E '" Definition '? w*ic* -$! 0e $,,&ied $ we&& to finite -ode $ to #od@ t*$t ,ert$in to t*e e ence of $ t*ing w*ic*" w*en gr$nted" nece $ri&! invo&ve t*e gr$nting of t*e t*ing" $nd w*ic*" w*en re-oved" nece $ri&! invo&ve t*e re-ov$& of t*e t*ingH or t*$t wit*out w*ic* t*e t*ing" or on t*e ot*er *$nd" w*ic* wit*out t*e t*ing c$n neit*er exi t nor 0e conceived9

S,ino=$< $,,&ic$tion of t*e e ide$ to finite -ode invo&ve $n intere ting inver ion of De c$rte < $rgu-ent $0out t*e w$x > ee %*$,ter A?9 T*e w$x ee-ed to ,o e no e enti$& unit! or identit! 0e!ond t*$t of t*e tuff out of w*ic* it w$ co-,o ed9 It cou&d 0e 0roken u," -e&ted down" tr$n for-ed in re ,ect of ever! one of it ,ro,ertie exce,t t*o e w*ic* ,ert$in to -$tter >or exten ion? $ uc*9 It i te-,ting to conc&ude t*$t on&! exten ion i ,re erved t*roug* ever! c*$nge9 >T*e individu$&it! of t*e ,iece of w$x" we -ig*t $!" i di o&ved in it con titution9? +! contr$ t" S,ino=$ o0 erve " t*ere $re t*ing w*ic* *$ve $ kind of in*erent re i t$nce to t*e c*$nge undergone 0! t*e &u-, of w$x9 T*e! re i t d$-$ge" fr$cture or -e&tingH o-eti-e " if in;ured" t*e! re tore t*e- e&ve out of t*eir own in*erent ,rinci,&e of -(Fe&f-recover!9 T*e! ende$vour" $ S,ino=$ ,ut it" to ,er i t in t*eir own 0eing9 T*i ende$vour >con$tu ? con titute t*eir e ence" ince it i t*$t w*ic*" w*en re-oved" nece $ri&! invo&ve t*e re-ov$& of t*e t*ing" $nd t*$t wit*out w*ic* t*e t*ing c$nnot exi t9 2oreover" t*e con$tu of $ t*ing i t*e c$u $& ,rinci,&e in ter- of w*ic* we ex,&$in it ,er i tence $nd it ,ro,ertie 9 T*e -ore con$tu it *$ " t*erefore" t*e -ore $n o0;ect i e&fde,endentCt*e -ore it i <in it e&f<9 T*e o0viou ex$-,&e $re org$ni - 9 %on ider $ni-$& @ un&ike tone t*e! $void in;ur!" re i t it w*en it i t*re$tened" $nd even re tore t*e- e&ve w*en it i inf&icted Cun&e t*e in;ur! i o eriou $ to de tro! con$tu $&toget*er9 For t*i re$ on we $ttri0ute to $ni-$& $ e&fde,endence $nd $n individu$&it! t*$t we r$re&! $ccord to in$ni-$te t*ing 9 T*i i 0orne out 0! our w$! of de cri0ing t*e-" u ing $&w$! <count noun < r$t*er t*$n <-$ noun <9 ) tone i $ &u-, of tone" $ &$ke i $ ,oo& of w$ter" $ now-$n i $ *e$, of now9 +ut unti& de$d $ c$t i $n individu$& c$t $nd not $ &u-, of c$t@ on&! w*en t*e con$tu *$ ex,ired cou&d it 0e de cri0ed $ $ *e$," $ &u-," or $ -$ 9 T*e individu$&it! $nd e&f-de,endence of $ c$t" &ike t*o e of $ -$n" $re ,$rt of it

n$ture" $nd to divide $ c$t in two i to cre$te" not two *$&f-,iece of c$t" 0ut two w*o&e ,iece of o-et*ing e& e9 T*e c$t ende$vour to ,er i t $ one t*ing" $nd exi t ;u t o &ong $ t*$t ende$vour i " in S,ino=$< -$t*e-$tic$& idio-" <gr$nted<9 T*e ende$vour of t*e 0od! i $& o $n ende$vour of t*e -ind9 %onceived in -ent$& ter- " t*i ende$vour i w*$t we -e$n 0! wi&& >vo&unt$ ?9 So-eti-e we refer to 0ot* 0od! $nd -ind in de cri0ing $ cre$ture< con$tu " $nd t*en we ,e$k of <$,,etite<H o-eti-e Ce ,eci$&&! w*en de cri0ing ,eo,&eCwe wi * to e-,*$ i=e t*e e&e-ent of con ciou ne t*$t &e$d t*e- not on&! to *$ve $,,etite -(60ut $& o to 0e $w$re of t*e-@ t*en we u e t*e ter- <de ire< >cu,idit$ ? >E A" 7?9 In ever! c$ e" *owever" we $re referring to t*e $-e re$&it!@ t*e con$tu t*$t c$u e $n org$ni - to t$nd $,$rt fro- it urrounding " in $ ,er i tent $nd $ctive e&f-de,endence9 T*e t*eor! of con$tu " co-0ined wit* S,ino=$ $n$&! i of t*e re&$tion 0etween 0od! $nd -ind" *$ $ ,ecu&i$r con e:uence" n$-e&!" t*$t <t*e -ind 9 9 9 ende$vour to ,er i t in it 0eing for $n indefinite ,eriod" $nd i con ciou of t*i it ende$vour< >E A" 7?9 .ence it i i-,o i0&e to conte-,&$te uicide@ >in S,ino=$ word @ <t*e ide$ w*ic* cut off t*e exi tence of our 0od! c$nnot 0e given in our -ind" 0ut i contr$r! t*ereto< >E A" 6F??9 Intention$& uicide i $ contr$diction" ince it invo&ve $ de&i0er$te triving not to trive" $ e&f-gener$ted vio&$tion of one< own e&fgener$tion" $ ,itting of one< e ence $g$in t it e&f9 .ow t*en doe S,ino=$ ex,&$in t*e -$n! c$ e of $ctu$& uicideK )nd *ow doe *e reconci&e *i t*eor! wit* *i own et*ic " w*ic* te&& u not to fe$r de$t*" $nd not to *un de$t* for igno0&e re$ on >E D" B'H E E" A8?K S,ino=$< offici$& $n wer to t*i difficu&t! i t*$t <not*ing c$n 0e de tro!ed $ve 0! $n extern$& c$u e< >E A" D?" $nd *ence t*$t <no one 9 9 9 ki&& *i- e&f fro- t*e nece it! of *i own n$ture9 T*o e w*o do uc* t*ing $re co-,e&&ed 0! extern$& c$u e " w*ic* c$n *$,,en in -$n! w$! < >E D" 'F" Sc*o&iu-?9 .e give v$riou

ex$-,&e " citing t*e c$ e of Senec$" w*o o,ened *i vein $t t*e co--$nd of $ t!r$nt" $nd t*$t of -$dne " in w*ic* t*e -ind *$ <$ u-ed $ n$ture contr$r! to it for-er one<9 T*i new n$ture i one of w*ic* $n ide$ cou&d not 0e given in t*e -ind o &ong $ t*e -ind confor-ed to it origin$& ende$vourH *ence it i not t*e outco-e of t*e -ind< con$tu 9 %o--ent$tor ex,re v$r!ing degree of di $ti f$ction -('wit* S,ino=$< t*eor! of uicide9 4*$t i i-,ort$nt" *owever" i to ee t*$t *e doe in f$ct ,re ent $ t*eor!" $nd t*$t it i not wit*out ,enetr$tion9 It i w*o&&! c*$r$cteri tic of S,ino=$ to fo&&ow t*roug* t*e con e:uence of *i own -et$,*! ic " to t*e e ,oint of cont$ct wit* t*e *u-$n wor&d9 .$d *e re-$ined dre$-ing in $0 tr$ct ,*ere " uncon ciou of" or re&uct$nt to f$ce" t*e re$& ,ro0&e- of *u-$n &ife $nd under t$nding" *i ! tewou&d 0e of f$r &e intere t t*$n it i 9 In t*i ,$rticu&$r c$ e" *e over&ooked -$n! ,o i0&e ex,&$n$tion of uicide9 +ut it i not o0viou t*$t *e i wrong in *i fund$-ent$& ,o tu&$te" t*$t $&& t*ing eriou &! undert$ken 0! -e" $re undert$ken for t*e $ke of -! ,er i tence9 T*e no0&e uicide of I$,$n *ow c&e$r&! enoug*" *ow $ -$n c$n de ire to end *i- e&f" ,reci e&! o $ to ,er i t in *i ending9 T*e t*eor! of ide$ Ever!t*ing c$n 0e conceived eit*er $ ide$ or $ extended t*ingH $nd !et t*ere i no c$u $& re&$tion >in $n! en e recogni=$0&e 0! S,ino=$? 0etween -ind $nd 0od!9 ) c$u $& re&$tion exi t 0etween two t*ing on&! if t*e conce,tion of one invo&ve t*e conce,tion of t*e ot*er9 )n ide$ -$! de,end u,on $not*er ide$ for it conce,tion" $nd $ 0od! &ikewi e on $not*er 0od!9 +ut $t no ,oint in t*e e&$0or$tion of t*e ! te- of ide$ c$n inte&&igi0&e reference 0e -$de to $ ,*! ic$& -ode" nor" in t*e e&$0or$tion of t*e cience of exten ion" c$n inte&&igi0&e reference 0e -$de to t*e -ent$&9 T*e two ! te- $re ,$r$&&e& 0ut inco--en ur$0&e ex,re ion of $ ing&e tot$&it!9 Nevert*e&e " <t*e order $nd

connection of ide$ i t*e $-e $ t*e order $nd connection of t*ing < >E '" B?9 .ence t*ere i no difficu&t! in re&$ting t*e -ind to t*ing out ide it" or in di ,&$!ing it ,o ition in t*e unfo&ding e:uence of n$tur$ n$tur$t$@ -(AT*e order or conc$ten$tion of t*ing i one" w*et*er n$ture i conceived under one or t*e ot*er $ttri0uteH it fo&&ow t*erefore t*$t t*e order of t*e $ction $nd ,$ ion of our 0od! i i-u&t$neou wit* t*e order of t*e $ction $nd ,$ ion of t*e -ind 9 9 9 >t*u ? t*e deci ion of t*e -ind" toget*er wit* t*e $,,etite $nd deter-in$tion of t*e 0od!" $re i-u&t$neou in n$ture" or r$t*er t*$t t*e! $re one $nd t*e $-e t*ing" w*ic*" w*en it i con idered under t*e $ttri0ute of t*oug*t $nd ex,&$ined in ter- of it" we c$&& deci ion" $nd w*en con idered under t*e $ttri0ute of exten ion" $nd deduced fro- t*e &$w of -otion $nd re t" we c$&& c$u $tion9 >E A" '" Sc*o&iu-? )nd for ever! ide$ t*ere i $n ide$tu-C$n o0;ect conceived under t*e $ttri0ute of exten ion" w*ic* ex$ct&! corre ,ond to t*e ide$ in t*e ! te- of t*e wor&d9 Ever! ide$ i <of< it ide$tu-" $nd ever! ide$ t*erefore di ,&$! w*$t S,ino=$ c$&&ed t*e <extrin ic< -$rk of trut*" n$-e&! $n ex$ct $nd nece $r! corre ,ondence to it ide$tu- >E '" Definition D?9 T*i doe not i-,&! t*$t t*ere i no uc* t*ing $ $ f$& e ide$9 For -$n! ide$ f$i& to ,o e t*e <intrin ic<9 -$rk of trut*9 Error te- fro- our f$i&ure to gr$ , t*e fu&& ! te- of ide$ " $nd t*e re&$tion of de,endence w*ic* *o&d 0etween t*e-H *ence we re-$in wit* confu ed or ,$rti$& conce,tion of t*ing " $nd on&! 0! re,&$cing t*e e conce,tion wit* <$de:u$te< ide$ c$n we *$ve $n! gu$r$ntee t*$t our t*oug*t di ,&$! t*ing $ t*e! $re9 On&! in t*e <$de:u$te< ide$ $re t*e intrin ic -$rk of trut* di cerni0&e >E '" Definition D?9 S,ino=$< <$de:u$te< i -e$nt to ,erfor- $ i-i&$r function to De c$rte < <c&e$r $nd di tinct<H indeed" S,ino=$ o-eti-e u e t*e %$rte i$n ter-ino&og! >for ex$-,&e $t E '" '8" in S" 2" $nd in e$r&! &etter ?9 .owever" t*e t*eor! of t*e

-(D<$de:u$te< ide$ i f$r -ore ! te-$tic t*$n it %$rte i$n ,rotot!,e" $nd &e$d to conc&u ion w*ic* De c$rte wou&d cert$in&! *$ve re;ected9 )n ide$ w*ic* ,o e e on&! t*e extrin ic -$rk of trut* -$! 0e $ ource of errorC$nd in t*i en e -$! 0e de cri0ed $ f$& e9 4*i&e we c$n know t*$t it corre ,ond >$ it -u t? to it ide$tu-" we c$nnot know" fro- t*e intrin ic ,ro,ertie of t*e ide$" ;u t w*$t t*$t ide$tu- i 9 T*e in$de:u$te ide$" in ot*er word " i o,$:ue to t*e wor&d" w*i&e t*e $de:u$te ide$ i tr$n ,$rent9 .ence <0etween $ true $nd $n $de:u$te ide$ I recogni e no difference" exce,t t*$t t*e e,it*et QtrueQ on&! *$ reg$rd to t*e $gree-ent 0etween t*e ide$ $nd it ide$tu-" w*ere$ t*e e,it*et Q$de:u$teQ *$ reg$rd to t*e n$ture of t*e ide$ it e&f< >% 1X?9 Fro- t*e r$tion$&i t $ u-,tion t*$t t*ere re$&&! $re $de:u$te ide$ " S,ino=$ *ow *ow to con truct $ t*eor! of know&edge >w*ic* i in f$ct $ t*eor! of error?9 T*e t*eor! >roug*&! worked out in S'" 6E $nd 6(" $nd ,erfected in E '" AEff9? i exceeding&! intric$te" $nd rendered ,$rticu&$r&! difficu&t 0! S,ino=$< con t$nt tendenc! to de cri0e t*e re&$tion 0etween ide$ $nd ide$tu- $ one of re,re ent$tion > o t*$t $n ide$ o-eti-e ee- to 0e of it ide$tu-" in t*e nor-$& under t$nding of t*$t difficu&t word" $nd not i-,&! in t*e en e i-,&ied 0! S,ino=$< -et$,*! ic ?9 In -ediev$& ,$r&$nce" S,ino=$ con t$nt&! de cri0e $ $n intention$& re&$tion >$ re&$tion in t*oug*t? w*$t i in f$ct $ -$teri$& re&$tion >$ re&$tion in f$ct?9 S,ino=$ w$ ,ro0$0&! not confu ed on t*i ,oint" $&t*oug* *e -ig*t *$ve 0een c&e$rer9 T*u *e o-eti-e u e t*e word <o0;ect< >o0;ectu-? to refer to t*e re,re ent$tion$& content of $n ide$" re erving t*e word <ide$tu-< for it corre&$te >for ex$-,&e E '" 6A" Sc*o&iu-" $nd ee t*e #&o $r!?9 1ike De c$rte " S,ino=$ u e t*e ter- <ide$< to cover $&& -(E-

-ent$& content 9 .e t*erefore cro e " in *i u e of t*e ter-" two critic$& frontier @ t*$t 0etween conce,t $nd ,erce,tion" $nd t*$t 0etween conce,t $nd ,ro,o ition9 T*ere i ure&! $ di tinction 0etween t*e conce,t of -$n $nd $ ,erce,tion" i-$ge or dre$- of $ -$nH $nd $ di tinction 0etween t*e conce,t of -$n $nd t*e ,ro,o ition t*$t $ -$n exi t 9 For S,ino=$" *owever" t*e e di tinction *$ve to 0e recon tructed fro- t*e intric$te &e$ving of *i e,i te-o&og!C$nd S,ino=$ devote o-e f$ cin$ting $nd 0ri&&i$nt ,$ge to t*e t$ k of recon tructing t*e- >E '" 6( $nd 6BH E '" D8 $nd D7?9 T*e tudent of S,ino=$ -u t t*erefore re-e-0er t*$t" cont$ined wit*in t*e ver! ,ro,o ition t*$t $ given ide$ i true" i $n $-0iguit! o gre$t $ to -$ke inter,ret$tion fre:uent&! $&-o t i-,o i0&e9 +! ex,&$ining trut* $ $n intrin ic ,ro,ert! of $de:u$te ide$ " S,ino=$ c&o e t*e g$, 0etween t*e wor&d $nd our $de:u$te conce,tion of it9 .e $& o offer $ ,roof" intere ting in det$i&" $nd i-$gin$tive in -$nner" t*$t ever! $de:u$te ide$ i e&f-evident to t*e ,er on w*o ,o e e it >E '" DA?9 .i ,rinci,$& concern i t*erefore wit* t*e ex,&$n$tion" fir t of error" $nd econd&! of t*e ordin$r!" i-,erfect know&edge w*ere0! we conduct our &ive 9 <F$& it!<" S,ino=$ $rgue >E '" AE?" <con i t in ,riv$tion of know&edge" re u&ting fro- in$de:u$te or -uti&$ted $nd confu ed ide$ <9 ) ,ri-e ex$-,&e of in$de:u$c! i en or! ,erce,tion9 %on ider t*e un" $ it $,,e$r to $ -$n tud!ing it fro- t*e e$rt*9 T*e i-$ge w*ic* con titute t*e ,erce,tion of t*e un i indeed $n ide$9 +ut t*e ide$tu- of t*$t ide$ i not w*$t t*e ,erceiver t$ke it to 0e9 It i not t*e un" w*ic* i re,re ented :uite f$& e&! $ $ -$&& red 0$&& $ few feet in di$-eter wi--ing t*roug* $ e$ of 0&ue9 T*e true ide$tu- of t*i ide$ i " r$t*er" t*e -odific$tion in t*e 0od! of w*ic* it i " o to ,e$k" t*e -ent$& $ ,ect9 >T*e ide$tu- i " $ we *ou&d now $!" $ ,roce in t*e nervou -((! te-9? +eing in$de:u$te" *owever" t*e ide$ i referred not to t*e 0odi&! ,roce w*ic* i it -$teri$& corre&$te" 0ut to t*e un" of w*ic* it ,re ent on&! confu ed $nd ,$rti$& cognition9

)&& know&edge g$ined t*roug* en e-,erce,tion i of t*$t kind" $nd i $ igned in t*e Et*ic to t*e &owe t of t*ree &eve& of cognition9 >T*ere were four uc* &eve& in t*e Tre$ti e on t*e E-end$tion of t*e Inte&&ect $nd $g$in t*ree in t*e S*ort Tre$ti eH t*e in ,ir$tion i in 0ot* c$ e c&$ ic$&" )ri tot&e *$ving $rgued for four &eve& of cognition" P&$to for t*ree9? S,ino=$ c$&& t*i fir t &eve& of cognition i-$gin$tion or o,inion" $nd i-,&ie t*$t uc* cognition c$n never re$c* $de:u$c!" ince t*e ide$ of i-$gin$tion co-e to u " not in t*eir intrin ic &ogic$& order" 0ut in t*e order of our 0odi&! ,roce e 9 T*e ide$ of i-$gin$tion $re t*e i&&ogic$& ref&ection of ,roce e t*$t $re in$de:u$te&! co-,re*ended9 +! t*e te$d! $ccu-u&$tion of confu ed ide$ we c$n $rrive $t $n $,,re*en ion of w*$t i co--on to t*e-C$ univer $& notion >notio univer $&i ? C uc* $ i exe-,&ified in our co--on conce,tion of -$n" tree" dog or w$rt*og--inder >E '" DF" Sc*o&iu-?9 One re$ on for di tru ting ordin$r! &$ngu$ge $ $ ,*i&o o,*ic$& in tru-ent i t*$t t*e ide$ conve!ed 0! it 0e&ong" on t*e w*o&e" to t*i c&$ of co-,o ite 0ut confu ed conce,tion " $nd not to t*e c&$ of $de:u$te ide$ 9 To return to t*e ex$-,&e@ t*e un c$nnot 0e $de:u$te&! known t*roug* -odific$tion of our 0od!" 0ut on&! t*roug* t*e cience w*ic* $i- to ,rovide $n $de:u$te ide$ of t*e un9 T*i kind of cience" ,roceeding 0! re$ oned ref&ection fro- fir t ,rinci,&e " exe-,&ifie S,ino=$< econd &eve& of cognition" invo&ving $de:u$te ide$ $nd co--on notion < >notione co--une " to 0e di tingui *ed fro- t*e <univer $& notion < ;u t referred to?9 -(B) co--on notion i $n ide$ of o-e ,ro,ert! w*ic* i co--on to ever!t*ing" $nd <t*o e t*ing w*ic* $re co--on to $&& $nd w*ic* $re e:u$&&! in $ ,$rt $nd in t*e w*o&e" c$n on&! 0e conceived $de:u$te&!< >E '" A7?9 T*e e notion $re co--on too in $not*er en eCn$-e&! t*$t $&& -en ,o e t*e-" ince $&& -en ,$rt$ke of t*e co--on n$ture w*ic* t*e! ex,re 9 Suc* ide$ " t*erefore" for- t*e 0$ ic ,re-i e of n$tur$& cience $nd ,rovide t*e fu&& $nd fin$& ex,&$n$tion of t*e ,u0&icit! of *u-$n know&edge $nd t*e ,o i0i&it! of ,*i&o o,*ic$& co--unic$tion9

S,ino=$ $& o recogni=e $ t*ird &eve& of know&edge" w*ic* *e c$&& intuition or cienti$ intuitiv$9 <T*i kind of cognition"< *e ex,&$in " <,roceed fro- $n $de:u$te ide$ of t*e for-$& e ence of cert$in $ttri0ute of #od to t*e $de:u$te know&edge of t*e e ence of t*ing < >E '" DF" Sc*o&iu- '?9 .e i&&u tr$te t*$t o0 cure re-$rk wit* $ -$t*e-$tic$& ex$-,&e >ex,$nded -ore fu&&! in S II" %*9 6?" fro- w*ic* we -$! infer t*$t" 0! <intuition<" S,ino=$ -e$n t*e co-,re*en ive gr$ , of t*e -e$ning $nd trut* of $ ,ro,o ition w*ic* i vouc* $fed to t*e ,er on w*o gr$ , it toget*er wit* $ v$&id ,roof of it fro- e&f-evident ,re-i e " in $ ing&e -ent$& $ct9 Intuition *$d $&re$d! 0een -$de centr$& to e,i te-o&og! 0! De c$rte H S,ino=$ ,erfected De c$rte < $ccount" 0! de cri0ing intuition $ $n ide$& of r$tion$& know&edge@ $ conce,tion t*$t i inextric$0&! ;oined to it own v$&id ,roof9 )n intuition co-e to u " $ccording to S,ino=$" on&! w*en we gr$ , t*e re&$tion 0etween t*e u0;ect of tud! $nd $n <$de:u$te ide$ of t*e for-$& e ence of #od<" for not*ing e& e c$n erve $ t*e ,re-i e of $ e&fv$&id$ting deduction9 +! <for-$& e ence< S,ino=$ -e$n t*e re$& $nd inde,endent n$ture of #od9 >T*e for-$& i di tingui *ed frot*e <o0;ective<@ fro- t*e re,re ent$tion of o-et*ing $ $n <o0;ect< of t*oug*t" r$t*er t*$n $ it i in it e&f > ee I vi" AD-E?9 T*e e -(8c*o&$ tic ter- ,rovoke con ider$0&e confu ion" ince we *ou&d now u e < u0;ective< in ,&$ce of <o0;ective< $nd <re$&< in ,&$ce of <for-$&<@ ee #&o $r!9? S,ino=$< t*eor! of trut* $nd cognition c$n now 0e 0rief&! t$ted9 <%ognition of t*e fir t kind<" *e $rgue " <i t*e on&! c$u e of f$& it!<" w*ere$ <cognition of t*e econd $nd t*ird kind i nece $ri&! true< >E '" D6?9 Fro- our ,oint of view" t*erefore" t*e trut* of $n ide$ i given in it &ogic$& connectedne to t*e ! te- of <$de:u$te< ide$ " $nd not -ere&! in it extrin ic corre ,ondence wit* it ide$tu-9 T*e $dv$nce-ent of know&edge con i t in t*e te$d! re,&$ce-ent of our confu ed $nd in$de:u$te ide$ wit* $de:u$te conce,tion " unti&" $t t*e &i-it of $,,re*en ion" $&& t*$t we t*ink fo&&ow inexor$0&! fro- $n $de:u$te ide$ of t*e e ence of #od9

<Su0 ,ecie $eternit$ti < )&& ide$ exi t in #od" $ -odific$tion of *i t*inking9 So-e ide$ $& o exi t in t*e *u-$n -ind9 S,ino=$ t*erefore $! t*$t our ide$ exi t in #od in o f$r $ >:u$tenu ? *e con titute t*e *u-$n -ind9 %onver e&!" ince #od *$ $de:u$te know&edge of ever!t*ing" our own ide$ $re $de:u$te in o f$r $ we *$re in t*e infinite inte&&ect9 S,ino=$ $ u-e t*$t t*i <in o f$r $ < i $ -$tter of degree@ t*e -ore $de:u$te -! conce,tion " t*e -ore I re$c* 0e!ond -! finite condition to t*e divine e ence of w*ic* I $- $ -ode9 It i not e$ ! to under t$nd t*e idio- <in o f$r $ <9 Nevert*e&e " wit*out t*i idio-" t*e -o t i-,ort$nt of t*e &ink in S,ino=$< $rgu-entCt*e &ink 0etween t*e divine $nd t*e *u-$nCi de tro!ed9 ) I $rgued in t*e &$ t c*$,ter" it i on&! in $ -$nner of ,e$king t*$t we c$n de cri0e #od< $ttri0ute in te-,or$& ter- 9 #od i etern$&" w*ic* -e$n t*$t *e i out ide ti-e $nd c*$nge9 .ence@ -(7<t*ing $re conceived $ $ctu$& in two w$! Ceit*er in o f$r $ t*e! exi t in re&$tion to $ cert$in ti-e $nd ,&$ce" or in o f$r $ we conceive t*e- $ cont$ined in #od" $nd fo&&owing fro- t*e nece it! of t*e divine n$ture< >E E" '7" Sc*o&iu-?9 To ,$ frot*e divine to t*e *u-$n i to ,$ fro- t*e ti-e&e to ti-e9 )&t*oug* t*e -odific$tion of #od $re under tood 0! u $ <enduring< $nd $ ucceeding e$c* ot*er in ti-e" t*i ,er-e$tion of our know&edge 0! t*e conce,t of ti-e ref&ect on&! t*e in$de:u$c! of our cognition9 <In o f$r $ < we ,erceive t*ing $de:u$te&! we under t$nd t*e- $ f&owing fro- #od< etern$& n$ture" 0! $ c*$in of ex,&$n$tion w*ic* i &ogic$&" $nd t*erefore $te-,or$&" in for-9 T*u " in S,ino=$< word " <it i t*e n$ture of re$ on to ,erceive t*ing under $ cert$in $ ,ect of eternit! > u0 :u$d$- $ete-it$ti ,ecie?< >E '" DD" %oro&&$r! '?9 )n $de:u$te conce,tion of t*e wor&d i $ conce,tion u0 ,ecie $eternit$ti H t*$t i *ow #od ee t*e

wor&d >wit* w*ic* *e i identic$&?" $nd t*$t i *ow we ee it" in o f$r $ our -ind ,$rtici,$te in t*e vi ion w*ic* i #od< 9 S,ino=$ $tte-,t to ,rove" $nd t*e Et*ic i u,,o ed to exe-,&if!" t*$t <t*e *u-$n -ind *$ $n $de:u$te know&edge of t*e etern$& $nd infinite e ence of #od< >E '" DB?9 >4*$t i ,roved *ere" *owever" w$ $& o $ u-ed $t t*e out et9? +! $c*ieving $de:u$te know&edge we co-e to under t$nd w*$t i divine $nd etern$&9 On t*e ot*er *$nd" we under t$nd our own n$ture $nd identit! u0 ,ecie dur$tioni Cunder t*e $ ,ect of ti-e9 For it i $ enduring $nd finite -ode t*$t we en;o! t*e con$tu t*$t di tingui *e u fro- t*e e&f- ufficient w*o&e of t*ing " $nd to know our e&ve $ e,$r$te" individu$& exi tence " i to 0e &ocked in t*e ti-e-0ound conce,tion t*$t &e$d to confu ed $nd ,$rti$& know&edge9 2$n< condition i e enti$&&! one of conf&ict@ re$ on $ ,ire tow$rd t*e etern$& tot$&it!" -BFw*i&e t*e concern of en uou exi tence ,er i t on&! o &ong $ we ee t*ing te-,or$&&! $nd ,$rti$&&!9 T*e -e $ge of S,ino=$< et*ic c$n 0e uccinct&! ,ut@ our $&v$tion con i t in eeing t*e wor&d u0 ,ecie $eternit$ti " $nd in g$ining" t*ere0!" freedofro- t*e 0ond$ge of ti-e9 So &ong $ we re-$in &ocked in t*e concern t*$t f&ow fro- our ,eri *$0&e identit!" we i-$gine our e&ve to 0e free9 +ut <-en $re -i t$ken in t*inking t*e- e&ve free" $nd t*i o,inion con i t in t*i $&one" t*$t t*e! $re con ciou of t*eir $ction $nd ignor$nt of t*e c$u e w*ere0! t*e! $re deter-ined< >E '" AE" Sc*o&iu-?9 T*e ide$ of &i0ert!" t*en" i $n error of i-$gin$tion $nd ,rovide neit*er guid$nce nor *$,,ine to t*e -$n w*o i en &$ved 0! it9 Re$ on" un&ike i-$gin$tion" ee t*ing not $ contingent 0ut $ nece $r! >E '" DD?9 T*e -ore we under t$nd" t*erefore" t*e -ore we $re convinced of t*e unre$&it! of te-,or$& freedo-" $nd t*e -ore do we ee t*e trut* c$&-&! enunci$ted in E '" D8" t*$t <t*ere i in no -ind $0 o&ute or free wi&&" 0ut t*e -ind i deter-ined to wi&& t*i or t*$t 0! $ c$u e w*ic* i deter-ined 0! $not*er c$u e" $nd t*i one $g$in 0! $not*er" $nd o on $d infinitu-<9 Suc*

infinite c*$in of c$u $& nece it! $re i-,&! t*e ref&ection" u0 ,ecie dur$tioni " of t*$t w*ic*" een u0 ,ecie $eternit$ti " i t*e etern$& $nd i--ut$0&e wi&& of #od9 T*e i&&u ion t*$t we c$n 0e free in ti-e give w$! to t*e cert$int! t*$t we c$n 0e free fro- ti-e9 It i t*i re$& $nd *ig*er freedot*$t S,ino=$ goe on to reco--end9 -B6-

!reedo"
So-et*ing i -i ing fro- S,ino=$< ,*i&o o,*! of -ind@ o-et*ing deci ive" w*o e ,re ence or $0 ence $ffect t*e w*o&e c*$r$cter of $ ,*i&o o,*er< t*inking9 T*i -i ing e&e-ent i t*e e&f" or u0;ect@ t*e foc$& ,oint of De c$rte < re$ oning" w*o e exi tence w$ e t$0&i *ed 0! t*e cogito9 True" S,ino=$ $do,t $ $n $xio- in P$rt ' of t*e Et*ic t*$t <-$n t*ink <" $nd t*ere i " in E '" 66" $n o0 cure ec*o of t*e %$rte i$n $rgu-ent@ <t*e fir t t*ing w*ic* con titute t*e $ctu$& 0eing of t*e *u-$n -ind i not*ing e& e t*$n t*e ide$ of $n individu$& t*ing $ctu$&&! exi ting9< +ut in neit*er of t*o e ,ro,o ition doe one find t*e <I< w*ic*" for De c$rte " w$ t*e nece $r! 0$ tion $g$in t *!,er0o&ic$& dou0t9 Indeed" S,ino=$ -$ke c&e$r in t*e ,ref$ce to t*e Princi,&e of %$rte i$n P*i&o o,*! t*$t *e recogni=e no ,eci$& $ut*orit! in t*e cogito" 0e!ond t*e $ut*orit! of <c&e$r $nd di tinct ide$ <" $nd t*e e re,re ent t*e wor&d not fro- t*e ,oint of view of t*e u0;ect" 0ut u0 ,ecie $eternit$ti @ in ot*er word " fro- t*e <,oint of view< of #od9 S,ino=$ doe recogni=e t*e exi tence of e&f-con ciou ne " w*ic* *e c*$r$cteri=e roug*&! t*u @ our ide$ -$! 0e $cco-,$nied 0! ide$ of t*e- e&ve " $nd t*o e ide$ 0! ide$ of t*e-" $nd o on $d infinitu-9 S,ino=$ trie to ex,&$in t*i 0! ,roving t*$t <t*e ide$ of t*e -ind i united to t*e -ind in t*e $-e -$nner $ t*e -ind i united to t*e 0od!< >E '" '6?9 T*e ,roof i " *owever" one of t*e &e$ t c&e$r $nd &e$ t ,er u$ ive of *i $rgu-ent " &$rge&! 0ec$u e it -$ke no -ention of t*e cruci$& conce,t t*$t i in i ue@ t*e conce,t of t*e e&f9 True to t*e -et*od of $de:u$te ide$ " S,ino=$ c$n find no w$! to in ert" into t*e *e$rt of *i univer e" t*e u0;ective view,oint fro- w*ic* it i urve!ed9 -B'-

Et*ic $nd t*e $0 o&ute view T*e t$ k of ,*i&o o,*!" $ De c$rte conceived it" w$ to $ cend fro- t*e ,oint of view of t*e u0;ect to t*e <$0 o&ute conce,tion< of t*e wor&d >$ +ern$rd 4i&&i$- *$ de cri0ed it?" i9 e9 to t*e conce,tion of t*e wor&d fro- no ,oint of view wit*in it9 /now&edge con i t in t*e e&i-in$tion of t*e u0;ect fro- t*e de cri,tion of w*$t i known9 In t*e %riti:ue of Pure Re$ on" /$nt w$ to $rgue deci ive&! t*$t t*i ,urging of $&& reference to t*e u0;ect i neit*er ,o i0&e nor de ir$0&e@ t*e wor&d i -! wor&d" t$-,ed inde&i0&! wit* t*e -$rk of e&f-$w$rene 9 For S,ino=$" *owever" t*e $ u-,tion of t*e $0 o&ute conce,tion i fund$-ent$&H for t*i i ,reci e&! w*$t <$de:u$te< know&edge con i t in9 T*e con e:uence for -or$& ,*i&o o,*! $re con ider$0&e9 S,ino=$ ee &ife fro- t*e ,oint of view" not of $n <I< w*o e ,ro0&e- $ri e fro- *i individu$& circu- t$nce " 0ut of $ ,ure $nd di intere ted re$ oner" for w*o- t*e *u-$n individu$& i not*ing 0ut $ -ode of #od" governed 0! t*e &$w w*ic* govern ever!t*ing9 It i ,reci e&! in t*i o0;ective" < e&f&e < view of t*e wor&d t*$t S,ino=$ find t*e 0$ i of *i -or$& coun e& " $rguing t*$t we *ou&d ri e $0ove t*e i&&u or! ,er ,ective w*ic* ee t*ing u0 ,ecie dur$tioni " to t*$t $0 o&ute view,oint w*ic* i #od< 9 On&! t*en" *e 0e&ieve " wi&& we 0e tru&! free" $nd on&! in t*$t inte&&ectu$& freedo- $re we fu&fi&&ed9 #ood $nd evi& In our ordin$r! &ive " w*en eeing t*e wor&d u0 ,ecie dur$tioni " we ee $& o $ gre$t divide 0etween good $nd evi&" $nd $re torn 0etween t*e de-$nd of -or$&it! $nd t*e te-,t$tion of n$ture9 T*o e $ttitude " *owever" derive fro- t*e fir t &eve& of cognitionH $n $de:u$te ide$ of our n$ture e&i-in$te t*e conf&ict 0etween re$ on $nd ,$ ion" w*ic* i no -ore t*$n $ ,roduct of our confu ed o,inion 9 -BA-

S,ino=$ g$ve w*$t wou&d now 0e c$&&ed $n <e-otivi t< t*eor! of -or$& ;udge-ent9 T*e u e of word &ike <good< $nd <0$d< i to 0e ex,&$ined" not 0! t*e trut* of t*e ide$ ex,re ed in t*e-" 0ut 0! t*e e-otion w*ic* t*e! $re u ed to conve!@ <we do not trive tow$rd " de ire or &ong for not*ing 0ec$u e we dee- it to 0e goodH 0ut on t*e contr$r!" we dee- $ t*ing good 0ec$u e we trive" wi *" de ire or &ong for it< >E A" 7?9 )nd e& ew*ere" in t*e ,ref$ce to P$rt D of t*e Et*ic " in S E6" (F $nd in v$riou &etter " S,ino=$ e&$0or$te t*i ide$" $rguing t*$t -or$& $nd $e t*etic ;udge-ent $re $&ike re&$tive to t*e $ttitude $nd intere t of t*e u0;ect" $nd cont$in on&! t*e -o t confu ed $,,re*en ion of t*e n$ture of t*ing 9 E$c* ,er on< u e of uc* ter- $ <good< $nd <0$d< wi&& 0e governed 0! *i own ,$rticu&$r de ire $nd $-0ition " $nd not*ing cou&d 0e &e$rned $0out t*e wor&d fro- t*e ide$ ex,re ed in our -or$& ;udge-ent 9 S,ino=$ goe furt*er" $rguing" in &$ngu$ge re-ini cent of 2$i-onide " t*$t <it i on&! in ,e$king i-,ro,er&!" or *u-$n&!" t*$t we $! t*$t we in $g$in t #od< >% XIX?9 In *i $n wer to t*e <,ro0&e- of evi&< >t*e ,ro0&e- of reconci&ing $n evi& wor&d wit* $ good cre$tor?" S,ino=$ $do,t t*e o&ution of 2$i-onide >#uide to t*e Per,&exed" iii" '6?" $nd $rgue t*$t t*e t*ing w*ic* ee- to u to 0e evi& $re -ere&! <,riv$tion <Ct*$t i " ,$rti$& or trunc$ted -ode of #od" w*ic* <ex,re no e ence< >% XXIII" E D" Pref$ce?@ to t*e extent t*$t t*e! $re evi&" to t*$t extent $re t*e! $& o unre$&9 T*e co-0in$tion of e-otivi - $nd t*e 2$i-onide$n o&ution to t*e ,ro0&e- of evi& -ig*t ee- to 0ring t*e work of t*e -or$& ,*i&o o,*er to $n end9 If t*e ide$ of good $nd evi& $re $r0itr$r! $nd u0;ective" $nd if ever!t*ing t*$t *$,,en i $&ike ,$rt of t*e divine ,erfection" w*$t o0;ective -or$& $dvice c$n 0e offeredK In f$ct S,ino=$ -BD0e&ieve t*$t -uc* c$n 0e $id9 1ike )ri tot&eC*i un$cknow&edged -$ ter t*roug*out P$rt A $nd D of t*e Et*ic C*e 0e&ieve t*$t -or$& :ue tion c$n 0e o0;ective&! ,o ed $nd o0;ective&! $n wered9 Once we ee t*roug* t*e vei& of t*e ,$ ion $nd

under t$nd *u-$n n$ture $ it re$&&! i " we ,erceive t*$t our freedo- $nd our *$,,ine $re one $nd t*e $-e" $nd t*$t t*e good &ife for -$n i 0ot* o0;ective&! defin$0&e" $nd r$tion$&&! ,ur u$0&e9 T*e <good &ife< i not defined 0! t*i or t*$t ,er on< -or$& ;udge-ent " 0ut o0;ective&!" 0! *u-$n n$ture9 .ence S,ino=$ offer *i own tec*nic$& definition of t*e word <good< $nd <0$d<" in ter- of w*ic* to conduct $ <geo-etric$&< inve tig$tion into *u-$n *$,,ine @ <0! good" I under t$nd t*$t w*ic* we cert$in&! know to 0e u efu& >uti&e? to u <H <0! 0$d" *owever" I under t$nd t*$t w*ic* we cert$in&! know wi&& ,revent u fro- ,$rt$king of $n! good< >E D" Definition 6 $nd '?9 T*e good &ife i t*$t w*ic* i -o t <u efu&< -f$vour$0&eCto our n$tureH t*e 0$d &ife t*$t w*ic* i -o t o,,o ed to it9 Vice $nd wickedne $re to 0e $voided" not 0ec$u e t*e! $re ,uni *ed 0! #od >w*o eng$ge in no uc* $0 urd ende$vour ?" 0ut 0ec$u e t*e! $re $t v$ri$nce wit* our n$ture" $nd &e$d u to de ,$ir >% XXI? )ctive $nd ,$ ive In Pro,o ition 6 of P$rt A of t*e Et*ic $ di tinction i -$de 0etween <$ctive< $nd <,$ ive< t$te of -ind@ <Our -ind $ct cert$in t*ing $nd uffer ot*er @ n$-e&! in o f$r $ it *$ $de:u$te ide$ " t*u f$r it nece $ri&! $ct cert$in t*ing " $nd in o f$r $ it *$ in$de:u$te ide$ " t*u f$r it nece $ri&! uffer cert$in t*ing 9< T*e di tinction 0etween doing t*ing $nd uffering t*ing i $ di tinction of degree" $nd" ince on&! #od i t*e fu&& $nd origin$ting c$u e of $n!t*ing" on&! *e $ct wit*out 0eing $cted u,on9 Finite -ode " uc* $ we $re" con titute &ink in t*e infinite -BEc*$in of c$u $&it! w*ic* 0ind t*e wor&d9 Nevert*e&e " <in o f$r $ < our t$te $re gener$ted fro- wit*inCfro- t*e con$tu or triving t*$t con titute our n$tureC o f$r $re we t*e c$u e of t*e-" $nd o f$r $re we $ctive in re ,ect of t*e-9 %onver e&!" in o f$r $ we $re $cted u,on 0! extern$& c$u e " o f$r $re we ,$ ive@ t*e victi- of ,roce e w*ic* we do not contro&9

It i ,reci e&! 0! ,o e ing $de:u$te ide$ t*$t we $dv$nce frot*e ,$ ive to t*e $ctive t$te9 S,ino=$ ,rove t*i 0! $n ingeniou ,&$! on t*e word :u$tenu ><in o f$r $ <?9 In E '" 66" %oro&&$r!" *e *$d ,roved t*$t <ide$ w*ic* $re $de:u$te in t*e -ind of $n!one $re $de:u$te in #od in o f$r $ *e con titute t*e e ence of t*$t -ind<9 Now fro- $n! given ide$ o-e effect -u t fo&&ow" $nd $n $de:u$te ide$ i t*e $de:u$te c$u e >i9e9 fu&& ex,&$n$tion? of $&& t*$t f&ow fro- it9 .ence #od" w*o *$ $de:u$te ide$ " i t*e fu&& or $de:u$te c$u e of t*ing 9 )nd <in o f$r $ *e i $ffected 0! $n ide$ w*ic* i $de:u$te in t*e -ind of o-eone" t*$t $-e -ind i t*e $de:u$te c$u e of<" $nd *ence <nece $ri&! $ct < cert$in t*ing 9 S,ino=$< conce,tion of -ent$& $ctivit! corre ,ond on&! di t$nt&! to our ordin$r! conce,tion of wi&& $nd $genc!9 .owever" it i u efu& to con ider $n ex$-,&e9 Su,,o e t*$t $ gu t of wind t*row -e $g$in t -! co-,$nion" $nd *e f$&& 9 In t*i tr$n $ction I $,$ ive" receiving t*e force of t*e wind $nd ,$ ing it -ec*$nic$&&! to -! neig*0our9 Suc* ide$ $ I *$ve of t*e ,roce $re confu ed $nd in$de:u$te ,erce,tion $ri ing fro- t*e 0odi&! ,roce e w*ic* $ff&ict -e9 Su,,o e now t*$t I conceive $ ,&$n to $ $u&t -! co-,$nion" $nd c*oo ing t*e -o-ent" trike *idown9 .ere I $- >in nor-$& ,$r&$nce? $ctive in ,roducing t*e $-e effect9 ) ,roce of re$ oning ,receded it w*ic*" w*i&e it did not nece it$te t*e outco-e" re,re ented -ore $ccur$te&! t*$n -! confu ed ,erce,tion of t*e -B(wind< ,re ure" t*e ,roce w*ic* &ed to -! neig*0our< f$&&9 S,ino=$ wou&d ,er*$, $! t*$t t*i re$ oning i $ <-ore $de:u$te< ide$ of t*e ,roce &e$ding to $ction" *ence $ fu&&er ex,&$n$tion" *ence $ co-,&eter c$u e9 If it were ,o i0&e for -e to *$ve $ w*o&&! $de:u$te ide$ of t*e ,roce " t*en I *ou&d 0e w*o&&! $ctive in re&$tion to it9 ) it i " I $$ctive on&! in o f$r $ -! ide$ $re $de:u$te" $nd of o-et*ing o finite $nd &i-ited $ $ f$&&ing 0od! I c$n *$ve no $de:u$te conce,tion9 .ence -! triking -! co-,$nion" w*i&e -ore of $n $ction t*$n -! f$&&ing $g$in t *i-" w$ ti&& ver! -uc* $ ,$ ion9

2oreover" for S,ino=$" we -$! 0e co-,&ete&! $ctive in re ,ect of ,roce e w*ic* $re in no ordin$r! en e $ction of our own@ for ex$-,&e" $ -$n f$&&ing t*roug* ,$ce" gr$nted $n $de:u$te conce,tion of w*$t i *$,,ening to *i-" i $ctiveH w*i&e one de&i0er$te&! triking *i co-,$nion" 0ut ignor$nt of t*e univer $& &$w of -otion" i ,$ ive9 4it* co-,&ete $ction we *$ve &itt&e $c:u$int$nce" $ve in t*e re$&- of -$t*e-$tic$& $nd ,*i&o o,*ic$& re$ oning" w*ere one ide$ fo&&ow fro- $not*er wit* $ nece it! t*$t i w*o&&! e&f-evident to u 9 )nd in o0e!ing t*i nece it!" S,ino=$ goe on to $rgue" we $re co-,&ete&! free9 Suc* con ider$tion -$! *e&, u to under t$nd S,ino=$< tr$nge doctrine" t*$t <t*e $ction of t*e -ind $ri e fro- $de:u$te ide$ $&one" w*i&e ,$ ion de,end u,on in$de:u$te ide$ $&one< >E A" A?" $&t*oug* t*e doctrine c$n ,er*$, 0e fu&&! under tood on&! in ter- of t*e conce$&ed $ u-,tion t*$t I identified in %*$,ter A" ection ' >w*ic* *o&d t*$t t*e order of t*e wor&d i t*e order of $de:u$te ide$ ?9 T*e -ind i $ctive" for S,ino=$" in o f$r $ it i e&fdeter-ining" freed fro- t*e inf&uence of t*ing of w*ic* it *$ no $de:u$te ide$9 )de:u$c! of ide$ i t$nt$-ount to ,owerH t*e -ore -! ide$ $re $de:u$te" t*e -ore $- I inde,endent9 T*i -BBinde,endence fro- t*e wor&d i w*$t S,ino=$ c$&& virtueH $nd <0! virtue >virtu ? $nd ,ower I under t$nd t*e $-e t*ing< >E D" Definition 8?9 Virtue i $& o ,erfection" $nd for S,ino=$ ,erfection $nd re$&it! $re one $nd t*e $-e9 In t*e c$ e of $ *u-$n 0eing" t*erefore" virtue con i t in t*e en*$nce-ent of t*e con$tu t*roug* w*ic* *e ,er i t 9 Fin$&&!" <,&e$ ure< >&$etiti$? i defined $ <t*e ,$ ion wit* w*ic* t*e -ind ,$ e to $ *ig*er t$te of ,erfection<" $nd <,$in< >tri titi$? $ <t*e ,$ ion 0! w*ic* it ,$ e to $ &ower t$te of ,erfection< >E A" 66?9 +! $ co-0in$tion of outr$geou -et$,*! ic $nd 0r$=en definition " t*erefore" S,ino=$ $rrive ,ro-,t&! $t t*e conc&u ion of *i -or$& ,*i&o o,*!@ t*$t it i in our n$ture con t$nt&! to incre$ e our ,ower" t*$t t*i i t*e ource of $&& ,&e$ ure" $nd t*$t t*e ,roce

w*ere0! we o0t$in t*i ,&e$ ure i t*e ver! $-e <i-,rove-ent of t*e inte&&ect< t*$t &e$d u to $de:u$te ide$ 9 If t*ere were not*ing -ore to S,ino=$< $rgu-ent t*$n t*$t" we *ou&d rig*t&! et it $ ide $ o,*i tr! $nd e&f-dece,tion9 +ut we -u t re-e-0er" fir t" t*$t t*e -et$,*! ic &end it e&f to -$n! inter,ret$tion " $nd econd&! t*$t S,ino=$< definition $re intended" not $ $ u0 titute for $rgu-ent" 0ut $ t*e fir t -ove in $n $rgu-ent w*ic* reve$& -ore ex$ct&! w*$t *e -e$n 9 T*e geo-etr! of t*e ,$ ion S,ino=$ found *i -or$& ,*i&o o,*! in $ <n$tur$& *i tor!< of -$n@ 0ut it i $ ,eci$& kind of n$tur$& *i tor!" derived entire&! deductive&!" fro- ,re-i e dee-ed to 0e nece $ri&! true9 .e re-$rk on t*e origin$&it! of uc* $n $tte-,t@ 2o t of t*o e w*o *$ve written $0out t*e ,$ ion " $nd -en< w$! of &iving" ee- to tre$t" not of n$tur$& t*ing " w*ic* fo&&ow t*e co--on &$w of n$ture" 0ut of t*ing w*ic* $re out ide n$ture9 Indeed t*e! ee- to conceive -$n in n$ture $ $ do-inion wit*in $ do-inion9 9 9 9 To -B8t*e- it wi&& dou0t&e ee- -o t tr$nge 9 9 9 t*$t I *ou&d $tte-,t to tre$t of t*e vice $nd f$i&ing of -$n in $ geo-etric$& -$nner" $nd *ou&d wi * to de-on tr$te wit* $ccur$te re$ oning t*o e t*ing w*ic* t*e! cr! out $g$in t $ o,,o ed to re$ on" $ v$in" $0 urd" $nd di gu ting 9 9 9 O.oweverP uc* e-otion $ *$te" wr$t*" env!" etc9" con idered in t*e- e&ve " fo&&ow fro- t*e $-e nece it! $nd $0i&it! of n$ture $ ot*er individu$& t*ing @ $nd t*erefore t*e! $cknow&edge cert$in c$u e t*roug* w*ic* t*e! $re under tood" $nd *$ve cert$in ,ro,ertie e:u$&&! wort*! of our know&edge $ t*e ,ro,ertie of $n! ot*er t*ing 9 9 9 >E A" Pref$ce? It fo&&ow fro- t*e trut* of S,ino=$< -et$,*! ic " t*en" t*$t $ geo-etr! of t*e ,$ ion i ,o i0&e" $nd t*$t no ot*er tud! of

t*e- wi&& &e$d u to e&f-know&edge9 S,ino=$ t*erefore ,ro,o e to tre$t of t*e e-otion >$ffectione ? ex$ct&! $ *e *$d tre$ted of #od" reg$rding <*u-$n $ction $nd de ire ,reci e&! $ t*oug* I were de$&ing wit* &ine " ,&$ne $nd 0odie < >E A" Pref$ce?9 T*e ide$ of $ ,*i&o o,*ic$& ex,o ition of t*e *u-$n ,$ ion w$ 0! no -e$n new9 In t*e Su--$ T*eo&ogic$ ):uin$ *$d ,re ented $n i-,re ive urve! of t*e u0;ect in $ t!&e t*$t i often c&o e to S,ino=$< " $nd wit* conc&u ion t*$t di ,&$! o-e of S,ino=$< ro0u t conte-,t for *u-$n e&f-dece,tion9 De c$rte too *$d written $ tre$ti e on e-otion" $nd in t*e 1evi$t*$n .o00e *$d defined ,$ ion $nd -otive in ter- w*ic* c&e$r&! inf&uenced S,ino=$9 In r$nge $nd ,enetr$tion" *owever" S,ino=$ f$r ur,$ ed *i i--edi$te ,redece or " $nd it i ,reci e&! in it $,,&ic$tion to t*i fr$ug*t $nd di tur0ing $re$ t*$t t*e -erit of S,ino=$< -et$,*! ic$& det$c*-ent $re -o t c&e$r&! di ,&$!ed9 )&t*oug* *e $tte-,t " &ike .o00e " to define t*e e-otion in ter- of $ few i-,&e -B7ingredient >in *i c$ e" de ire" ,&e$ ure $nd ,$in" toget*er wit* t*eir $cco-,$n!ing ide$ $nd c$u $& *i tor!?" t*e ingredient in :ue tion $re entitie in $ co-,&ex t*eor!" 0! no -e$n to 0e confu ed wit* t*e t$te of -ind t*$t we co--on&! c$&& 0! t*e $-e n$-e 9 T*roug* *i definition " t*erefore" S,ino=$ ,rovide $ deriv$tion fro- fir t ,rinci,&e of t*e fund$-ent$& ,ro,ertie of our fee&ing $nd t*e interconnection $-ong t*e-9 T*ere $re -$n! ,*i&o o,*er 9 w*o wou&d $gree wit* S,ino=$" for ex$-,&e" t*$t we c$nnot *$te $ t*ing t*$t we ,it!" or t*$t no one envie t*e virtue of $n!one $ve *i e:u$&H $nd w*o wou&d $gree wit* *itoo in eeing t*e e ,ro,o ition $ nece $r! trut* " to 0e e t$0&i *ed not 0! e-,iric$& inve tig$tion 0ut 0! ,*i&o o,*ic$& $rgu-ent9 +ut t*ere $re few ,*i&o o,*er w*o *$ve ,rovided uc* $n i&&u-in$ting network of nece $r! trut* or uc* $ triking $n wer to t*e :ue tion r$i ed 0! t*e-Ct*e :ue tion" $ S,ino=$ ex,re e it" of *u-$n ervitude9

S,ino=$ de cri0e &ove $ ,&e$ ure $cco-,$nied 0! t*e ide$ of $n extern$& c$u e" $nd *$te $ ,$in i-i&$r&! $cco-,$nied9 .e introduce t*e e de cri,tion not $ initi$& definition " o -uc* $ rM u-M of intere ting re u&t " w*ic* w$nt $ n$-e w*ere0! t*e! -ig*t 0e recorded9 On&! $t t*e end of P$rt A doe *e &$! out *i definition ! te-$tic$&&!" $ u-ing t*$t 0! t*en *e *$ e t$0&i *ed t*$t t*e e definition $re not $r0itr$r! ,&o! of no-enc&$ture" 0ut $,,roxi-$tion to t*e <re$& e ence< of t*e t*ing de cri0ed9 +! t*en S,ino=$ *$ $& o e t$0&i *ed uc* ,ro,o ition $ t*e fo&&owing@ t*$t <if we i-$gine $n!t*ing to $ffect wit* ,&e$ ure w*$t we &ove" we $re $ffected wit* &ove tow$rd it< >E A" ''?H t*$t we <i-it$te< t*e e-otion of t*o e t*ing w*ic* we i-$gine to 0e &ike our e&ve >E A" 'B?H t*$t our &ove $nd *$tred $re reinforced 0! t*e i-$gin$tion t*$t ot*er *$re in t*e>E A" A'?H t*$t we ende$vour to 0ring it $0out t*$t our &ove i reci,roc$ted -8FE A" AA?H t*$t we *$te t*o e w*o $re our riv$& in &ove" $nd $re $ffected 0! exu$& ;e$&ou ! wit* o0 cene t*oug*t >E A" AE" e ,eci$&&! Sc*o&iu-?H $nd o on9 )&& uc* trut* $re" for S,ino=$" nece $r! trut* $0out t*e e ence of -$n" founded not on o0 erv$tion 0ut on r$tion$& deduction fro- two o,$:ue $nd $0 tr$ct $xio- concerning t*e <$ffection < of t*e *u-$n 0od!9 T*e )-end-ent of t*e P$ ion S,ino=$ define e-otion >$ffectu C ee #&o $r!? in gener$& tert*u @ E-otion" w*ic* i c$&&ed ,$ ivit! of t*e ou& >,$t*e-$ $ni-i? i $ confu ed ide$ w*erewit* t*e -ind $ffir- $ gre$ter or &e ,ower of exi ting >vi exi tendi? of it 0od! or of $n! ,$rt of it t*$n 0efore" $nd w*ic*" 0eing gr$nted" t*e -ind i t*ere0! deter-ined to t*ink one t*ing r$t*er t*$n $not*er9 >E A" ),,endix?

In t*i definition *e conve! two fund$-ent$& trut* $0out e-otion@ fir t" it connection wit* our exi tence $ e-0odied cre$ture " ,ro,e&&ed 0! force w*ic* we do not w*o&&! under t$ndH econd&!" it c*$r$cter $ $ <-ent$& $ffir-$tion< or ;udge-ent9 )n e-otion" -ot*er word " i $ for- of under t$nding" *owever confu ed" in w*ic* $ gre$ter or &e <$ctivit!< of t*e -ind -ig*t 0e ex,re ed9 S,ino=$" ex,&$ining *i definitionCw*ic* &ike $&& *i definition in t*i ,$rt i offered $ $ conc&u ion $nd not $ ,re-i e of t*e $rgu-entC$rgue t*u @ in$ -uc* $ t*e e ence of t*e -ind con i t in t*i >'" 66 $nd 6A?" t*$t it $ffir- t*e $ctu$& exi tence of it 0od!" $nd $ we under t$nd 0! ,erfection t*e ver! e ence of t*e t*ing" it fo&&ow " t*erefore" t*$t t*e -ind ,$ e to $ gre$ter or &e ,erfection w*en it *$,,en to $ffiro-et*ing confir-ing it 0od!" or o-e ,$rt of it" w*ic* invo&ve -ore or &e re$&it! t*$n 0efore9 >E A" ),,endix? T*u t*e <-ent$& $ct< w*ic* &ie $t t*e *e$rt of ever! -86,$ ion -$! ex,re $ gre$ter or &e -ent$& ,erfection" $ gre$ter or &e re$&it!" $ gre$ter or &e ,ower9 ) t*e -et$,*! ic i-,&ie " ,erfection" re$&it! $nd ,ower $re one $nd t*e $-e" $nd in t*eir -ent$& $ ,ect t*e! $re e:uiv$&ent to t*e <$de:u$c!< Of ide$ 9 E-otion " t*erefore" $re r$nged on $ c$&e" $ccording to t*e <$de:u$c!< of t*e ide$ invo&ved in t*e-H fro- t*e extre-e of ,$ ion" in w*ic* t*e -ind i t*e *e&,&e victi- of ,roce e w*ic* it doe not gr$ ," to t*e extre-e of -ent$& $ction" in w*ic*" t*roug* erene conte-,&$tion of t*e trut* of t*ing " t*e -ind $ ert it ,erfection" $nd it ,ower9 T*e <e-end$tion< of t*e ,$ ion con i t ,reci e&! in t*e tr$n ition fro- ,$ ion to $ction" in w*ic* t*e inte&&ect g$in $ cend$nc! over t*e di ordered -$teri$& of t*e i-$gin$tion9 T*u " <$n e-otion w*ic* i $ ,$ ion ce$ e to 0e $ ,$ ion $ oon $ we for- $ c&e$r $nd di tinct ide$ of it< >E E" A?" fro- w*ic* it fo&&ow " S,ino=$ $rgue " t*$t <t*e -ore $n e-otion 0eco-e

known to u " t*e -ore it i wit*in our ,ower" $nd t*e &e -ind i ,$ ive to it< >E E" A" %oro&&$r!?9

t*e

Sever$& recent ,*i&o o,*er Cnot$0&! Stu$rt .$-, *ire C*$ve greeted t*i $ ,ect of S,ino=$< ,*i&o o,*! wit* $cc&$i-" 0e&ieving it to invo&ve $n e$r&! ver ion of Freudi$n $n$&! i @ $ -et$,*! ic$& grounding to Freud< dictu- t*$t <w*ere t*ere w$ id t*ere *$&& 0e ego< >in S,ino=$< ter- @ w*ere I w$ en &$ved 0! confu ed ide$ " gener$ted 0! ,roce e of w*ic* I *$d no c&e$r $w$rene " I *$&& 0e free" ,o e ing on&! $de:u$te ide$ of -! -otive ?9 Suc* ,*i&o o,*er ,r$i e S,ino=$ for recogni=ing t*e extent to w*ic* our e-otion$& &ife i " in t*e n$tur$& cour e of t*ing " *idden frou " $nd *idden ,reci e&! 0! it de,endence u,on our 0odi&! *i tor!9 )nd t*e! furt*er co--end S,ino=$ for *i recognition t*$t we $re not wit*out we$,on in our encounter wit* t*e e uncon ciou force @ t*$t" 0! $n effort -8'of e&f-under t$nding we -$! 0ring to t*e urf$ce t*$t w*ic* i $t ,re ent conce$&ed" $nd in doing o 0eco-e $ctive" deci ive" $nd do-in$nt over our own e-otion$& condition9 4e ce$ e to 0e victi- " $nd in te$d 0eco-e -$ ter " of $ f$te w*ic* i nevert*e&e our 9 S,ino=$< t*eor! of t*e *u-$n $gent cert$in&! &end it e&f to t*e view t*$t we $re &$rge&! governed 0! <uncon ciou < force 9 ) I *$ve ugge ted" t*ere i " for S,ino=$" no < e&f<" no <fir t ,er on< w*o t$ke c*$rge" o to ,e$k" of t*e c$u $&it! of -! $ction 9 2oreover" t*e cognition w*ic* i ,re ented to -e in o confu ed $ for- 0! -! ,$ ion i $ cognition of t*e 0od!@ for S,ino=$" t*erefore" it c$n 0e $-ended on&! 0! $ 0etter cognitionC$n <$de:u$te ide$<Cof t*e n$tur$& ,roce e w*ic* t*$t 0od! di ,&$! 9 Nevert*e&e " one cou&d ee in t*e e ide$ " not t*e trengt* of S,ino=$< t*eor! of e-otion" 0ut it we$kne Cin ,$rticu&$r" it in$0i&it! to $ccount for t*e two -o t i-,ort$nt fe$ture of our e-otion$& &ife@ t*e t$tu of t*e e&f $ u0;ect of e-otion" $nd of t*e wor&d >t*e ot*er? $ o0;ect9 E-otion $re directed outw$rd @ t*e! focu " or <intend<" $n o0;ect" $nd direct our energie tow$rd

t*$t o0;ect9 S,ino=$< t*eor! recogni=e t*i f$ct >t*e f$ct of <intention$&it!<? 0ut r$dic$&&! -i de cri0e it9 For S,ino=$ t*e <directedne < of $n e-otionC$ we ex,erience itCi no 0etter t*$n $n i&&u ion" $ confu ed re,re ent$tion of ,roce e w*ic* exi t" not in t*e urrounding wor&d" 0ut in t*e 0od! of t*e u0;ect9 >%f9 S,ino=$< $ccount of ,erce,tion" con idered e$r&ier" ,,9 ((-B9? I under t$nd -! &ove for !ou" t*erefore" not 0! under t$nding !ou" w*o $re it o0;ect" nor 0! under t$nding -! e&f" w*o $- it u0;ect" 0ut 0! under t$nding t*i tr$nge inter&o,er" -! 0od!" in w*ic* &ove grow in crut$0&! &ike $ c$ncer" eru,ting into con ciou ne in w$! w*ic* infor- -e on&! di-&! of t*e ,roce e 0! w*ic* -! -ind i en &$ved9 -8A)g$in t t*$t ,icture one -$! re$ on$0&! $ffir- t*$t $n e-otion i $n $tte-,t to under t$nd" not t*e 0od!" 0ut t*e ot*er ,er on" $nd one e&f in re&$tion to *i-9 T*e true e-end$tion of t*e ,$ ion con i t in $ dee,ening under t$nding of t*e ot*er" not $ $ ,*! ic$& o0;ect" 0ut $ $ e&f &ike -e9 For S,ino=$ t*e ot*er i $t 0e t $ &ink in t*e c*$in of c$u e t*$t &e$d to -! ide$ of *i-" $nd in no en e t*e re$& -$tter >t*e ide$tu-? of -! e-otion9 To ee in uc* $ view o-e dee, trut* $0out *u-$n e-otion i to *$ve forgotten w*$t it i to 0e *u-$n9 S,ino=$ c$n 0e forgiven" in t*$t *i t*eor! of ide$ Cif $cce,tedCre tore " in recon tructed for-" t*e 0$ ic contour of our *u-$n intention$&it!9 +ut *i Freudi$n di ci,&e " w*o to, *ort of $cce,ting t*e t*eor! of t*e <$de:u$te ide$<" $nd w*o t$ke S,ino=$ to 0e ;u tif!ing t*e -or0id -or$&it! of t*e , !c*o$n$&! t" $re ,er*$, &e 0&$-e&e in t*eir ,r$i e of *i-" t*$n *e *i- e&f in fir t in ,iring it9 Freedo- $nd ,ower Niet= c*e too -ig*t *$ve ;oined in ,r$i ing $ ,*i&o o,*er w*o*e di -i ed $ $ < ick&! rec&u e<" *$d *e tudied -ore ,$tient&! t*e $rgu-ent t*$t -$n< *$,,ine $nd freedo- con i t in t*e con t$nt incre$ e of *i ,ower" $nd t*$t not on&! *$tred" env!" conte-,t $nd r$ge" 0ut $& o ,it! $nd *u-i&it! $re we$kne e " w*ic* *$ve no ,&$ce in t*e &ife of $ u,erior 0eing >ES" EF" EA?9

>Niet= c*e notice t*e $rgu-ent" 0ut ,ro-,t&! di c$rd itH ee T*e #ene$&og! of 2or$& " '" xv9? S,ino=$< ,o itive -or$&it! i triking $ -uc* for it defi$nce of t*e received ide$ of %*ri ti$n civi&i=$tion" $ for it <geo-etric$&< rigour" $nd even t*o e w*o $re un,er u$ded 0! t*e < e&f&e < -et$,*! ic u,on w*ic* it i founded" wi&& ,rofit fro- t*e wi e $ttention to t*e *u-$n re$&it! w*ic* infor- it ,rinci,$& conc&u ion 9 T*e ,o itive -or$&it! *$ two ide " one wor&d&!" -8Dcon i ting in t*e di ci,&ined e-end$tion of t*e ,$ ion t*$t I *$ve ;u t ketc*edCt*e ot*er -ore re&igiou " or $t $n! r$te conte-,&$tive" in tone9 T*e fir t *$rk 0$ck to )ri tot&e" $nd S,ino=$< ,roof >E D" E'? t*$t < e&fco-,&$cenc! >$c:uie centi$ in e i, o? i t*e *ig*e t o0;ect for w*ic* we c$n *o,e<" $nd >E D" E8? t*$t <*onour >g&ori$? i not re,ugn$nt to re$ on 0ut -$! $ri e fro- it<" ec*o t*e ,ivot$& t*oug*t of )ri tot&e< ,*i&o o,*! of virtue9 T*e econd ide of S,ino=$< ,*i&o o,*! i -ore P&$tonic in c*$r$cter" $nd rec$&& t*e gre$t work of neo-P&$tonic -or$&it! w*ic* c*eered count&e -ediev$& ,oet $nd divine $&ong t*e ,$t* of %*ri ti$n renunci$tion@ t*e %on o&$tion of P*i&o o,*! 0! +oet*iu 9 It i in t*i ,$rt of *i -or$& t*eor! t*$t S,ino=$ confront -o t direct&! t*e ,ro0&e- of *u-$n freedo-9 )ccording to Definition B of P$rt 6 <t*$t t*ing i $id to 0e free >&i0er$? w*ic* exi t 0! t*e -ere nece it! of it own n$ture $nd i deter-ined in it $ction 0! it e&f $&one<9 +! t*i definition on&! #od i freeH *u-$n $ction" w*ic* te- nece $ri&! fro- t*e divine n$ture >i9e9 fro- $n <extern$& c$u e<? i t*erefore <co-,e&&ed< >i0id9?9 #od< freedo- i identic$& wit* *i ,ower@ *i ,ower to ,roduce *i own -odific$tion wit*out reference to $n extern$& c$u e9 It i ,o i0&e" 0! -e$n of t*e du0iou &ocution <in o f$r $ < >:u$tenu ?" to extend t*e ide$ of freedo- to finite -ode 9 In o f$r $ we $re t*e <$de:u$te< c$u e of our own $ction " t*u f$r $re we t*e ,roducer of t*e- wit*out t*e $id of $n extern$& c$u e" $nd t*u f$r" t*erefore" $re we free9 4e $,,roxi-$te to t*i t$te of e&f-de,endence to t*e extent t*$t our -ind i occu,ied

wit* $de:u$te ide$ 9 T*e ver! $-e <e-end$tion of t*e ,$ ion <" t*$t &e$d u to $n $de:u$te conce,tion of t*e wor&d" &e$d u $& o to e-$nci,$tion@ to t*$t ,ower over our own itu$tion w*ic* i $&& t*$t we c$n genuine&! -e$n 0! freedo-9 -8ES,ino=$ t*erefore introduce $ u0 idi$r! definition of freedo- E D" 'D6@ <-$n c$n 0e c$&&ed free on&! in o f$r $ *e *$ t*e ,ower to exi t $nd $ct in $ccord$nce wit* t*e &$w of *u-$n n$ture<" w*ic* -e$n >T xvi" P ii" 66? <to eek $nd find under t$nding<9 Suc* $ freedo- in no w$! i-,&ie t*$t *u-$n $ction i re&e$ ed fronece it!9 In ,$rticu&$r" we -u t et $ ide t*e vu&g$r ide$ of freedo- $ccording to w*ic* *u-$n $ction $re free 0ec$u e contingent9 T*e ide$ of <contingenc!< $nd <,o i0i&it!<" S,ino=$ $rgue " ignif! not re$& fe$ture of t*e wor&d" 0ut on&! <defect of our inte&&ect< >2 6" iii" ection 7H E 6" AA" Sc*o&iu- 6?H we c$n t*erefore define t*e- in ter- of $ deficienc! of know&edge@ I c$&& individu$& t*ing contingent in o f$r $ " w*i&e we reg$rd t*eir e ence $&one" we find not*ing w*ic* i-,o e t*eir exi tence nece $ri&!" or w*ic* nece $ri&! exc&ude it9 I c$&& t*e $-e individu$& t*ing ,o i0&e in o f$r $ w*i&e we reg$rd t*e c$u e 0! w*ic* t*e! -u t 0e ,roduced" we know not w*et*er t*e! $re deter-ined to ,roduce t*e-9 >E D" Definition A $nd D? T*e co--on ide$ of *u-$n freedo-" w*ic* 0e&ong to t*e fir t &eve& of cognition" i one t*$t en *rine our ignor$nce@ Furt*er conceive" I 0eg" t*$t $ tone" w*i&e continuing in -otion" *ou&d 0e c$,$0&e of t*inking $nd knowing" t*$t it i ende$vouring" $ f$r $ it c$n" to continue to -ove9 Suc* $ tone" 0eing con ciou -ere&! of it own ende$vour $nd not $t $&& indifferent" wou&d 0e&ieve it e&f to 0e co-,&ete&! free" $nd wou&d t*ink t*$t it continued in -otion o&e&! 0ec$u e of it own wi *9 T*i i t*$t *u-$n freedo-" w*ic* $&& 0o$ t t*$t t*e! ,o e " $nd w*ic* con i t o&e&! in t*e f$ct t*$t -en $re con ciou of

t*eir own de ire" 0ut $re ignor$nt of t*e c$u e w*ere0! t*$t de ire *$ 0een deter-ined9 >%1VIII? -8(T*e -ore we know of t*e c$u $&it! of our $ction " t*e &e roodo we *$ve for ide$ of ,o i0i&it! $nd contingenc!9 .owever" t*e know&edge of c$u $&it! doe not c$nce& t*e 0e&ief in freedo-" 0ut vindic$te it9 It i t*e i&&u or! ide$ of freedo-" $ri ing froi-$gin$tion" t*$t cre$te our 0ond$geH for we 0e&ieve in t*e contingenc! of t*ing on&! in o f$r $ our -ind i ,$ ive9 T*e -ore we ee t*ing $ nece $r! >t*roug* t*e -ediu- of $de:u$te ide$ ? t*e -ore do we incre$ e our ,ower over t*e-" $nd o t*e -ore $re we free >E E" (?9 Freedo- i not freedo- fronece it!" 0ut r$t*er t*e con ciou ne of nece it!9 In $ -$t*e-$tic$& ,roof our -ind i w*o&&! deter-ined 0! &ogic$& nece it!" $nd $t t*e $-e ti-e w*o&&! <in contro&< $nd t*i " for S,ino=$" i our ,$r$dig- of freedo-9 If freedo- were freedofro- t*e nece itie of &ogic it cou&d 0e of no v$&ue >%XXI?9 T*e free -$n i t*e -$n con ciou of t*e nece itie t*$t co-,e& *i-9 S,ino=$ devote -$n! ,$ge to de cri0ing t*e -ent$& condition of uc* $ -$n9 .e $void *$tred" env!" conte-,t $nd ot*er neg$tive e-otion H *e i un$ffected 0! fe$r" *o,e $nd u,er titionH *e i ecure in t*e know&edge t*$t virtue i ,ower" ,ower i freedo-" $nd freedo- i *$,,ine 9 <) free -$n t*ink of not*ing &e t*$n of de$t*" $nd *i wi do- i $ -edit$tion not on de$t* 0ut on &ife< >E D" 6B?9 .i 0&e edne con i t in t*e erene conte-,&$tion of t*e w*o&e of t*ing " 0ound in co--unit! wit* &ike-inded ,irit " 0! <t*e &ove w*ic* $cknow&edge $ it c$u e freedo- of -ind< >E D" ),,endix?9 2oreover <*e w*o under t$nd *i- e&f $nd *i e-otion &ove #od" $nd t*e -ore o t*e -ore *e under t$nd *i- e&f $nd *i e-otion < >E E" 6E?9 T*i &ove" w*ic* te- nece $ri&! fro- t*e ,ur uit of know&edge" i $n inte&&ectu$& &ove >$-or inte&&ectu$&i Dei?9 T*e -ind i w*o&&! $ctive in &oving #od" $nd *ence re;oice con t$nt&!" 0ut ,$ ion&e &!" in t*e o0;ect of it conte-,&$tion9 #od

-8Bc$n ex,erience neit*er ,$ ion" nor ,&e$ ure" nor ,$in >E E" 6B?" $nd i t*erefore free fro- e-otion9 .e neit*er &ove t*e good not *$te t*e wicked >%XXIII?@ indeed *e &ove $nd *$te no one >E E" 6B" %oro&&$r!?9 .ence <*e w*o &ove #od c$nnot ende$vour to 0ring it $0out t*$t #od *ou&d &ove *i- in return< >E E" 67?9 1ove tow$rd #od i w*o&&! di intere ted" $nd <c$nnot 0e ,o&&uted 0! $n e-otion eit*er of env! or ;e$&ou !" 0ut i c*eri *ed t*e -ore" t*e -ore we i-$gine -en to 0e 0ound to #od 0! t*i 0ond of &ove< >E E" 'F?9 Indeed" -$n< inte&&ectu$& &ove of #od <i t*e ver! &ove of #od wit* w*ic* #od &ove *i- e&f< >E E" A(?9 In &oving #od we ,$rtici,$te -ore fu&&! in t*e divine inte&&ect" $nd in t*e i-,er on$&" univer $& &ove t*$t reign t*ere@ for $&t*oug* #od doe not reci,roc$te our &ove" *e nevert*e&e &ove -en" in o f$r $ *e &ove *i- e&f in $nd t*roug* -en9 T*i etern$& &ove con titute our < $&v$tion" 0&e edne or &i0ert!9< S,ino=$ inc&ude in *i di cu ion of -$n< 0&e edne $ ingu&$r $nd o-ew*$t P&$toni tic ,roof of -$n< i--ort$&it!Cor r$t*er" of t*e &e $ti f$ctor! ,ro,o ition t*$t <t*e *u-$n -ind c$nnot 0e $0 o&ute&! de tro!ed wit* t*e *u-$n 0od!" 0ut o-et*ing of it re-$in w*ic* i etern$&< >E E" 'A6?9 T*e o0 cure ,roof of t*i ,ro,o ition de,end u,on S,ino=$< view t*$t" t*roug* $de:u$te ide$ " t*e -ind co-e to ee t*e wor&d u0 ,ecie $eternit$ti Cin ot*er word " wit*out reference to ti-e9 T*e e ence of t*e -ind con i t in t*e c$,$cit! for $de:u$te ide$ 9 T*e in t$nti$tion of t*i e ence in ti-e c$nnot 0e ex,&$ined 0! $de:u$te ide$ " *owever" ince t*e! cont$in no te-,or$& reference9 Suc* ide$ $re given <dur$tion< on&! t*roug* t*eir $tt$c*-ent to t*e -ort$& 0od!" $nd not intrin ic$&&!@ Our -ind t*erefore c$n 0e $id to &$ t" $nd it exi tence c$n 0e defined 0! $ cert$in ti-e" on&! in o f$r $ it -88invo&ve t*e $ctu$& exi tence of t*e 0od!" $nd t*u f$r on&! doe it *$ve t*e ,ower to deter-ine t*e exi tence

of t*ing 0! ti-e" $nd to conceive t*e- under t*e $ ,ect of dur$tion9 >E E" 'A" Sc*o&iu-? So-e difficu&tie Few co--ent$tor *$ve found t*$t ,roof >$n e$r&ier ver ion of w*ic* occur in S" II" 'A? eit*er convincing or w*o&&! inte&&igi0&eH for one t*ing" it ee- to re;ect S,ino=$< offici$& t*eor! of our e-0odi-ent9 Nevert*e&e it i not wit*out intere t" in returning u to one of t*e fund$-ent$& ,ro0&e- of t*e ! te-@ t*e ,ro0&e- of ti-e9 S$-ue& )&ex$nder $rgued t*$t S,ino=$" in co--on wit* -$n! -et$,*! ici$n " <f$i&ed to t$ke ti-e eriou &!<@ &ike P&$to" 1ei0ni=" $nd -$n! ot*er r$tion$&i t " S,ino=$ con idered ti-e to 0e" in o-e u&ti-$te en e" unre$&9 <Dur$tion< *e $rgue >%XII?" <i on&! $,,&ic$0&e to t*e exi tence of -ode H eternit! i $,,&ic$0&e to t*e exi tence of u0 t$nce <9 S,ino=$ goe on to $rgue" in w$! t*$t 0e$r $ triking re e-0&$nce to t*e $rgu-ent of /$nt" t*$t <-e$ ure" ti-e $nd nu-0er $re -ere&! -ode of t*inking" or r$t*er i-$gining< >%" i0id9?9 4*en under t$nding t*e wor&d t*roug* t*e en e " we ee it $ ordered in ti-e" $nd diver ified in ,$ce9 4e t*erefore $,,&! to it te-,or$& $nd $rit*-etic$& notion " w*ic* *$ve no $,,&ic$tion to t*e under&!ing re$&it!9 T*e univer e of re$ on i ti-e&e R$nd $&& t*$t i true of it i true etern$&&!9 .ow t*en c$n $ r$tion$& 0eing exi t in ti-e" o $ to ,o e $ &ife wit* w*ic* *e i identifiedK S,ino=$ -$! *$ve $greed wit* E&iot" t*$t <t*e ,oint of inter ection of t*e ti-e&e wit* ti-eRI $n occu,$tion for t*e $int<H 0ut to re$c* t*$t ,oint i $&re$d! to ,$ 0e!ond it" into $ wor&d t*$t i w*o&&! free fro- dur$tion $nd it con tr$int 9 In t*$t wor&d t*ere i neit*er -otion nor ,$ ion nor diver it!" 0ut $n etern$& i--ut$0&e c$&-9 .ence@ -87t*e wi e -$n" in o f$r $ *e i con idered $ uc*" i c$rce&! -oved in ,irit@ 0ut" 0eing con ciou of *i- e&f" of #od" $nd of t*ing " 0! $ cert$in etern$& nece it!" *e

never ce$ e to 0e" 0ut ,o e e etern$&&! true co-,&$cenc! >$c:uie centi$? of ,irit9 >E E" DB" Sc*o&iu-? It wou&d 0e fitting to &e$ve S,ino=$< et*ic on t*$t re-$rk" wit* w*ic* *e *i- e&f 0ring it to it conc&u ion9 +ut t*e re$der wi&& *$ve noticed once $g$in t*e u ,iciou t*re$d w*ic*Cwere we to ,u&& $t itC-ig*t 0ring t*i no0&e edifice to ruin9 )t t*e *e$rt of S,ino=$< t*oug*t" &ie t*e &itt&e word <:u$tenu <" w*ic* ee- to t$ke $w$! ever!t*ing t*$t t*e ,*i&o o,*er ,rove " ,reci e&! 0! it over-wi&&ing *e&, in ,roving it9 +! -e$n of t*i word S,ino=$ re,e$ted&! de cri0e difference t*$t $re $0 o&ute $nd i-,$ $0&e >t*o e 0etween #od $nd -$n" eternit! $nd ti-e" freedo- $nd co-,u& ion" $ction $nd ,$ ion" inde,endence $nd de,endence? $ difference of degree" o ugge ting $ tr$n ition w*ere no tr$n ition i ,o i0&e@ Per*$, t*e -o t di tur0ing of $&& S,ino=$< u e i in referring to -$n <in o f$r $ < *i ide$ $re $de:u$te9 +! t*i -e$n *e o-eti-e ee- to ugge t t*$t we -$! *$ve -ore or &e $de:u$te conce,tion of one $nd t*e $-e t*ing" $nd t*erefore t*$t $de:u$c! too i $ -$tter of degree9 Suc* $ ugge tion i trict&! co-,$r$0&e to t*e view t*$t $ ,roof -ig*t 0e -ore or &e v$&id9 T*e ,$t* t*$t t$ke u to t*e wi do- $nd 0&e edne of S,ino=$ invo&ve -$n! uc* &ide on t*e -udd! :u$tenu 9 One of t*e ,&e$ ure in fo&&owing *i ,o&itic$& ,*i&o o,*! i t*$t we c$n &e$ve t*e ,$t* to *ig*er region " $nd -ove -ore fir-&! $nd co-fort$0&! down*i&&9 -7F-

# $he bod% po&itic

T*e Et*ic de cri0e t*e free -$n" w*o *$ ri en to t*e *ig*er &eve& of cognition" -$ tered *i ,$ ion $nd re$c*ed under t$nding of *i- e&f $nd t*e wor&d9 T*e ,o,u&$ce" *owever" do not &ive $ free -en9 T*e! $re &ed 0! i-$gin$tion" $nd re-$in ignor$nt of t*e 0&e edne t*$t co-e t*roug* know&edge9 )t t*e $-e ti-e -en &ive in ociet!" $nd t*e ,ower of e$c* of t*ei incre$ ed 0! t*eir $ oci$tion9 Even t*e free -$nCindeed" e ,eci$&&! t*e free -$nCi dr$wn 0! &ove $nd *onour to eek t*e co-,$n! of t*o e w*o e t*oug*t $nd fee&ing -$! ,rofit$0&! 0e ;oined to *i own9 It i t*erefore nece $r! to e t$0&i * ru&e $nd ,rinci,&e w*ere0! -en -ig*t &ive in *$r-on!" $nd for t*eir co--on 0enefit9 T*e ,ro0&e- re:uire $ cientific $n wer@ ,o&itic t*erefore 0eco-e $ ,*i&o o,*ic$& concern9 +$ckground Fro- t*e ex,erience of civi& w$rCfir t in t*e Net*er&$nd " $nd t*en &$ter" during S,ino=$< &ifeti-e" in Eng&$nd-c$-e t*e two deci ive work of ,o t-Ren$i $nce ,o&itic$& t*inking@ On t*e 1$w of 4$r $nd Pe$ce" 0! #rotiu " $nd t*e 1evi$t*$n 0! .o00e 9 It i no -$&& ,r$i e of S,ino=$ to $! t*$t *i ,o&itic$& writing 0e$r co-,$ri on wit* t*o e two -$ ter,iece " $nd $& o wit* t*e Prince $nd t*e Di cour e of 2$c*i$ve&&i" to w*ic* *e w$ inde0ted for t*e t!&e $nd tructure of *i Po&itic$& Tre$ti e9 T*ere were few ,&$ce in eventeent*-centur! Euro,e w*ere $ di ident S,$ni * Iew" w*o refu ed $&& co-,ro-i e wit* t*e urrounding order" -ig*t &ive in ,e$ce9 +ut t*e -76-

,e$ce of t*e Net*er&$nd *$d 0een 0oug*t $t $ ,rice" $nd -$n! of t*e conf&ict $nd ten ion t*$t *$d ex,&oded fro- ti-e to ti-e ince t*e Union of Utrec*t re-$ined unre o&ved9 T*e Net*er&$nd of t*e eventeent* centur! 0ore no re e-0&$nce to t*e tot$&it$ri$n t$te of t*e twentiet* centur!H nevert*e&e $ vigi&$nt ,re ure to confor-it! w$ exerted 0! t*e %$&vini t %*urc*" $nd" on $ccount of t*e continuing ,er ecution of %$t*o&ic $nd Re-on tr$nt " freedo- of t*oug*t $nd re&igion *$d 0eco-e t*e -$;or i ue of t*e d$!9 .o00e w$ wide&! re$d in t*e Net*er&$nd " $nd wide&! $d-ired for $ t*eor! of govern-ent t*$t w$ 0ot* co-,re*en ive $nd ecu&$r" deriving it -$in ,rinci,&e fro- $ tud! of *u-$n n$ture $nd wit*out reference to t*e di ,uted evidence of reve&$tion9 )t t*e $-e ti-e" .o00e ,rovided no det$i&ed t*eor! of in titution " $nd t*e need for uc* $ t*eor! wou&d not *$ve e c$,ed t*e re$der of Io*n %$&vin< In titute 9 S,ino=$ T*eo&ogico-Po&itic$& Tre$ti e w$ $n $n wer to 0ot* .o00e $nd %$&vin9 It fir t concern w$ to defend t*e ,rinci,&e of to&er$nce" -oder$tion $nd e&f-&i-iting govern-ent9 1ike .o00e " S,ino=$ derived *i ,o&itic fro- $ t*eor! of *u-$n n$ture9 +ut *i ex,o ition differ r$dic$&&! fro- t*$t of *i ,redece or" invo&ving $ du$& ;u tific$tionCre&igiou $nd ,*i&o o,*ic$&Cfor $ ing&e conce,tion of t*e t$te9 T*e two ex,o ition corre ,ond to t*e divi ion 0etween i-$gin$tion $nd inte&&ect9 Since -en $re &ed 0! 0ot* force " it i nece $r! to ,re ent $rgu-ent w*ic* $,,e$& to 0ot*9 Ot*erwi e not ever! citi=en wi&& under t$nd w*! *e *ou&d $cce,t t*e &$w w*ic* govern *i-9 .ence t*e e-,*$ i " t*roug*out t*e T*eo&ogico-Po&itic$& Tre$ti e" on 0i0&ic$& inter,ret$tion" Iewi * &$w" $nd %*ri ti$n $,o&ogetic @ $n e-,*$ i to w*ic* I c$nnot *ere do ;u tice" 0ut w*ic* S,ino=$ *i- e&f reg$rded $ of t*e fir t i-,ort$nce" not -7'&e$ t 0ec$u e *e t*oug*t >erroneou &! $ it turned out? t*$t it wou&d exoner$te *i- fro- t*e c*$rge of irre&igion9

Re&igion True re&igion $nd true ,*i&o o,*! $re identic$&" $nd con i t in t*e inte&&ectu$& &ove of #od9 )&& $ctu$& *u-$n re&igion " *owever" $re 0$ ed on $ -ore ,$ ion$te $nd te-,or$& &ove9 T*e! ee #od u0 ,ecie dur$tioni " $nd ,re ent *i- t*roug* t*e -ediu- of in$de:u$te $nd i-$gin$tive ide$ 9 Often *e i re,re ented $ ,o e ing t*e finite ,$ ion of t*e *u-$n *e$rt" $nd even t*e 0odi&! for- $nd counten$nce of *u-$nit!9 .owever" <t*e $ttri0ute w*ic* -$ke -$n ,erfect c$n 0e $ i&& $ cri0ed to #od" $ t*e $ttri0ute w*ic* -$ke ,erfect t*e e&e,*$nt $nd t*e $ c$n 0e $ igned to -$n< >%XXIII?9 2en $ccu to-ed to wor *i, $n $nt*ro,o-or,*ic #od $re -ore fir-&! rooted 0! t*eir re&igiou ,r$ctice in t*e in$de:u$te cognition w*ic* govern t*e-9 T*e 0e t t*$t c$n 0e *o,ed for t*e- i t*$t t*e trict ex$-,&e fro- w*ic* t*e! derive t*eir ,iritu$& nouri *-ent *ou&d enc$, u&$te" in *owever confu ed $nd -et$,*oric$& $ for-" t*e etern$& trut* of re$ on" $nd t*e inti-$tion of $ divine 0&e edne 9 T*o e ,$rt of t*e cri,ture w*ic* invo&ve t*e enunci$tion of &$w $re t*erefore of t*e gre$te t weig*t" ince t*e e owe t*eir $ut*orit!" in t*e &$ t in t$nce" to $n $de:u$te ide$ of #od9 ) for t*e torie $nd i&&u tr$tion " S,ino=$ w$rn $g$in t t*e %*ri ti$n *$0it of under t$nding <orient$& ,*r$ e < &iter$&&!@ t*e cri,ture $re of nece it! written in <t*e &$ngu$ge of -$n<" $nd Iewi * re$der $re we&& ver ed in t*e *$0it of under t$nding uc* &$ngu$ge $&&egoric$&&!@ Scri,ture" w*en it $! t*$t #od i $ngr! wit* inner " $nd t*$t .e i $ Iudge w*o t$ke cogni=$nce of *u-$n $ction " ,$ e entence on t*e-" $nd ;udge t*e-" i -7A,e$king *u-$n&!" $nd in $ w$! $d$,ted to t*e received o,inion of t*e -$ e H for it ,ur,o e i not to te$c* ,*i&o o,*!" nor to render -en wi e" 0ut to -$ke t*eo0edient9 >%1XXVIII?

For -en w*o &ive 0! i-$gin$tion" t*i *$0it of o0edience i t*e ure t guide to ,e$ce $nd content-ent9 Re&igion i t*erefore $ nece $r! ingredient in t*e &ife of t*e t$te" $nd it edict $nd cu to- de erve t*e ,rotection of t*e civi& $ut*oritie 9 S,ino=$< di tinction 0etween t*e u0&i-e conce,tion of ,*i&o o,*!" $nd t*e u,er tition of t*e -u&titude" i extre-e&! i-,ort$nt for $n under t$nding of *i ,o&itic 9 .e recogni=e -$n< de,endence on 0e&ief w*ic* $re irr$tion$& $nd even $0 urdH t*i de,endence i 0ot* t*e found$tion of oci$& exi tence $nd t*e enduring o0 t$c&e to true ,o&itic$& order9 S,ino=$ re;ect C$ *e -u tC$&& t*e -$;or doctrine of $nt*ro,o-or,*ic re&igion9 2ir$c&e $re i-,o i0&e" $nd t*e 0e&ief in t*e- not*ing -ore t*$n $ ,ecu&i$r&! ex*i&$r$ting for- of ignor$nce >SII" 'DH Tvi?9 T*e inc$rn$tion of #od in %*ri t i $& o i-,o i0&eC$&t*oug* t*e ide$ c$n 0e $&&egoric$&&! inter,reted in w$! w*ic* $ccord wit* $ true ide$ of #od >%1XXVIII?9 T*e conce,tion of wr$t*" ,uni *-ent" rew$rd $nd co-,$ ion *$ve no $,,&ic$tion to #od" $nd it i $ -i t$ke to 0e&ieve t*$t #od c$n 0e -oved 0! our ,r$!er or intere ted in fu&fi&&ing t*e-9 )t t*e $-e ti-e" t*e wor *i, of #od i rig*t $nd nece $r!" $nd <in ever! c*urc* t*ere $re t*oroug*&! *onour$0&e -en" w*o wor *i, #od wit* ;u tice $nd c*$rit!<9 T*e di tinction 0etween c*urc*e ref&ect -ode of i-$gin$tion" $nd t*ere c$n 0e no ,*i&o o,*ic$& re$ on-0ut $t 0e t on&! $ ,o&itic$& re$ onCfor c*oo ing 0etween t*e-9 .ow t*en *ou&d t*e c*oice 0e -$deK Po,u&$r -7Dre&igion" w*ic* i t*e condition of ,e$ce $-ong ignor$nt ,eo,&e" i $& o t*e c$u e of w$r 0etween t*e-9 T*e t$te t*erefore *$ $ dut! to -oder$te 0etween contending re&igiou f$ction " $nd to en ure o0edience on&! to t*$t 0$ ic -ini-u- of re&igiou o0 erv$nce t*$t wou&d 0e $cce,t$0&e to $&& re$ on$0&e -en9 S,ino=$ ex,re ed *i ,rinci,&e of to&er$tion in 0ro$d&! %*ri ti$n &$ngu$ge" o $ to *ow *i $cce,t$nce of t*e &eg$&&! e t$0&i *ed re&igion9 +ut <$ reg$rd t*e Turk $nd ot*er non%*ri ti$n n$tion @

if t*e! wor *i, #od 0! t*e ,r$ctice of ;u tice $nd c*$rit! tow$rd t*eir neig*0our" I 0e&ieve t*$t t*e! *$ve t*e ,irit of %*ri t $nd $re in $ t$te of $&v$tion" w*$tever t*e! -$! ignor$nt&! *o&d reg$rding 2$*o-et $nd or$c&e < >%X1III?9 2$n! ,$ $ge -$ke c&e$r t*$t S,ino=$ wou&d *$ve 0een ,re,$red to counten$nceCin circu- t$nce ot*er t*$n t*o e w*ic* ,rev$i&ed in t*e eventeent*-centur! Net*er&$nd C$ :uite different in titution$& re&igion" ,rovided it confor-ed to t*e re:uire-ent of to&er$tion9 T*e for- of re&igion t*$t *ou&d ,rev$i& i to 0e deter-ined 0! t*e overeign t$te" u,on ,o&itic$& ground @ Re&igion $c:uire it force $ &$w o&e&! fro- t*e decree of t*e overeign9 #od *$ no ,eci$& kingdo- $-ong -en exce,t in o f$r $ .e reign t*roug* te-,or$& ru&er 9 2oreover" t*e rite of re&igion $nd t*e outw$rd o0 erv$nce of ,iet! *ou&d 0e in $ccord$nce wit* t*e ,u0&ic ,e$ce $nd we&&-0eing" $nd *ou&d t*erefore 0e deter-ined 0! t*e overeign ,ower9 >T xix? T*i u0ordin$tion of re&igion to t*e te-,or$& ,ower $,,&ie on&! to t*e extern$& o0 erv$nce " $nd *$ no 0e$ring on t*e inner ,$t*w$! to $&v$tion9 For t*e inner re&igion of t*e free -$n c$nnot 0e t*e u0;ect of &egi &$tion@ -7Ein$ -uc* $ Ore&igionP con i t not o -uc* in outw$rd $ction $ in i-,&icit! $nd trut* of c*$r$cter" it t$nd out ide t*e &$w $nd ,u0&ic $ut*orit!9 Si-,&icit! $nd trut* of c*$r$cter $re not ,roduced 0! t*e con tr$int of &$w " nor 0! t*e $ut*orit! of t*e t$te 9 9 9 >T vii? 1i0ert! Since t*oug*t i governed 0! it own &$w " $nd $ -$n i co-,e&&ed to conc&u ion not 0! t*e overeign ,ower 0ut 0! t*e divine nece it! of re$ on" t*ere i o-et*ing $0 urd in t*e $tte-,t to contro& t*oug*t 0! &egi &$tion9 2oreover" to curt$i& t*e ex,re ion of re$ on in ,u0&ic &ife i to de tro! t*e gre$te t ource of -$n<

,e$ce $nd *$r-on!Ct*e r$tion$& di cu ion of conf&ict" $nd t*e co--on ,ur uit of trut*9 .ence t*e re$& di tur0er of t*e ,e$ce $re t*o e w*o" in $ free t$te" eek to curt$i& t*e &i0ert! of ;udge-ent over w*ic* t*e! c$nnot t!r$nni=e >T xx?9 No t$te c$n 0e in $ccord$nce wit* re$ on" t*erefore" wit*out ,er-itting freedo- of t*oug*t $nd o,inion@ t*e o0;ect of govern-ent i not to c*$nge -en fro- r$tion$& 0eing into 0e$ t or ,u,,et " 0ut to en$0&e t*e- to deve&o, t*eir -ind $nd 0odie in ecurit!" $nd to e-,&o! t*eir re$ on un *$ck&edH neit*er *owing *$tred" $nger nor deceit" nor w$tc*ed wit* t*e e!e of ;e$&ou ! $nd in;u tice9 In f$ct" t*e true $i- of govern-ent i &i0ert!9 >T xx? Suc* freedo- of t*oug*t $nd ,eec* *ou&d not 0e confu ed wit* t*e freedo- of $ctionC$nd e ,eci$&&! not wit* $ freedo- of $ction t*roug* ,eec*9 T*e c$&- utter$nce of w*$t i incere&! t*oug*t to 0e true i $ d$nger to no oneH 0ut t*e $git$tion of t*e -o0 t*roug* r*etoric-w*ic* fire t*e i-$gin$tion w*i&e &e$ving t*e inte&&ect -7(untouc*edCi $n in*erent t*re$t to &$wfu& govern-ent9 2oreover" freedo- of con cience doe not ;u tif! civi& di o0edience" 0ut $t 0e t on&! di ent@ u,,o ing $ -$n *ow t*$t $ &$w i re,ugn$nt to ound re$ on" $nd *ou&d t*erefore 0e re,e$&edH if *e u0-it *i o,inion to t*e ;udge-ent of t*e u,re-e ,ower >w*o $&one *$ve t*e rig*t of -$king $nd re,e$&ing &$w ?" $nd -e$nw*i&e $ct in no wi e contr$r! to t*$t &$w" *e *$ de erved we&& of t*e t$teH 0ut if *e $ccu e t*e -$gi tr$te of ini:uit!" $nd tir u, t*e ,eo,&e $g$in t t*e-" or if *e editiou &! trive to $0rog$te t*e &$w wit*out t*eir con ent" *e i $ -ere $git$tor >,ertur0$tor? $nd $ re0e&9 >T xx?

T*i i 0ec$u e" in for-ing $ t$te" citi=en ;oin in $ oci$& contr$ct" $nd $0rog$te t*eir rig*t of free $ction to t*e overeign 0od!9 +ut t*e! do not" 0ec$u e t*e! c$nnot" $0rog$te t*eir rig*t of free t*oug*t9 T*e $ut*oritie t*erefore *ou&d concede free ,eec* in o f$r $ it i t*e nece $r! con e:uence of free t*oug*t" 0ut not in o f$r $ it invo&ve $ction incon i tent wit* t*e &egiti-$te de-$nd of &$w $nd govern-ent9 Pro,*ec! $nd ,o&itic S,ino=$< conce,tion of t*e t$te i of $ ! te- of &$w $nd in titution " org$ni=ed o $ to ,er-it t*e inf&uence of re$ on9 .e i-,&icit&! contr$ t t*e ,ower of ,*i&o o,*!" w*ic* i guided 0! re$ on" wit* t*$t of f$it*" w*ic* i guided 0! ,ro,*ec!9 2en guided 0! ,ro,*ec! $tte-,t to order t*eir $ff$ir 0! $,,e$& to u&ti-$te reve&$tion H uc* reve&$tion -$! *$ve no found$tion in re$ onH nevert*e&e t*e! $re not to 0e :ue tioned 0! t*e 0e&iever9 #uided 0! wi e ,ro,*et -en -$! indeed 0e &ed ,e$cefu&&! to t*eir 0etter-ent9 +ut t*e! -$! $& o 0e &ed $ tr$!9 -7BT*e $tte-,t to order our $ff$ir 0! reve&$tion &e$d to $ ,ecu&i$r kind of ociet!Cw*ic* we -ig*t c$&& t*e <,ro,*etic order<9 T*e ,ro,*etic order i $t w$r wit* freedo- of t*oug*t" $nd fierce&! defen ive of it $cred reve&$tion H in uc* $n order -en $re not united 0! free $ oci$tion under &$w" 0ut &ed 0! t*e ,ro,*et tow$rd $ co--on go$&" to w*ic* t*e! -u t u0 cri0e $ t*e fir t condition of t*eir $&&egi$nce9 T*e ,ro,*etic order -$! urvive wit*out &$w" wit*out civi& in titution " $nd wit*out &i0er$& educ$tion $nd o,inion9 It f$ce t*e urrounding wor&d wit* $ -$ k of un!ie&ding 0e&&igerence" fee&ing t*re$tened in it ver! 0eing 0! t*e r$tion$& t*oug*t w*o e voice it *$ v$in&! tried to i&ence9 T*e ,ro,*etic order i di tingui *ed fro- t*e ,o&itic$& order" in w*ic* t*e $ff$ir of -en $re -oder$ted $nd guided 0! re$ on" $nd in w*ic* t*erefore freedo- of o,inion i v$&ued $ t*e indi ,en $0&e condition of govern-ent9 T*e ,o&itic$& order doe not eek to unite -en $0out $ co--on ,ur,o e" 0ut r$t*er to

,er-it t*e deve&o,-ent of t*eir -u&tif$riou ,ur,o e in uc* $ w$! $ to re o&ve t*e conf&ict t*$t $ri e 0etween t*e-9 It fir t ,rinci,&e of org$ni=$tion i t*erefore &$w" $nd it encour$ge t*e in titution w*ere0! &$w deve&o, in o0edience to re$ on9 T*e e in titution $re ,ri-$ri&! ecu&$r" $nd t*e order of t*e t$te i $ ecu&$r order" founded in co-,ro-i e" to&er$nce $nd ;u tice9 T*e ,o&itic$& order f$ce t*e urrounding wor&d wit* $ ,e$cefu& counten$nce" $nd eek to ett&e difference wit* neig*0our not t*roug* force" 0ut t*roug* -utu$& $gree-ent9 T*e contr$ t 0etween t*e ,ro,*etic $nd t*e ,o&itic$& order -otiv$te -uc* of S,ino=$< $rgu-entH it under&ie *i defence of &i-ited govern-ent $ -uc* $ *i defence of civi& $nd re&igiou &i0ert!" $nd &e$d *i- to $dvoc$te $ kind of de-ocr$c! $ t*e 0e t for- of e&f-regu&$ting -78,o&itic 9 T*$t uc* $ -odern ! te- of ,o&itic$& t*oug*t *ou&d *$ve $ri en fro- o -ediev$& $ -et$,*! ic i not t*e &e$ t ur,ri ing re u&t of S,ino=$< ,*i&o o,*!9 N$tur$& &$w $nd n$tur$& rig*t #rotiu defended n$tur$& &$w $ t*e found$tion of overeignt!" $nd t*e fin$& $r0iter of *u-$n conf&ict9 T*i &$w i i-,&$nted in u 0! re$ on" $nd #od *i- e&f o0e! it9 If *u-$n 0eing do not o0e! t*e n$tur$& &$w it i 0ec$u e re$ on doe not entire&! govern t*eir 0e*$viour9 T*e ,ur,o e of $ &eg$& ! te- i to ,rovide $n effective u0 titute for re$ on in t*e -otive of unre$ on$0&e -en9 .o00e w$ not un !-,$t*etic to uc* $ defence of n$tur$& &$w9 .e $dded" *owever" t*$t rig*t $re not*ing wit*out t*e ,ower w*ic* wou&d enforce t*e-" $nd t*erefore t*$t ,ower" not rig*t" i t*e 0$ ic f$ct of ,o&itic 9 S,ino=$ $greed in ,$rt wit* 0ot* ,*i&o o,*er " ince *e recogni=ed no di tinction 0etween rig*t $nd ,ower " $nd no <n$tur$& &$w< ot*er t*$n t*e one t*$t t*e univer e $&re$d! o0e! @

$ we $re tre$ting *ere of t*e univer $& ,ower or rig*t of n$ture we c$nnot *ere recogni e $n! di tinction 0etween t*e de ire engendered in u 0! re$ on" $nd t*o e engendered 0! ot*er c$u e " ince t*e &$tter" $ -uc* $ t*e for-er" $re effect of n$ture" $nd di ,&$! t*e con$tu w*ere0! $ -$n ende$vour to continue in exi tence9 For -$n" 0e *e &e$rned or ignor$nt" i ,$rt of n$ture" $nd ever!t*ing 0! w*ic* $n! -$n i deter-ined to $ction" oug*t to 0e referred to t*e ,ower of n$ture" i9e9 to t*$t ,ower" $ it i &i-ited 0! t*e n$ture of t*i or t*$t -$n9 For -$n" w*et*er guided 0! re$ on or -ere de ire" doe not*ing $ve in $ccord$nce wit* t*e &$w $nd ru&e of n$ture" t*$t i " 0! n$tur$& rig*t >iu n$tur$e?9 >P ii" E? -77It fo&&ow fro- t*i t*$t *e w*o *$ u,re-e ,ower wit*in $ t$te $& o *$ t*e rig*t to exerci e t*$t ,ower9 1ike #rotiu $nd .o00e " S,ino=$ 0e&ieved t*$t t*i ,ower i conferred u,on t*e overeign 0! $ < oci$& contr$ct<" w*ere0! -en ,$ fro- t*e contending di order of t*e < t$te of n$ture< to t*e ,e$ce $nd coo,er$tion of $ civi& ociet! >civit$ C ee #&o $r!? >T xvi?9 For S,ino=$ uc* $ contr$ct effective&! tr$n fer t*e rig*t of t*e u0;ect to *i overeign" exce,t for t*o e rig*t >or ,ower ? w*ic*" 0ec$u e t*e! 0e&ong to t*e e ence of w*$tever ,o e e t*e-" c$nnot 0e re&in:ui *ed@ <no one c$n ever o utter&! tr$n fer to $not*er *i ,ower $nd" con e:uent&!" *i rig*t " $ to ce$ e to 0e $ -$n< >T xvii?9 4e c$n t*erefore re$ on$0&! 0e $id to ret$in $ <n$tur$& rig*t<" in t*e -ore co--on en e of t*i ex,re ion" to $&& t*o e t*ing w*ic* con titute our in$&ien$0&e ,ower @ to &ife" &i-0 $nd re$ on" $nd to uc* e&f-$ffir-$tion $ i integr$& to t*e con$tu w*ic* define u 9 .ence <t*e n$tur$& rig*t of univer $& n$ture" $nd con e:uent&! of ever! individu$& t*ing" extend o f$r $ it ,ower< >P ii" D?@ $ doctrine w*ic* i di tinct&! f$vour$0&e" incident$&&!" to t*e ,o&itic$& ,reten ion of t*e ,*i&o o,*er9 Iu tice It fo&&ow t*$t -$n in $ t$te of n$ture *$ &itt&e n$tur$& rig*t9 On&! in ociet! doe *e 0egin to *$ve co--$nd over *i- e&f" $nd to

,erceive t*e true co--unit! of intere t w*ic* unite *i- to *i fe&&ow " $nd en$0&e *i- to $ug-ent *i ,ower 0! ;oining it to t*eir 9 In $ t$te of n$ture" guided 0! i-$gin$tion" -$n ,erceive *i fe&&ow $ in*erent&! ini-ic$&" $nd trive we$k&! $g$in t t*e-9 In $ddition" &$cking t*e ,ower to i-,o e ;u tice on *i neig*0our" *e &$ck $& o t*e rig*t to itH *ence t*ere i no wrongdoing >,ecc$tu-? in $ t$te of n$ture9 On&! w*ere -6FFt*ere i overeignt! 9 >i-,eriu-? i t*ere ;u tice $nd wrongdoing" 0ot* of w*ic* $re t*erefore $rtef$ct of -$n< ,o&itic$& condition@ Iu tice" t*erefore" $nd $0 o&ute&! $&& t*e ,rece,t of re$ on" inc&uding c*$rit! tow$rd one< neig*0our" receive t*e force of &$w $nd ordin$nce on&! t*roug* t*e rig*t of overeignt!" t*$t i 9 9 9 o&e&! on t*e decree of t*o e w*o ,o e t*e rig*t to ru&e9 >T xix? Di o0edience to t*e overeign i t*erefore never ;u tifi$0&e on ground of ;u tice" $nd t*e rig*t of do-inion i " in t*e end" e&f&egiti-$ting9 T*e u0;ect owe *i en*$nced ,ower to t*e civi& ociet! w*ic* ,rotect *i-" $nd w*ic* confront *i- $t ever! ,oint wit* t*e o0&ig$tion to 0e ru&ed9 )&t*oug* ever! overeign 0od! exerci e $ rig*t to ru&e" not ever! ,o&itic$& order i e:u$&&! conducive to our *$,,ine $nd &i0ert!9 1i0ert! t*erefore con titute $ criterion of ,erfection" w*ere0! t*e v$riou ,o&itic$& order -$! 0e di tingui *ed one fro$not*er9 T*e criterion i not to 0e under tood in $ con e:uenti$&i t en e9 #overn-ent i not i-,&! to 0e een $ $ -e$n to &i0ert!" ince &i0ert! i too inti-$te&! connected wit* ,o&itic$& order to 0e reg$rded $ $ e,$r$0&e go$&@ it i " r$t*er" t*e ver! con$tu of t*e ,o&itic$& org$ni -" w*ic* c$nnot 0e det$c*ed fro- it" $nd w*ic* c$nnot 0e $c*ieved exce,t t*roug* t*e in titution of govern-ent9

<%on titutio &i0ert$ti < T*e ide$& ,o&itic$& order i " in ot*er word " $ <con titution of &i0ert!<" $nd $ con titution >iur$? i <t*e ou& of t*e overeign 0od! >$ni-$ i-,erii?< >P x" 7?9 2$n need ,o&itic$& freedo- in order to re$&i=e t*$t ot*er freedo- w*ic* con titute *i *$,,ine @ <$ -$n i o f$r free" $ t*e i &ed 0! re$ onH 0ec$u e o f$r i *e deter-ined to $ction -6F60! uc* c$u e $ c$n 0e $de:u$te&! under tood 0! *i un$ i ted n$ture< >P ii" '?9 T*i <c$u $&it! of freedo-< c$n ru&e over u on&! in $ condition of free t*oug*t $nd co--unic$tion9 4e $re n$tur$&&! ,re! to uncert$int! $nd fe$rH our t*oug*t $re &i$0&e to 0e do-in$ted 0! t*e i-$gin$tion" $nd we f$&& e$ ! victi- to t*e ,ro,*etic order w*ic* ,ro-i e $ ,$ ion$te $&v$tion9 4e -$! t*en we&co-e &$ver! $ t*e end of fe$r $nd conf&ict" not re$&i=ing t*$t <,e$ce i -ore t*$n t*e -ere $0 ence of w$r" 0ut r$t*er $ virtue w*ic* ,ring fro- t*e fortitude of t*e ou&< >P v" D?H *owever" <if &$ver!" 0$r0$ri - $nd de o&$tion $re to 0e c$&&ed ,e$ce" ,e$ce i t*e gre$te t -i fortune t*$t -en c$n uffer< >P vi" D?9 Suc*" in *ort" i S,ino=$< $n wer to t*o e w*o < trugg&e for ,e$ce< in t*e n$-e of $ f$& e ,ro,*etic order9 It i t*e ,o&itic$& order $&one w*ic* c$n e t$0&i * t*e ,o i0i&it! of $ genuine ,e$ce 0etween ,eo,&e" $nd our $&&egi$nce to it i not $ for- of coercion or &$ver!" 0ut on t*e contr$r! $ for- of freedo-9 In o0e!ing t*e &$w of $ &i0er$& con titution" we o0e! t*e dict$te of re$ on" $nd to 0e co-,e&&ed 0! re$ on i to 0e free9 For t*e citi=en of t*e &i0er$& ,o&it!" t*erefore" civi& di o0edience" w*ic* t*re$ten t*e condition u,on w*ic* *i freedo- de,end " invo&ve on&! $ ,$rti$& under t$nding of w*$t i $t t$ke" $nd t*erefore $n in$de:u$te ide$ of *i own -otive9 Suc* di o0edience i $n ex,re ion" not of freedo-" 0ut of inner 0ond$ge9 T*e fir t ,rinci,&e of ,o&itic$& order i t*e free f&ow of o,inion9 On&! if uc* $ ,rinci,&e i $ti fied c$n re$ on inf&uence t*e conduct of ,o&itic wit*out de tro!ing t*e found$tion of t*e t$te9

T*e n$ture of t*e t$te ) civi& ociet! i $ for- of cor,or$te $genc!9 4*i&e it *$ -6F'individu$& *u-$n 0eing $ it con tituent ,$rt " it $& o *$ $ &ife $nd individu$&it! of it own9 In ot*er word it *$ it own con$tu " w*ic* confer on it t*e $0 o&ute rig*t to ,re erve it own 0eing9 ) civi& ociet! t*erefore <doe wrong w*en it doe " or uffer to 0e done" t*ing w*ic* -$! 0e t*e c$u e of it own ruin< >P iv" D?9 T*e 0od! ,o&itic" &ike t*e *u-$n 0od!" -$! ,o e -ore or &e ,ower" -ore or &e virtue" -ore or &e freedo-9 Virtue" ,ower $nd freedo- $re one $nd t*e $-e" $nd identic$& wit* re$ on9 T*e t$ k of ,o&itic i to 0ui&d $ con titution t*$t i o0edient to re$ on" ;u t $ t*e t$ k of t*e individu$& ,er on i to under t$nd t*e &$w of re$ on $nd u0-it to t*eir overeignt!9 T*i u0-i ion of t*e t$te to re$ on i ecured" not 0! t*e virtue of t*e ru&er" 0ut 0! t*e $do,tion of $ con titution t*$t -$ke t*e virtue of t*e ru&er irre&ev$nt@ <if $ t$te i to 0e c$,$0&e of &$ ting" it $d-ini tr$tion -u t 0e o org$ni ed t*$t it doe not -$tter w*et*er it ru&er $re &ed 0! re$ on or ,$ ion< >P i" (?9 In ot*er word " t*e virtue of t*e t$te i $c*iev$0&e on&! 0! $ con titution t*$t &i-it t*e ,ower of individu$& " $nd en ure t*e inde,endent re$ on$0&ene of t*e ,o&itic$& ,roce 9 Suc* $ con titution cou&d 0e -on$rc*ic$&" $ri tocr$tic or de-ocr$tic9 .owever" it i de-ocr$c! >or $t &e$ t" re,re ent$tive govern-ent un*$-,ered 0! *eredit$r! ,rivi&ege? t*$t i t*e 0e t gu$r$ntee t*$t ,ower wi&& 0e &i-ited in t*e w$! t*$t re$ on de-$nd 9 2ore i-,ort$nt t*$n t*e ,rocedure for $c:uiring $nd tr$n ferring ,ower" *owever" i t*e intern$& divi ion of ,ower it e&f9 To ve t t*e ,ower of t$te in one -$n or counci& i to reduce t*e inde,endence of 0ot* t*e overeign $nd t*e u0;ect9 T*e fir t" 0eing t*e o&e inter,reter of t*e &$w " &$ck t*e -otive to c*$nge t*e-" w*i&e t*e econd i con tr$ined 0! $ 0&ind o0edience9 .ence <contr$ct or &$w " w*ere0! t*e -u&titude tr$n fer it rig*t to $ ing&e counci&

-6FAor -$n" *ou&d wit*out dou0t 0e 0roken" w*en it i ex,edient for t*e gener$& we&f$re to do o< >P iv" (?9 T*i doe not -e$n t*$t -on$rc*! i nece $ri&! $n irr$tion$& forof govern-ent9 For in $ -on$rc*! too ,ower -$! 0e $,,ro,ri$te&! divided9 T*u S,ino=$ >fo&&owing )ri tot&e? $dvoc$te $ ,riv! counci&" for-ed $ccording to $ ru&e of rot$tion" w*ere0! office $re ucce ive&! fi&&ed 0! citi=en w*o *$ve de-on tr$ted t*eir fitne to *o&d t*e-9 It i $& o i-,ort$nt to t$ke $w$! fro- t*o e w*o exerci e t*e overeign ,ower t*e o&e rig*t to inter,ret t*e &$w w*ic* $nction t*eir conduct9 For t*o e w*o $d-ini ter or ,o e overeignt! $&w$! tr! to urround t*eir *ig**$nded $ction wit* $n $ ,ect of &eg$&it! > ,ecie iuri ?" $nd to ,er u$de t*e ,eo,&e t*$t t*e! $ct fro- good -otive H t*i t*e! $re e$ i&! $0&e to effect w*en t*e! $re t*e o&e inter,reter of t*e &$w< >T xvii?9 T*i <$,,ro,ri$tion< of t*e &$w 0! t*e executive $r- of govern-ent c$n 0e ,revented on&! if t*e ;udici$r! i inde,endent9 S,ino=$ ex,&$in t*i ide$ t*roug* $ 0i0&ic$& ex$-,&e@ t*e ,ower of evi&-doing w$ gre$t&! curt$i&ed for t*e .e0rew c$,t$in 0! t*e f$ct t*$t t*e w*o&e inter,ret$tion of t*e &$w w$ ve ted in t*e 1evite >Deut9 xxi" E? w*o" on t*eir ,$rt" *$d no *$re in t*e govern-ent" $nd de,ended for $&& t*eir u,,ort $nd con ider$tion on $ correct inter,ret$tion of t*e &$w entru ted to t*e-9 >T i0id9? S,ino=$< $rgu-ent for ;udici$& inde,endence con tituted one of *i -o t i-,ort$nt ,o&itic$& in ig*t " $nd $ntici,$ted t*e con titution$& t*eor!Ct*$t of 2onte :uieu-w*ic* w$ to in ,ire t*e -o t t*oroug*&! conceived con titution of &i0ert!< t*$t t*e -odern wor&d *$ known9 -6FD-

So-e det$i& S,ino=$< ,o&itic$& reco--end$tion $re *ig*&! det$i&ed" $nd not $&w$! derived wit* t*e rigour $nd c&$rit! t*$t $ critic wou&d re:uire9 .ere" *owever" i $ re,re ent$tive e&ection of t*e-9 No &$ ting ,e$ce c$n 0e ecured exce,t 0! deterring ,o&itic$& ene-ie 9 For t*i end" S,ino=$ $rgued" $ citi=en $r-! i t*e -o t effective $nd r$tion$& device9 2ercen$r! $r-ie c$n conc&ude no &$ ting $gree-ent on 0e*$&f of t*o e t*e! fig*t for" $nd wi&& $&w$! ,rove di &o!$& to $n! $gree-ent w*ic* t*e! do not contro&9 T*e *i tor! of t*e Net*er&$nd ,roved t*$t t*e town cou&d ,rotect t*e- e&ve on&! w*en t*e citi=en were ,re,$red to &$! down t*eir &ive for t*eir co--on $&v$tion9 In ,u0&ic $ in ,riv$te &ife >E D" E8?" t*erefore" *onour -$! 0e re:uired 0! re$ on" $nd i $ ,$rt of ,ower9 Power *ou&d 0e ve ted not in individu$& 0ut in t*e office t*$t t*e! occu,!9 )n office i $t t*e $-e ti-e $ ,ower conferred" $nd $ ,ower &i-ited 0! it confer-ent9 On&! $ ru&e of office c$n &e$d to $ ,ower t*$t i t*roug* $nd t*roug* re ,on ive to t*e de-$nd of re$ on" $nd det$c*ed fro- t*e ,$ ion of t*e -$n w*o exerci e it9 T*i ru&e of office w$ fine&! i&&u tr$ted 0! t*e Dutc* E t$te #ener$&" w*ic* co-exi ted wit* t*e office of St$dt*o&der $nd #r$nd Pen ion$r! in -utu$& inf&uence $nd -utu$& &i-it$tion9 S,ino=$ 0e&ieved t*$t uc* $ ru&e cou&d 0e u t$ined on&! 0! cere-on! $nd dignit!9 4*i&e re$ on$0&e -en wi&& ee t*e intrin ic virtue of office " t*e -$ of -$nkind wi&& $&w$! ,refer t*e ru&e of ,ro,*et $nd figure*e$d " w*o c&$i- $ ,ure&! ,er on$& &o!$&t!9 On&! cere-on! c$n $ttr$ct t*e i-$gin$tion to &ook wit* f$vour on t*e office w*o e true virtue it c$nnot under t$nd9 T*e ru&ing ,rinci,&e of t*e office of t$te -u t 0e ecu&$r $nd not re&igiou 9 It i t*e t$te w*ic* *$ t*e fin$& ,ower -6FE-

to deter-ine t*e rite of re&igionH $nd it i t*erefore t*e t$te t*$t contro& t*e for-$tion $nd t*e dignit! of office9 Re&igion i $n inner $nd not $n outw$rd condition" $nd c$n f&ouri * in it true for- on&! in t*$t t$te <w*ere ever!one< ;udge-ent i free $nd untr$--e&&ed" w*ere e$c* -$n -$! wor *i, #od $ *i con cience dict$te " $nd w*ere freedo- i e tee-ed 0efore $&& t*ing c&e$r $nd ,reciou < >T" Pref$ce?9 T*e ,ro,*etic order" w*ic* ,ro-i e $&v$tion" in f$ct de tro! t*e condition of our $&v$tion" 0! $crificing re&igion to it outw$rd for-" $nd o de tro!ing t*e ,reciou ,rinci,&e u,on w*ic* ,e$ce $nd *$,,ine de,end@ t*e re ,ect for trut*9 It i not t*e ,ro,*etic order" 0ut t*e ,o&itic$& order" w*ic* *$ t*e fin$& c&$i- to 0e #od< vic$r on e$rt*9 On&! in $ ecu&$r t$te" t*erefore" c$n true re&igion f&ouri *9 -6F(-

' Spinoza(s &egac%

S,ino=$< -et$,*! ic cont$in $ f$t$& f&$w9 Founded on t*e ,re-i e t*$t re$&it! corre ,ond to our $de:u$te ide$ " it ,roceed wit*out difficu&t! to t*e conc&u ion t*$t we -$! *$ve t*e $-e <$0 o&ute< view of n$ture t*$t we *$ve of t*e univer e of -$t*e-$tic 9 2oreover" on&! if o-et*ing i c$u $ ui i t*e wor&d re$&&! inte&&igi0&eH ot*erwi e our cience" *owever co-,re*en ive" ex,&$in t*e exi tence of not*ing9 +ut t*e ,re-i e i unw$rr$nted" $nd t*e conc&u ion $&-o t i-,o i0&e to inter,ret9 It ee- t*$t t*e wor&d for S,ino=$ i one e&f-cont$ined ! te-" $nd t*$t on&! one uc* ! te- i ,o i0&e9 It ee- $& o t*$t t*e wor&d i two e&f-cont$ined ! te- " ,er*$, infinite&! -$n!9 T*e di tinction 0etween u0 t$nce $nd $ttri0ute i -e$nt to re-ove t*e difficu&t!@ *owever" t*e di tinction i inte&&igi0&e on&! on t*e u,,o ition t*$t t*ere i no difficu&t!@ t*$t one t*ing c$n *$ve two or -ore e ence 9 ) centur! $fter S,ino=$< de$t*" /$nt ,u0&i *ed *i %riti:ue of Pure Re$ on" $rguing t*$t no de cri,tion of t*e wor&d c$n free it e&f fro- t*e reference to *u-$n ex,erience9 )&t*oug* t*e wor&d t*$t we know i not our cre$tion" nor -ere&! $ !no, i of our ,er ,ective" it c$nnot 0e known exce,t fro- t*e ,oint of view t*$t i our 9 )&& $tte-,t to 0re$k t*roug* t*e &i-it i-,o ed 0! ex,erience" $nd to know t*e wor&d <$ it i in it e&f<" fro- t*e $0 o&ute ,er ,ective of <,ure re$ on<" end in contr$dictionCt*e kind of contr$diction t*$t we find in S,ino=$< t*eor! of t*e $ttri0ute 9 <Ide$ < of re$ on c$n never 0e co*erent&! $,,&ied" $nd $&t*oug* we -$! *$ve inti-$tion of $n $0 o&ute or <tr$n cendent$&< know&edge" -6FBt*$t know&edge c$n never 0e our 9 T*e e inti-$tion $re confined to -or$& &ife $nd $e t*etic ex,erience" $nd w*i&e t*e! te&& u " in $

en e" w*$t we re$&&! $re" t*e! c$n 0e tr$n &$ted into word on&! to ,e$k uninte&&igi0&!9 T*e te-,t$tion of Pure Re$ on" /$nt $rgued" c$n never 0e overco-e9 It i ,$rt of our n$ture $ r$tion$& 0eing t*$t we *ou&d eek to extend our re$ on indefinite&!" o $ ,iring tow$rd t*e <tr$n cendent$&< ,er ,ective w*ic* S,ino=$ c$&&ed t*e <$ ,ect of eternit!<9 T*i !e$rning of re$ on tow$rd t*e etern$& i t*e ource of $&& t*e ,ecu&$tive error of -et$,*! ic 9 +ut it i $& o t*e root of -or$&it!9 Tr$n for-ed into ,r$ctic$& i-,er$tive " t*e Ide$ of Re$ on ,rovide t*e -or$& &$w w*ic* guide u 9 T*e -or$& 0eing" o0edient to re$ on" -$! know in *i $ction w*$t *e v$in&! trie to utter in *i word 9 Of $&& t*e gre$t -et$,*! ici$n it w$ S,ino=$ w*o c$-e ne$re t to $!ing *ow t*e wor&d wou&d 0e for u " were it ,o i0&e to tr$n &$te our -or$& know&edge into t*eorie 9 S,ino=$< t*oug*t i $ ,ro;ection into t*e infinite of t*e concrete en e of *u-$n dignit!" $nd" in t*e di t$nt c&oud of -et$,*! ic " it wonderfu& for- $,,e$r in udden i&&u-in$tion" *$r,&! out&ined" $nd !et in t$nt&! v$ni *ing $ we re$c* for t*eir -e$ning9 If we find t*$t -e$ning $t &$ t" it i on&! 0ec$u e we turn our e!e 0$ck tow$rd our e&ve " $nd recogni=e t*e trut* of our de,endence $nd our finitude9 S,ino=$ i rig*t in 0e&ieving t*$t #od< -$;e t! i di-ini *ed 0! t*e ide$ t*$t t*ing -ig*t *$ve 0een ot*erwi e9 T*e 0e&ief in -ir$c&e doe no credit to #od9 For w*$t need *$ #od to intervene in event w*ic* *e origin$te K T*e &$w of t*e univer e -u t 0e univer $&&! 0inding if we $re to under t$nd t*e-@ $nd it cou&d not *$ve 0een #od< wi&& to &e$ve u forever ignor$nt of our itu$tion9 S,ino=$ i $& o rig*t in *i 0e&ief t*$t trut* i " in t*e end" our on&! !$rd tick" $nd t*$t to &ive 0! $n! ot*er t$nd$rd -6F8i to 0e t*e victi- of circu- t$nce9 T*ere i i-,&$nted in ever! r$tion$& 0eing t*e c$,$cit! to di tingui * t*e true fro- t*e f$& e" to weig* t*e evidence" $nd to confront t*e wor&d wit*out i&&u ion 9 In t*i c$,$cit! our dignit! re ide " $nd in co--itting our e&ve to trut* we t$nd 0$ck fro- our i--edi$te concern

$nd ee t*e wor&d $ it *ou&d 0e eenCunder t*e $ ,ect of ,er-$nence9 Trut* c$nnot 0e f$ *ion$0&e" even if it o often offend 9 In t*e fir t *ock of our encounter wit* trut*" we -$! wi * to turn $w$!" to i&ence t*e ,er on w*o utter it" to t$ke refuge in t*$t <,ro,*etic order< w*ic* ,ro-i e $ wor&d $ccording to our dre$- " $nd et u on t*e ,$t* to e-,t! triu-,*9 T*e ,o&itic$& order" in w*ic* t*e *ockingne of $ wor&d w*ic* -$ke no ,eci$& ,&$ce for u c$n 0e o,en&! confe ed to" i $ r$re $c*ieve-ent9 Yet" if we $re to u t$in our dignit!" we -u t work for uc* $n order" in w*ic* $&& -en c$n <wor *i, #od in ;u tice $nd c*$rit!<9 Our $ge i -ore do-in$ted 0! cientific t*eor! t*$n w$ S,ino=$< H 0ut on&! $ fond i&&u ion ,er u$de u t*$t it i -ore guided 0! t*e trut*9 For we *$ve een u,er tition triu-,* on $ c$&e t*$t wou&d *$ve t$rt&ed S,ino=$" $nd w*ic* *$ 0een ,o i0&e on&! 0ec$u e u,er tition *$ c&o$ked it e&f in t*e -$nt&e of cience9 If t*e <,ro,*etic order < of our d$! $re t*e dec&$red ene-ie of re&igion" t*i -ere&! confir- " for t*e tudent of S,ino=$" t*eir u,er titiou c*$r$cter" $nd confir- " too" S,ino=$< in ig*t" t*$t cientific o0;ectivit! $nd divine wor *i, $re t*e forof inte&&ectu$& freedo-9 S,ino=$" &ike P$ c$&" $w t*$t t*e new cience -u t inevit$0&! <di enc*$nt< t*e wor&d9 +! fo&&owing trut* $ our t$nd$rd" we c*$ e fro- t*eir $ncient $0ode t*e -ir$cu&ou " t*e $cred $nd t*e *o&!9 T*e d$nger" *owever" i not t*$t we fo&&ow t*i t$nd$rdCfor we *$ve no ot*er9 It i t*$t we fo&&ow it on&! o f$r $ to &o e our f$it*" $nd not o f$r $ to g$in it9 4e rid -6F7t*e wor&d of u efu& u,er tition " 0ut continue to ee it in fr$g-ented for-9 O,,re ed 0! it -e$ning&e ne we uccu-0 to new $nd &e u efu& i&&u ion C u,er tition 0orn of di enc*$nt-ent" w*ic* $re $&& t*e -ore d$ngerou for t$king -$n" r$t*er t*$n #od" $ t*eir o0;ect9 T*e re-ed!" S,ino=$ re-ind u " i not to retre$t into t*e ,recientific wor&dview" 0ut to go furt*er $&ong t*e ,$t* of

di enc*$nt-entH &o ing 0ot* t*e o&d u,er tition $nd t*e new" we di cover $t &$ t $ -e$ning in trut* it e&f9 +! t*e ver! ,roce w*ic* di enc*$nt t*e wor&d" we co-e to $ new enc*$nt-ent" recogni=ing #od in ever!t*ing" $nd &oving *i work in t*e ver! $ct of di covering t*e-9 For S,ino=$< inte&&ectu$& conte-,or$rie t*i <re&igion of di enc*$nt-ent< ,re ented too gre$t $ c*$&&enge to 0e re$di&! $cce,t$0&e9 S,ino=$ w$ $ccu ed of *ere ! $nd $t*ei -9 .e occ$ ion$&&! tried to defend *i- e&f $g$in t uc* c*$rge " $ king <w*et*er $ -$n t*row off $&& re&igion" w*o -$int$in t*$t #od -u t 0e $cknow&edged $ t*e *ig*e t good" $nd -u t" $ uc*" 0e &oved wit* $ free -indK< >%X1III?9 +ut w*$t i t*i <inte&&ectu$& &ove of #od<" $ ked 1ei0ni=" 0ut <tr$,,ing for t*e ,eo,&e<K <T*ere i not*ing &ove$0&e<" 1ei0ni= $dded" <in $ #od w*o doe ever!t*ing wit*out c*oice $nd 0! nece it!" wit*out di cri-in$tion of good $nd evi&9< S,ino=$< re,ut$tion urvived t*e cen or *i, wit* w*ic* *i conte-,or$rie oug*t to ,rotect t*e- e&ve fro- *i $rgu-ent 9 +ut it w$ ver! oon ec&i, ed 0! t*e ri e of t*e 1ei0ni=i$n ! te- in #er-$n!" $nd t*e e-ergence in Eng&$nd of t*e e-,irici - of 1ocke" +erke&e! $nd .u-e9 ) 0i$ ed entr! in +$!&e Diction$r!" ,u0&i *ed in 6(7B" ,rovided t*e cu&tiv$ted $-$teur wit* $ convenient tereot!,e9 Pierre +$!&e w$ $ &e$rned Frenc* .uguenot w*o" &iving in exi&e in t*e Net*er&$nd " c$-e into cont$ct wit* o-e of S,ino=$< di ci,&e 9 )&t*oug* $ fervent -66F$dvoc$te of to&er$tion" *e denounced S,ino=$ $ $ < ! te-$tic $t*ei t<" $nd ,rovided $ ketc* of t*e ,*i&o o,*er< &ife $nd o,inion w*ic* w$ for $ &ong ti-e reg$rded $ definitive" 0eing &$ter re,roduced 0! t*e $ut*or of t*e Enc!c&o,Mdie9 S,ino=$< t$r dec&ined" $nd ro e $g$in on&! in t*e g&oriou twi&ig*t of ro-$ntici -9 For t*e ,oet Nov$&i " $nd t*e t*eo&ogi$n Sc*&eier-$c*er" S,ino=$ udden&! &o t *i c*$r$cter of c!nic $nd $t*ei t" 0eco-ing in te$d t*e -ode& of t*e re&igiou 0e&iever" t*e

godintoxic$ted ,*i&o o,*er" in w*o e ! te- t*e $rc*et!,e of f$it* i direct&! encountered9 Two conte-,or$rie of /$ntCI$co0i $nd 2o e 2ende& o*nC*$d corre ,onded $0out S,ino=$< ! te-" $nd I$co0i ,u0&i *ed *i &etter in t*e for- of $ 0ook9 T*e &eve& of di cu ion t*$t fo&&owed u,on t*i ,erfor-$nce wou&d *$rd&! *$ve g&$ddened S,ino=$" con i ting $ it did &$rge&! of ro-$ntic $nd -! tic$& ,ecu&$tion on t*e t*e-e of t*e onene of t*e wor&d $nd t*e i--$nence of #od9 .erder" *owever" w$ -ore di cri-in$ting" ,ending &ong *our in t*e tud! of S,ino=$" $nd writing of t*e ,rofound i-,re ion -$de u,on *i- 0! t*e t*oug*t t*$t w*o oever &ove #od" c$nnot ende$vour to 0ring it $0out t*$t #od *ou&d &ove *iin return >E E" 67?9 T*e $-e tunning ,ro,o ition i -entioned 0! #oet*e" in $ 0e$utifu& ,$ge of *i $uto0iogr$,*!9 +ut t*e o&e-n $0 tr$ction i tr$n for-ed into $ 0re$t*&e " ,$&,it$ting record of $ ,oetic -o-ent@ T*$t wonderfu& utter$nce@ <w*o oever &ove #od" c$nnot trive t*$t #od *ou&d &ove *i- in return<" wit* $&& t*e ,receding entence u,on w*ic* it re t " wit* $&& t*e fo&&owing entence w*ic* ,ring fro- it" fi&&ed -! entire -edit$tion9 To 0e in ever!t*ing un e&fi *" to t*e *ig*e t un e&fi *ne in &ove $nd friend *i," w$ -! -666gre$te t de ire" -! -$xi-" -! ru&e" $nd o t*$t in o&ent re-$rk w*ic* fo&&ow C<if I &ove !ou" w*$t i t*$t to !ouK<C w$ for -e ,oken direct&! into -! *e$rt9 #oet*e $dd t*$t S,ino=$< c$&- $nd $0 tr$ct t!&e orted o i&& wit* *i own unru&! ,$ ion " t*$t *e w$ $ -o t un*$,,! tudent of t*e ,$ge w*ic* offered to ;u tif! t*i ,owerfu& utter$nce9 Nevert*e&e it w$ #oet*e w*o ,erfor-ed t*e gre$te t ervice on S,ino=$< 0e*$&f" denouncing t*e $rtic&e in +$!&e Diction$r!" $nd u,*o&ding" $ t*e fir t of S,ino=$< $c*ieve-ent " t*e $tt$ck on u,er tition in t*e n$-e of #od9

S,ino=$ t*e ,*i&o o,*er e-erged in *i true co&our t*roug* t*e work of Sc*e&&ing $nd .ege&9 In .ege& ! te-" indeed" t*e -$;or $rgu-ent of t*e Et*ic $re $,,ro,ri$ted $nd tr$n for-ed9 T*e t*eor! of t*e one u0 t$nce 0eco-e t*$t of t*e )0 o&ute Ide$C t*e ing&e entit! w*ic* i re$&i=ed in $nd t*roug* t*e $ttri0ute of n$ture" ,irit" $rt $nd *i tor!9 T*e t*eor! of $de:u$te ide$ 0eco-e t*e di$&ectic" $ccording to w*ic* know&edge i $ ,rogre ive $dv$nce fro- $ confu ed $nd <$0 tr$ct< ,o iting< of $ conce,t" to t*e ever co-,&eter" ever -ore $0 o&ute< conce,tion of t*e wor&d9 T*e t*eor! of con$tu 0eco-e t*$t of < e&f-re$&i=$tion< t*roug* t*e ucce ive <o0;ectific$tion < of t*e ,iritH t*e t*eor! of ,o&itic$& order 0eco-e t*$t of t*e t$te $ t*e re$&i=$tion of freedo-" $nd t*e <-$rc* of re$ on in t*e wor&d<9 T*e u0&i-e i-,ertinence of .ege& i to *$ve co-0ined t*e e S,ino=i t conce,tion wit* t*e ide$ w*ic* t*e! den! C t*e ide$ of t*e e&f" $ t*e *i toric$&&! deter-ined" &i-ited $nd ,$rti$& view,oint u,on t*e wor&d" w*o e ,roce of e&f-re$&i=$tion i $& o t*e $ctu$&it! $nd t*e -e$ning of $&& t*$t t*ere i 9 .ege& u--ed u, t*e tr$n for-$tion in c*$r$cteri tic ter- " o tent$tiou &! di ,&$!ing *i own -66'$c*ieve-ent 0! refr$ining fro- n$-ing *i- e&f $ t*e $ut*or of it@ ) $g$in t S,ino=$" $g$in" it i to 0e noted t*$t t*e -ind in t*e ;udge-ent 0! w*ic* it <con titute < it e&f $n <ego< >$ free u0;ect 9 9 9? *$ e-erged fro- u0 t$nce" $nd t*$t t*e ,*i&o o,*! w*ic* give t*i ;udge-ent $ t*e $0 o&ute c*$r$cteri tic of -ind *$ e-erged froS,ino=i -9 >Enc!c9 ection D6E? .ege&< ,*i&o o,*! w$ t*e crowning -o-ent of #er-$n ro-$ntici -" $nd $& o t*e e&f-con ciou $nnounce-ent of it end9 +! $ curiou $ccident" t*e 2$rxi$n inver ion of .ege& >t*e < etting of .ege& u,on *i feet<? ,roved e:u$&&! f$vour$0&e to S,ino=$" w*o e dictu- t*$t <t*e -ind i t*e ide$ of t*e 0od!< w$ $t once co-,$red to t*e dictu- of 2$rx $nd Enge& " t*$t <&ife deter-ine con ciou ne " not con ciou ne &ife< >T*e #er-$n Ideo&og!?9 T*e

2$rxi t 0eg$n to find in S,ino=$< t*eor! of -ind $ ,re-onition of t*e <di$&ectic$& -$teri$&i -< w*ic* t*e! $w in 2$rx" $nd to inter,ret S,ino=$< e,i te-o&og! $ $ ,roto-2$rxi$n t*eor! of ideo&og!9 S,ino=$ wou&d *$ve recoi&ed fro- 2$rxi -" wit* it f$& e c&$i- to cience" it u,er titiou 0e&ief in $ tr$n for-ed *u-$n n$ture" $nd it $dvoc$c! of $ new ,ro,*etic order in w*ic* -$n wi&& &ive free fro- t*e in titution of co-,ro-i e $nd &$w9 Nevert*e&e " it i " $ t*e 2$rxi t $!" <no $ccident< t*$t *i ,*i&o o,*! *ou&d *$ve found uc* $ direct ,$r$&&e& in t*e t*inking of $ ,ro,*etic $t*ei t" for w*o- -$n< ende$vour $re in e,$r$0&e fro- *i -$teri$& circu- t$nce " $nd governed 0! co-,re*en ive n$tur$& &$w 9 It i &ikewi e no $ccident t*$t S,ino=$ *ou&d *$ve c$&&ed fort* o *$r, $n $tt$ck fro- t*e ot*er f$& e ,ro,*et of $t*ei -" Niet= c*e" w*o *$ted t*e S,ino=i t view t*$t t*e trut* i e,$r$0&e fro- our ,er ,ective u,on it@ -66AOP*i&o o,*er P $&& ,o e $ t*oug* t*eir re$& o,inion *$d 0een di covered $nd $tt$ined t*roug* t*e e&f-evo&ving of $ co&d" ,ure" divine&! indifferent di$&ectic9 9 9 w*ere$ " in f$ct" $ ,re;udiced ,ro,o ition" ide$ or < ugge tion<" w*ic* i gener$&&! t*eir *e$rt< de ire $0 tr$cted $nd refined" i defended 0! t*e- wit* $rgu-ent oug*t out $fter t*e <event 9 9 9 Ot*u P t*e *ocu -,ocu in -$t*e-$tic$& for-" 0! -e$n of w*ic* S,ino=$ *$ $ it were c&$d *i ,*i&o o,*! in -$i& $nd -$ kF-in f$ct" t*e <&ove of *i wi do-<" to tr$n &$te t*e ter- f$ir&! $nd :u$re&!Cin order t*ere0! to trike terror $t once into t*e *e$rt of t*e $ $i&$nt w*o *ou&d d$re to c$ t $ g&$nce on t*$t invinci0&e -$iden" t*$t P$&&$ )t*ene@C*ow -uc* of ,er on$& ti-idit! $nd vu&ner$0i&it! doe t*i -$ k of $ ick&! rec&u e 0etr$!J >+e!ond #ood $nd Evi& 6" E? 4*$tever t*e we$kne e of S,ino=$< ! te-" one i te-,ted to t*ink t*$t $ ,*i&o o,*er c$nnot 0e w*o&&! wrong" w*o c$&& fort*

uc* $ :u$ntit! of ,ite in o-eone w*o wou&d *$ve $greed" *$d *e under tood *i $rgu-ent" wit* o -uc* of w*$t *e $id9 -66D-

G&ossar%
T*i g&o $r! i offered $ $ guide to ,rinci,$& ter- " -$n! of w*ic* $re tr$n &$ted in conf&icting w$! in t*e $v$i&$0&e Eng&i * &$ngu$ge edition 9 $ffectio @ e-otion" i9e9 $n <$ffection< of $ *u-$n 0eing w*ic* i $& o $ ,$ io >:9v9?9 $ffectu @ $n <$ffect<" i9e9 $ condition of $ t*ing w*ic* i 0roug*t $0out 0! extern$& circu- t$nce 9 .ence >w*en referring to -ent$& ite- ? $n e-otion9 T*ere i con ider$0&e uncert$int! $ to w*et*er S,ino=$ u ed <$ffectio< $nd <$ffectu < $ !non!- 9 $-or inte&&ectu$&i Dei @ t*e inte&&ectu$& &ove of #od9 $ttri0utu- @ $ttri0ute >$ tec*nic$& ter-" defined in E 6" Definition D" w*o e u e i to 0e di tingui *ed fro- t*e u u$& en e of <$ttri0ute< in )ri tote&i$n &ogic9?9 c$u $ ui @ c$u e of it e&f >defined contentiou &! in E 6" Definition 6?9 civit$ @ civi& ociet!" i9e9 $ ociet! org$ni=ed wit*in" 0ut di tinct fro-" $ re ,u0&ic$ >:9v9?9 cognitio @ cognition >rendered 0! o-e tr$n &$tor $ <know&edge<" $ ,r$ctice w*ic* &e$d to uc* odd &ocution $ <f$& e know&edge<?9 con$tu @ not tr$n &$ted > o-e tr$n &$tor u e t*e word <ende$vour< or < triving<?9

cor,u @ -$teri$& o0;ectC&iter$&&! <0od!<9 for-$&iter @ <for-$&&!<" i9e9 ,ert$ining to t*e re$& e ence of o-et*ing > ee o0;ective?9 ide$ @ ide$9 %over t*e -odern u e of <conce,t<" <,ro,o ition< <t*oug*t<" 0ut $& o inc&ude $n! ot*er conce,t of $ -ent$& ite-9 ide$tu- @ not tr$n &$tedCt*e extended ite- w*ic* <corre ,ond < to $ given ide$9 So-e tr$n &$tor u e t*e word <o0;ect<" ot*er t*e word <ide$&<9 +ot* $re -i &e$ding > ee o0;ective?9 i-,eriu- @ overeignt!9 So-e tr$n &$tor give <do-inion< or <,ower<9 -odu @ -ode" $ tec*nic$& ter- defined in E 6" Definition E9 -otu et :uie @ -otion $nd re tCt*e infinite -ode w*ic* i ex,re ed in t*e &$w of ,*! ic 9 o0;ective @ <o0;ective&!<" i9e9 ,ert$ining to t*e re,re ent$tion of o-et*ing in t*e -ind" $ o,,o ed to for-$&iter" ,ert$ining to it e enti$& re$&it!9

-66Eo0;ectu- @ t*e o0;ect >of $n ide$" e-otion etc9?" i9e9 t*$t w*ic* i re,re ented in t*e -ind" $ o,,o ed to t*e ide$tu-" t*$t w*ic* corre ,ond to t*e ide$ in -$teri$& re$&it!9 ,$ io @ ,$ ion" i9e9 $ t$te of t*e -ind or 0od! in re&$tion to w*ic* we $re <,$ ive<9 :u$tenu @ in o f$r $ 9 ) tec*nic$& ter-" u ed to re,re ent

i-,$ $0&e 0$rrier $ ,$ $0&e9 >See %*$,ter D" ection D9? re ,u0&ic$ @ t$te" i9e9 $n org$ni=ed ! te- of i-,eriu-9 >T*e di tinction 0etween civit$ $nd re ,u0&ic$ ,refigure t*$t -$de 0! .ege& 0etween civi& ociet! $nd t$teC*ence -! tr$n &$tion9? cienti$ intuitiv$ @ intuition9 >) -ent$& $ct in w*ic* $ v$&id ,roof i i--edi$te&! gr$ ,ed $nd $cce,ted $ true9? u0 t$nti$ @ u0 t$nce" $ ,ri-e tec*nic$& ter- defined in E 6" Definition A9 u0 ,ecie $eternit$ti @ under t*e $ ,ect of eternit!9 u0 ,ecie dur$tioni @ under t*e $ ,ect of ti-e >or of dur$tion?9 For furt*er infor-$tion on S,ino=$< ter-ino&og!" ee t*e #&o $r! Index to E9 %ur&e!< edition of S,ino=$< work >cited o,,o ite?" $nd E9 #i$ncotti +o c*erini" 1exicon S,ino=$nu- >T*e .$gue" 67BF?9 -66(-

!urther reading
4riting 0! S,ino=$

T*e work of S,ino=$ exi t in ever$& Eng&i * ver ion 9 T*e -o t re$di&! $v$i&$0&e of t*e e i t*$t 0! R9 .9 29 E&we >revi ed edition" 1ondon" 67FA" re,rinted in 67EE 0! Dover Pu0&ic$tion ?9 T*i cont$in t*e Et*ic " t*e t*ree tre$ti e " $nd $ e&ection of t*e corre ,ondence9 T*e tr$n &$tion i un ! te-$tic $nd ver! -i &e$ding9 2ore ! te-$tic 0ut often e:u$&&! -i &e$ding i t*e Ever!-$n edition of t*e Et*ic $nd t*e Tre$ti e on t*e E-end$tion of t*e Inte&&ect >tr9 )ndrew +o!&e" 1ondon" 676F" re,rinted in 67BB?9 ) co-,&ete $nd infor-$tive edition of t*e %orre ,ondence *$ 0een ,re,$red 0! )9 4o&f >1ondon" 67'8" rei ued in 67((?9 T*i i ,er*$, t*e 0e t introduction to S,ino=$< ,*i&o o,*!9 In referring to S,ino=$< &etter I u e t*e nu-0ering given 0! 4o&f9 T*e $-e editor *$ ,re,$red $ c*o&$r&! edition of t*e S*ort Tre$ti e on #od" 2$n $nd .i 4e&&-+eing >1ondon" 676F?9 Reference in t*e text $re to t*i edition" w*ic* $& o cont$in $n $gree$0&e 0iogr$,*! of S,ino=$9 T*e Princi,&e of %$rte i$n P*i&o o,*! $nd t*e 2et$,*! ic$& T*oug*t $re $v$i&$0&e in one vo&u-e fro- O,en %ourt ,u0&i *er >tr9 .$&0ert .$in +rit$n" 67FE" re,rinted 67BD?9 ) c*o&$r&! edition of $ ,$rt of t*e Tr$ct$tu T*eo&ogico-Po&iticu $nd t*e urviving ,$rt of t*e Tr$ct$tu Po&iticu i $v$i&$0&e" edited 0! )9 #9 4ern*$-" under t*e tit&e of S,ino=$" T*e Po&itic$& 4ork " Oxford" 67E89 T*i cont$in $ u efu& introduction" $nd ,rint t*e 1$tin text $&ong ide t*e Eng&i * tr$n &$tion9

T*ere i $& o now $v$i&$0&e $n ex,en ive 0ut i-,re ive&! edited vo&u-e cont$ining t*e Et*ic " t*e Tre$ti e on t*e E-end$tion of t*e Inte&&ect" t*e S*ort Tre$ti e on #od" 2$n $nd .i 4e&&-+eing" De c$rte < Princi,&e of P*i&o o,*! $nd 2et$,*! ic$& T*oug*t $nd S,ino=$< &etter fro- t*e ,eriod w*en t*e e work were co-,o ed9 T*i i edited $nd tr$n &$ted 0! Edwin %ur&e! >Princeton" 678E?9 ) econd vo&u-e wi&& cont$in t*e re-$ining &etter $nd ,o&itic$& work 9 It i to 0e ex,ected t*$t %ur&e!< edition wi&& ,rovide t*e definitive text for Eng&i * re$der 9 -66B4riting $0out S,ino=$

T*e e$r&! 0iogr$,*ie of S,ino=$C0! %o&eru $nd 2e!erC-$ke intere ting re$ding9 Per*$, t*e 0e t 0iogr$,*! in Eng&i * i t*$t cont$ined in Sir Frederick Po&&ock" S,ino=$@ .i 1ife $nd P*i&o o,*! >1ondon" 688F" econd edition 676'?9 )-ong o&der co--ent$rie " t*$t 0! Io*n %$ird >Edin0urg* $nd 1ondon" 6888? i in -$n! w$! t*e -o t in tructive" in *owing ;u t w*$t S,ino=$ -e$nt to $ ,*i&o o,*er w*o $cce,ted $ &$rge ,$rt of *i -et$,*! ic 9 )& o u efu&Ct*oug* ver! d$tedCi t*e tre$ti e on T*e P*i&o o,*! of S,ino=$ 0! .$rr! )u t!n 4o&f on >%$-0ridge" 2$ 9" ' vo& 9" 67AD" re,rinted in one vo&u-e 678A?9 )n $0ridged ver ion of t*e $rtic&e on S,ino=$ fro- +$!&e Diction$r! c$n 0e found in E9 )9 +e&&er $nd 29 du P9 1ee Ir >ed 9?" Se&ection fro- +$!&e< Diction$r! >Princeton" 67E'?9 )-ong -ore -odern co--ent$rie " t*$t 0! Sir Stu$rt .$-, *ire >Penguin +ook " 67E6" re,rinted 6786?" re-$in t*e -o t uccinct $nd rew$rding" $&t*oug* $ recent work 0! Ion$t*$n +ennett >) Stud! of S,ino=$< Et*ic " %$-0ridge" 678D? ,rovide $ u efu& $,,&ic$tion of t*e $n$&!tic$& -et*od to S,ino=$< $rgu-ent 9

Sever$& u efu& co&&ection of e $! exi t" t*e 0e t 0eing S9 P$u& /$ *$,< Studie in S,ino=$@ %ritic$& $nd Inter,retive E $! >+erke&e!" 67B'?" 2$r;orie #rene" S,ino=$" $ %o&&ection of %ritic$& E $! >Notre D$-e" Indi$n$" 67BA?" $nd Ro0ert 49 S*$*$n $nd I9 +iro" S,ino=$@ New Per ,ective >Nor-$n" Ok&$*o-$" 67B8?9 T*e work of T*o-$ %$r on 2$rk referred to in %*$,ter D i Q<T*e S,ino=i tic )ttri0ute <Q" P*i&o o,*i$ B >67BB?9 T*e $-e $ut*or< S,ino=$< T*eor! of Trut* >%o&u-0i$ Univer it! Pre " 67B'? i $ u efu& contri0ution on t*e -o t difficu&t $ ,ect of S,ino=$< e,i te-o&og!" $ to,ic $& o tre$ted in #9 .9 R9 P$rkin on S,ino=$< T*eor! of /now&edge >Oxford" %&$rendon Pre " 67ED" re,rinted 67(D?9 On t*e ,o&itic$& ,*i&o o,*! t*e -o t $cce i0&e co--ent$r! i t*$t of Ro0ert I9 2cS*e$ >T*e Po&itic$& P*i&o o,*! of S,ino=$" New York G 1ondon" 67(89?9 -668-